EET306 Power Electronics - Lecture Notes by T.G.

Sanish Kumar, EED, GECT as on 01-07-2022 64

MODULE 4
DC-DC converters – Step down and Step up choppers – Single-quadrant, Two-quadrant and Four
quadrant chopper – Pulse width modulation & current limit control in dc-dc converters. (4 hrs)
Switching regulators – Buck, Boost & Buck-boost –Operation with continuous conduction mode –
Waveforms – Design of Power circuits (switch selection, filter inductance and capacitance) (4 hrs)

CHOPPER
For applications like speed control of dc motors and battery charging, variable dc voltage is required
from a fixed dc voltage. Choppers are used to get variable dc voltage from a fixed dc voltage.
Self commutated devices, such as power MOSFET, power BJT, IGBT, GTO, IGCT are
preferred over thyristors for building choppers because they can be commutated by a low power
control signal and do not need commutation circuit. Further, they can be operated at a higher
switching frequency for the same rating.
For low switching frequency and high power applications, a thyristor can be used but a
separate turn off circuit has to be incorporated.
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF CHOPPER
A chopper is simply an ON-OFF switch that connects and disconnects the dc supply to the
load at a very fast rate. When the switch S is closed, the supply voltage V appears across the load and
when it is open, the load is disconnected from the supply. The average dc output voltage is controlled
by controlling the switch ON period ton and switch OFF period toff.

TRACE KTU
The output voltage vo is a chopped voltage derived from the supply voltage Vs. Hence the name
chopper.
ton
Average output voltage, Vo  1 vo dt  ton Vs  DVs
 T 0
T
where ton is the on-time of the chopper,
T is the chopping period ; f s  1 = switching frequency
T
D is the duty ratio of the chopper; ton ; D varies from 0 to 1
D
T
STEP DOWN CHOPPER
When the switch S is turned on at t=0, the supply is connected to the load and vo = Vs. The load
current io builds up exponentially. When the switch is turned off at t = ton, the load current freewheels
through D and vo = 0. Energy stored in the load inductance is gradually dissipated in load resistance;
load current decays exponentially. At t = T, switch S is turned on again and cycle repeats. The
waveforms of the load voltage vo and load current io are shown below. It is assumed that the load
current io is continuous – never reach zero during off period (switching frequency f s  1 is large).
T
 EET306 Power Electronics - Lecture Notes by T.G.Sanish Kumar, EED, GECT as on 01-07-2022 65

ton
Average voltage, Vo  1 vo dt  ton Vs  DVs


TRACE KTU
T 0
T
The output voltage varies linearly with the duty ratio of the chopper. The output voltage can be
controlled in the range 0<Vo<Vs. This configuration of the chopper is known as step-down chopper.
If the switch S is a GTO, a positive gate pulse will turn it on and a negative gate pulse will turn it off.
If the switch is a transistor, the base current will control the on and off period of the switch. If the
switch is an SCR, a commutation circuit is required to turn it off.

STEP-UP CHOPPER
This chopper configuration produces an average output voltage more than the input voltage
(i.e., Vo>Vs).

Assumption : Output voltage is assumed to be continuous and ripple free, vo(t) = Vo.

When the chopper is on, the inductor L is connected to the supply Vs, and voltage across
inductance vL=+Vs. Inductance gets charged. Diode D is reverse biased. Load is disconnected from
di di V
the source. The inductor current iL increases linearly ( vL  L L  Vs or L   s  +ve constant ;
dt dt L
iL is increasing linearly).
 EET306 Power Electronics - Lecture Notes by T.G.Sanish Kumar, EED, GECT as on 01-07-2022 66

When the chopper is off, the inductor current is forced to flow though the diode and the load.
The inductor current decreases linearly.

vo
Vo
t
io I2 I2

I1 I1
t
vL

V
T t
V-Vo
ton toff
During ton,

TRACE KTU
vL  Vs  L

or I  Vs ton
di
dt
I I
L 2 1 L
ton
I
ton
-------- (1)
L
During toff,
I1  I 2 I
vL  Vs  Vo  L  L
toff toff
toff
or I  (Vs  Vo ) ------- (2)
L
Comparing equations (1) and (2),
Vton  (Vo  Vs )toff
ton  toff T
Vo  Vs  Vs
toff T  ton
1
Vo  Vs
1 D
By varying D from 0 to 1, output voltage Vo can be varied from V to infinity. Average output voltage
is greater than the input voltage Vs; hence it is a step up chopper.
Note : Average voltage across inductance is zero under steady condition ie.
Vton  (Vo  Vs )toff (Positive & negative areas of vL are equal)
Note: This principle of operation is utilized in the regenerative braking of a dc motor. If V represents
the armature voltage of the dc machine and Vo represents the dc supply, power can be fed back from
the decreasing motor voltage V to the fixed supply voltage Vo by proper adjustment of the duty cycle
D.
 EET306 Power Electronics - Lecture Notes by T.G.Sanish Kumar, EED, GECT as on 01-07-2022 67

STEP-DOWN AND STEP-UP CHOPPER

A step-up and step-down chopper provides an output voltage that can be either higher or lower than
the input voltage.
Assumption :- Load voltage is constant (vo = Vo) (large value of capacitance)
S i D io -
iL
+ L

C
O vo
V L A
D
-

+
When the chopper is ON, the inductor is connected to the supply voltage V and v L = V. When the
chopper is OFF, the inductor current flows through the load and the diode. The inductor voltage is v L
= -Vo, and the inductor current decreases linearly. (Note that the polarity of vo is reversed with respect
to supply voltage.)
S io - D io
-
iL iL
+ L C L vo
C
O vo L O
V L A A
D D
-

+ Chopper is OFF +
Chopper is ON

vo Vo

TRACE KTU
iL

I1
I2

I1
I2
t

t
vL
toff
V
T t
ton -Vo

During ton,
vL=V =  L di  L I 2  I1  L I
dt ton ton

or I  V ton ------- (1)

L
During toff,
vL= Vo   L I 2  I1   L I
toff toff
toff
or I  Vo ------ (2)
L
From equations (1) and (2),
Vton  Vo toff
ton t
Vo  V  on V
toff T  ton
 EET306 Power Electronics - Lecture Notes by T.G.Sanish Kumar, EED, GECT as on 01-07-2022 68

D
Vo  V
1 D
For a variation of D in the range 0<D<1, the output voltage Vo will vary in the range 0<Vo< infinity.

CONTROL TECHNIQUES
The average value of output voltage, Vo can be controlled by periodic opening and closing of the
switches. The two types of control strategies for operating the switches are employed in DC choppers.
They are:
a) Time-ratio control (TRC) and b) Current limit control (CLC)
A. TIME-RATIO CONTROL (TRC)
ton
In the time-ratio control, the value of is varied. This is effected in two ways. They are variable
T
frequency operation and constant frequency operation.
a) Constant Frequency System (Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) control) : Chopping period T is
kept constant; ton is varied. D is varied from 0 to 1. (Widthof the pulse is varied keeping the
switching frequency constant)
T 3T
In figure (a), ton  , D = 25%. In figure (b), ton  , D = 75%.
4 4
vo

ton D=25%
toff
t
T

TRACE KTU vo

ton toff
D=75%

t
b) Variable Frequency System (Frequency Modulation Control) : ton (or toff) is kept constant, T
is varied.
In figure (a), ton is kept constant, T is varied. In figure (b), toff is kept constant, T is varied.
vo

ton D=25%
t
vo
D=75%
ton
T a) CONSTANT ton t

vo D=25%
toff ton
T t
vo D=75%
toff ton
t
T
b) CONSTANT toff

Note: Constant frequency system (PWM) is the preferred scheme for chopper drives.
 EET306 Power Electronics - Lecture Notes by T.G.Sanish Kumar, EED, GECT as on 01-07-2022 69

B. CURRENT LIMIT CONTROL

In current limit control strategy, the chopper is switched ON and OFF so that the current in
the load (or in an inductance) is maintained between two limits. When the current exceeds upper limit,
the chopper is switched OFF. During OFF period, the load current freewheels and decreases
exponentially. When it reaches the lower limit, the chopper is switched ON. Current limit control is
possible either with constant frequency or with constant ton. The current limit control is used only
when the load has energy storage elements. The difference between Iomax and Iomin, decides the
switching frequency. The ripple in the load current can be reduced if the difference between the Iomax
and Iomin limits is minimum. But this in turn increases the switching frequency thereby increasing the
switching losses.

Iomax
Iomin

ton toff
t
Regenerative Braking of DC motors
In regenerating braking, generated energy is supplied to the source. For this,
E > V and I is negative. For a source of fixed voltage (of rated value), regenerative braking is possible
only for speeds higher than rated. When the machine regenerates, its terminal voltage rises.
Consequently, the regenerated power flows into the loads connected to the supply and the source is

TRACE KTU
relieved from supplying this much amount of power. The regenerative braking is therefore possible
only when there are loads connected to the line and they are in need of power more are equal to the
regenerated power. When the capacity of the loads is less than the regenerated power, all the
regenerated power will not be absorbed by the loads. Hence, regenerative braking should only be used
when there are enough loads to absorb the regenerated power. When the source is battery, the
regenerated energy can be stored in the battery.

TYPES OF CHOPPERS
First Quadrant Chopper or Type A Chopper
S io
+ Vo

DFD L vo
O
V A
D
- Io

Average values of both load voltage and current, i.e.Vo and Io are always positive. Power flow is
always from source to load. This chopper also called step-down chopper as average output voltage Vo
is always less than input dc voltage V.
Second Quadrant Chopper or Type B Chopper
D2 io
+ Vo

S2 L vo
V
E Io
-
 EET306 Power Electronics - Lecture Notes by T.G.Sanish Kumar, EED, GECT as on 01-07-2022 70

In this chopper, the load must contain a dc source, E (for loads like battery or dc motor).
When S2 is ON, load voltage vo is zero and the battery E drives the current through L and S2. During
ON period, inductance L stores energy. When S2 is OFF, the energy stored in the inductance L is
returned to the source through the diode D2. When the chopper is ON or OFF, current io flows out of
the load (io is negative). Since Vo is positive and Io is negative, power flow is always from load to
source. Since the power flows from the load of lower voltage to source of higher voltage, type B
chopper is also known as step-up chopper.
Two Quadrant Type C Chopper (I & II Quadrants)
Two quadrant chopper is formed by connecting Type A and Type B choppers in parallel. Output
voltage is always positive because of the presence of freewheeling diode D1 across the load and the
load current may be positive or negative.
Vo
S1 D2 II I
+ io
S2 D2 S1 D1
V Io
S2 D1 vo E III IV
-
If the chopper S1 and the diode D1 are operated, the system operates as a step-down chopper .
The output voltage Vo is either V (when S1 is on) or zero (when S1 is off and D1 conducts). The
average value of the output voltage is positive and the output current io flows in the positive direction.
The chopper, therefore, operates in the first quadrant.

TRACE KTU V
S1

D1
+ io

vo
E

-
First Quadrant Operation
If , however, the chopper S2 and the diode D2 are operated, the system operates as a step-up
chopper with E as source. (if the load is a dc machine, it operates in the regenerative braking mode).
The output voltage Vo is either zero (when S2 is on) or V (when S2 is off and D2 conducts). The
average value of the output voltage is positive, but the output current now flows in the negative
direction. The chopper then operates in the second quadrant.

D2
V
+ io

S2 vo
E

Second Quadrant
- operation
Note : S1 and S2 should not be operated simultaneously which leads to short circuit across the dc
source.
 EET306 Power Electronics - Lecture Notes by T.G.Sanish Kumar, EED, GECT as on 01-07-2022 71

Two Quadrant Type D Chopper (I & IV Quadrants)

In this chopper, load current is always positive and load voltage may be positive or negative.

Vo
S1 D2
V I
io II
LOAD -
+ vo Io
D1 S2
III
IV

Output voltage is vo=V when S1 and S2 are ON and vo=-V when S1 & S2 are OFF and D1 & D2 are
conducting.
Average output voltage Vo is positive when chopper ON time ton is more than OFF time toff.
Average output voltage Vo is negative when chopper ON time ton is less than OFF time toff.
Load current always flows in positive direction.
vo vo

V V
t t
-V ton toff -V ton
toff
T io T
io
I2 I2
I1 I1

TRACE KTU
Average output voltage, Vo  V
T
ton  toff
and duty ratio, D  ton
T
t t

If D is 0.5, Vo=0; if D is greater than 0.5, Vo is positive and if D is less than 0.5, Vo is negative.
Four Quadrant Type E Chopper

D1 D3
S1 S3
V
L
io E

+ vo -
S2 D2 S4 D4

In this chopper, both the load voltage and load current may be either positive or negative. S 1, S4, D2
and D3 constitute one type C chopper and S2, S3, D1 and D4 constitute another type C chopper.

QUADRANT I
S1 S2 & S4 are kept OFF;
V
L
S4 is kept ON;
io E
S1 is operated ON & OFF
+ vo - Vo and Io are positive
D2 S4
 EET306 Power Electronics - Lecture Notes by T.G.Sanish Kumar, EED, GECT as on 01-07-2022 72

QUADRANT II
D1 S1, S3 & S4 are kept OFF;
V
L S2 is operated ON & OFF
io E
Vo is positive and Io is negative
+ vo -
D4
S2

E is reversed
S1 & S4 are kept OFF;
S2 is kept ON;
S3 is operated ON & OFF
Vo and Io are negative

E is reversed;
QUADRANT IV
D3 S1, S2 & S3 are kept OFF;
V
L S4 is operated ON & OFF
io E
Vo is negative and Io is positive
+ vo -
D2 S4

NOTE : For Quadrant 1, S1 is operated ON & OFF; for Quadrant 2, S2 is operated ON & OFF; for
Quadrant 3, S3 is operated ON & OFF; for Quadrant 4, S4 is operated ON & OFF

TRACE KTU
Problem : A chopper circuit is operating on TRC principle at a frequency of 2kHz on a 220V d.c.
supply. If the load voltage is 170V, compute the conduction and blocking period of thyristor in each
cycle.
T = 1/f = 0.5 ms
V
ton  T o  0.386ms
V
toff  T  ton  0.114ms

SWITCHING REGULATORS
Unregulated dc is converted to regulated dc at a desired voltage level.
Here, self-commutated devices like power BJT, power MOSFET, IGBT etc are used instead of
thyristors. It is used for low and medium power applications whereas thyristorised choppers are used
for high power applications.

uncontrolled DC Filter DC DC-DC DC

Capacitor converter Load
AC diode rectifier unregulated unregulated regulated
Vcontrol
Different types of switching regulators are i) Buck regulator ii) Boost regulator iii) Buck-boost
regulator and iv) Cùk regulator.
DC-DC power converters are widely used in regulated switch-mode dc power supplies and dc
motor drive applications. The input to the DC-DC converter is an unregulated dc voltage V s. The
converter produces a regulated output voltage Vo, having a magnitude that differs from Vs.
Different DC-DC converters are
1. Step-down (buck) converter
 EET306 Power Electronics - Lecture Notes by T.G.Sanish Kumar, EED, GECT as on 01-07-2022 73

2. Step-up (boost) converter

3. Step-down/step-up (buck-boost) converter
4. Cuk converter
5. Full-bridge DC-DC converter
BUCK CONVERTER
A step-down converter produces a lower average output voltage Vo than the dc input voltage Vs. Its
main application is in regulated dc power supplies and dc motor speed control.

During the interval when the switch is ON, the diode becomes reverse biased and the input provides
energy to the load as well as to the inductor. During the interval when the switch is off, the inductor
current flows through the diode, transferring some of its stored energy to the load.
The filter capacitor at the output is assumed to be very large so that vo(t) = Vo.
For a buck converter, average inductor current IL is equal to the average inductor current Io since the
average capacitor current in steady state is zero.

TRACE KTU
Note:
1) The principle of inductor volt-second balance states that the average value, or dc component,
of voltage applied across an ideal inductor winding must be zero.
2) The principle of capacitor amp-second or charge balance, states that the average current that
flows through an ideal capacitor must be zero.

Continuous conduction mode (CCM) and discontinuous conduction mode (CCM) are defined with
respect to the inductor current. If the current through the inductor is continuous without becoming
zero at any instant in a switching period, then the converter operation is referred to as the CCM. If the
current through the inductor becomes zero for some portion of the switching period, then the
converter operation is referred to as DCM.

CONTINUOUS CONDUCTION MODE

(Inductor current flows continuously iL(t) > 0)
Average voltage across inductance over once cycle is zero. Hence,
(Vs  Vo )  DT  Vo  (1  D)T  0
Average output voltage, Vo  Vs  D
Assuming ideal circuit,
Vs I s  Vo I o
Vs I s Vs I s I s
Io   
Vo DVs D
 EET306 Power Electronics - Lecture Notes by T.G.Sanish Kumar, EED, GECT as on 01-07-2022 74

Buck converter is equivalent to a step-down transformer with turns ratio D.

EXPRESSION FOR PEAK-TO-PEAK RIPPLE CURRENT
During S ON,
Voltage across inductance, Vs  Vo  L I 2  I1  L I
DT DT

I 
L TRACE KTU
DT  (Vs  Vo ) Vs D (1  D) where

fL

EXPRESSION FOR PEAK TO PEAK RIPPLE VOLTAGE

T
1
f
and Vo  Vs D

With very large value of C, vo=Vo

But, for practical value of C, output voltage contains ripple.
Instantaneous value of inductor current, iL  ic  io
Taking average over one cycle,
I L  I o (Since average value of capacitance current is zero)
Note: Load current is assumed to be ripple-free while deriving the expression for ripple-voltage
Q 1  1 I T  1  1 Vs D (1  D ) 1 
V           
C C 2 2 2 C 2 2 fL 2f 
V D (1  D )
V  s 2
8 f LC

Problem 1:- A buck converter topology was used to obtain the required dc load voltage output of 5V
from a dc input of 12V. The peak to peak output ripple was restricted to 20mV. The switching
frequency is 25kHz. For maintaining the peak to peak ripple current of inductor to 0.8A, determine i)
the duty cycle ii) the filter inductance L and capacitance C.
(Ans: D=0.417; L=145.83μH; C=200μF)

Problem 2:- A buck converter has a switching frequency of 10kHz. It is used to obtain a fixed dc
output voltage of 48V across 1Ω resistor when fed from a 192V dc source. The filter inductor has an
inductance of 200μH. Determine the duty ratio, average load current, average inductor current, peak-
 EET306 Power Electronics - Lecture Notes by T.G.Sanish Kumar, EED, GECT as on 01-07-2022 75

to-peak ripple current, minimum and maximum inductor currents. Assume continuous conduction
mode.
48
D  0.25
192
48
Io   48 A
1
I L  I o  48 A
Vs D (1  D )
I   18 A
fL
I
I2  IL   57 A
2
I
I1  I L   39 A
2
BOOST CONVERTER
In Boost converters, the output voltage is always greater than the input voltage.

When the switch is ON, the diode is reverse biased, thus isolating the output voltage. The input
supplies energy to the inductor. When the switch is OFF, the output stage receives energy from the

TRACE KTU
inductor as well as from the input. The output filter capacitor is assumed to be very large to ensure a
constant output voltage vo(t) = Vo.

CONTINUOUS CONDUCTION MODE (Inductor current flows continuously iL(t) > 0)

Average voltage across inductance over once cycle is zero. Hence,

Vs  DT  (Vs  Vo )  (1  D)T  0
Vs
Average output voltage, Vo 
1 D
D=0 → Vo=Vs & D=1 → Vo 
Assuming ideal circuit,
Vs I s  Vo I o
Vs I s
Io   (1  D ) I s
Vo
Boost converter is equivalent to a step-up transformer with turns ratio D.
 EET306 Power Electronics - Lecture Notes by T.G.Sanish Kumar, EED, GECT as on 01-07-2022 76

During S ON, TRACE KTU

EXPRESSION FOR PEAK-TO-PEAK RIPPLE CURRENT

I I
Voltage across inductance, Vs  L 2 1  L
DT
I
DT
DT  Vs Vs D 1 V
I   where T  and Vo  s
L fL f 1 D
EXPRESSION FOR PEAK TO PEAK RIPPLE VOLTAGE
With very large value of C, vo=Vo
But, for practical value of C, output voltage contains ripple.
Note: Load current is assumed to be ripple-free while deriving the expression for ripple-voltage
ton ton
1 1 I o DT
V  vc (0)  vc (ton ) 
C  ic dt 
0
C  I dt 
0
o
C
Io D
V 
fC
Problem 3: In a boost converter, the duty ratio D is adjusted to regulate the output voltage Vo at 48V.
the input voltage varies in a wide range of 12V ≤ Vs ≤ 36V. The maximum power output is 120W. For
stability reasons, the input current is discontinuous. The switching frequency is 50kHz. Assuming
ideal devices and components and filter capacitor of very large value, calculate the maximum value of
inductor L.
Ans:-
Vs =12V → D=0.75
Vs =36V → D=0.25
Assume iL is at the boundary of continuous and discontinuous conduction.
Maximum value of output current, IoB = 120/48 = 2.5A
RCR = 48/2.5 =19.2Ω
 EET306 Power Electronics - Lecture Notes by T.G.Sanish Kumar, EED, GECT as on 01-07-2022 77

D=0.75 → L  RD (1  D) = 9μH
2

2f
D=0.25 → L = 27μH
For discontinuous operation, L < 9μH

Problem 4 : A boost converter having a f=25kHz is supplying an average load current of 0.5A at an
average output voltage of 15V and input voltage to the converter is 5V. If the inductance and
capacitance used in the converter are of values 150μH and 220μF respectively, determine i) the
converter duty ratio ii) ripple current of inductor and the peak current of inductor and iii) the ripple
voltage of filter capacitor.
Ans:- D=0.67; ΔI = 0.89A; ΔV = 0.06V; IL = 1.515A, I2 = 1.96A

BUCK-BOOST CONVERTER
In buck-boost converters, the output voltage is either higher or lower than the input voltage; but the
polarity of the output voltage is reversed with respect to the input voltage.

When the switch is ON, the diode is reverse biased and input provides energy to the inductor. When
the switch is OFF, the energy stored in the inductor is transferred to the output. No energy is supplied
by the input during this interval. The output filter capacitor is assumed to be very large to ensure a

TRACE KTU
constant output voltage vo(t) = Vo.

CONTINUOUS CONDUCTION MODE (Inductor current flows continuously iL(t) > 0)

Average voltage across inductance over once cycle is zero. Hence,

Vs  DT  Vo  (1  D)T  0
Average output voltage, Vo  Vs D
1 D
D=0 → Vo=0
D=0.5 → Vo=Vs
D=1 → Vo 
Assuming ideal circuit,
Vs I s  Vo I o
Vs I s (1  D ) I s
Io  
Vo D
 EET306 Power Electronics - Lecture Notes by T.G.Sanish Kumar, EED, GECT as on 01-07-2022 78

During S ON,
TRACE KTU
EXPRESSION FOR PEAK-TO-PEAK RIPPLE CURRENT

Voltage across inductance, Vs  L I 2  I1  L I

DT DT
DT  Vs Vs D where 1
I   T and Vo  DVs
L fL f 1 D
EXPRESSION FOR PEAK TO PEAK RIPPLE VOLTAGE
With very large value of C, vo=Vo
But, for practical value of C, output voltage contains ripple.
Note: Load current is assumed to be ripple-free while deriving the expression for ripple-voltage
ton ton
1 1 I o DT
V  vc (0)  vc (ton ) 
C  ic dt 
0
C  I dt 
0
o
C
I D
V  o
fC
AVERAGE VALUE OF INDUCTOR CURRENT
iL  iS  iC  io
Under steady state, taking average values
I L  I S  I o (Average value of capacitor current is zero)
DI o I
I L  I S  Io   Io  o
1 D 1 D
Io
IL 
1 D
Problem 5 : The buck-boost converter is used to supply an average load current of 1.25A to a load.
The converter is fed from a 12V source and is operating at a frequency of 25kHz and with a duty ratio
 EET306 Power Electronics - Lecture Notes by T.G.Sanish Kumar, EED, GECT as on 01-07-2022 79

of 0.25. The inductance and filter capacitor in the converter circuit has a value of 150μH and 220μF
respectively. Determine i) the average output voltage and the peak to peak ripple voltage; ii) peak to
peak current ripple and iii) maximum and minimum inductor currents.
Ans:-
Vo = 4V; ΔV = 0.0568V; ΔI = 0.8A; IL = 1.667A; I2 = 2.067A; I1 = 1.267A

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