CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

Specific Objectives of the Course

 Explain the meaning of curriculum
 Identify the components of curriculum
 Identify determinants of education curriculum objectives
 Discuss the philosophical foundations of curriculum development
 Explain determinants of curriculum and patterns of curriculum organization
 Explain curriculum development process
 Explain curriculum innovation and implementation strategies
 Explain the role of KICD and other agencies in curriculum innovation and
implementation.
 Discuss curriculum changes since independence.

Content
1. Introduction to Curriculum Development
 Definition of the term curriculum
 Components of curriculum
 Determinants of Education objectives
 Relationship between national goals and education objectives
 School curriculum, facilities and staffing

2. Determinants
 Sources of curriculum innovation

3. Curriculum Models
4. Philosophical foundations of curriculum
5. Patterns of curriculum organization
 Subject content Centred
 Integrated broad fields

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  Learner centred design
 Co-curricular design

6. Curriculum Development Process

 Steps of curriculum development
 Role of KICD and other agencies in curriculum development, evaluation

7. Curriculum Innovation and Implementation Strategies

 Factors that necessitate Curriculum change
 Re-evaluation of objectives, content and learning experiences

8. Curriculum Changes since Independence

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CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT COURSE

Meaning of Education
 Education is the process of acquiring and developing desired knowledge, skills and
attitudes.
 Education is a process because it is a continuous activity that never ends.

Definition of Curriculum and Curriculum Development

 A Curriculum is all that is planned to enable the students acquire and develop the desired
knowledge, skills and attitudes.
 School curriculum is therefore concerned with the moral, intellectual, emotional and
social development of the learner.
 Curriculum Development is the process of selecting and refining the content of an
already existing education programme with the view of improving, changing or
modifying.

Definition of other terms

1. Education of other terms
Set of comprehensive activities aimed at achieving educational training goals and focuses
on a certain target group e.g. SMASSE “Strengthening of Mathematics and Science in
Secondary Education.

2. Syllabus
Refers to the description of content that is to be learnt in a particular subject. It includes
specific objectives, content and time duration for each subject in each class.

3. Curriculum design
Refers to the organization of the components of curriculum elements. Components which
are included in curriculum design are: Curriculum objectives, organization of teaching
experiences, learning activities and evaluation.

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Purpose of the school curriculum
1. It guides the education system in a country
2. It helps in the identification of goals and objectives of education
3. It helps in the identification of knowledge, skills and attitudes that are important for the
development of the individual and society.
4. It helps in the identification of learning experiences that will help to achieve, the goals
and objectives of education.
5. It acts as a benchmark against which the achievements of an education system can be
measured.
6. It prioritizes areas of learning and indicates where resources should be targeted.
Aims
Aims of education are views of educators, policy makers and interested parties e.g. global
educational policies which reflect a broad structure of what should be included in the educational
programmes.

Goals
They are general statements about expected achievements in learning at the end of a particular
period or course of study.
Goals help both the curriculum planner and the teacher to make decision such as selection of
course content, subject areas, subject content and specific learning experiences e.g. National
goals of education.

Objectives
They are statements that describe expected achievements at a given level of learning such as
primary or secondary school and target different subjects and classes they are derived from
goals.
Instructional Objectives
They are short-term statements that show the expected performance for each learner in the class.
They are stated by the teacher during lesson preparation.

Components of (a School) Curriculum

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 a) Curriculum Objectives
They are statements that describe expected achievements at a given level of learning such
as primary or secondary school and target different subjects and classes. The decision as
to what the curriculum objectives should be derived from national goals of education and
also requires other considerations such as psychology of learners’ as well philosophical
foundations.

b) Learning Activities (Selection of learning experiences)

Which should enable learners to achieve particular objectives. Learning experiences
include:-
 The personnel such as teachers, resource persons and fellow learners
 Teaching and learning resources
 Teaching facilities
 Teaching methods and activities

Selection of learning experiences should be based on the following

i) Conformity with objectives:-
They should provide learners with the opportunity to practice the kind of behavior
specified in the objectives.
ii) Validity
They should be relevant to the subject areas and consistent with the reinforcing
the actual situation at home and in school.
iii) Satisfaction
They should provide learners with a sense of achievement
iv) Feasibility
They should reflect the age of learners and individual learning differences.
v) Economy:
They should result in a number of learning outcomes
c) Organization of learning experiences
Learning experiences should be organized in a way that they reinforce one another and
facilitate efficient instruction and learning. The following should be enhanced:-

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  Continuity or recurrence of emphasis in learning
 Successive experience on activity
 Integration of learner’s experiences or activities.
d) Evaluation
Evaluation is the process of determining the extent to which a programme is successful. It
provides basis for accepting, improving or rejecting a particular programme. There are
two forms of evaluation:
 The formative evaluation which is continuous and takes place throughout the
curriculum development and implementation.
 Summative evaluation – takes place at the end of curriculum implementation in
schools and reflects the overall success or failure of the programme.
Dimensions/aspects/types of school curriculum
 Also referred to as the aspects of the school curriculum or types of curriculum.
 There are four dimensions of the school curriculum which complement each other
during learning experiences.

a) Formal dimension
 It includes all the learning activities outlined in the school syllabus
 It is hierarchically structured and chronologically graded.
 It is controlled by factors like schemes of work, lesson plan, time table, specific
subjects and professionally trained teachers.

b) Non-formal dimension
Also called co-curricular activities
It includes learning activities that take place outside formal class for example clubs,
societies, games and sports.

c) Informal dimensions or hidden curriculum

 They are learning experiences that occur in and outside the classroom as a result
of informal interactions between teachers and learners, amongst learners
themselves and between learners and community members.

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  The informal curriculum is implemented through school rules and regulations,
encouragement of desirable life style among the staff of an institution e.g. school
community, school rules, school routine, and school guests.

d) Emergent Curriculum
They are learning experiences that occur as a result of events such as academic clinics,
prize giving days and tree planting in the school.

Determinants of (educational) objectives:

1. The contemporary society
It comprises the demands of culture, the social set ups and life styles including all the social
institutions. The societal demands from basis of education objectives.

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2. The Local environment
The immediate environment of schools including the peoples’ homes will provide up with
further ideas for possible objectives. Knowledge of the socio-economic and physical
situation of school surroundings, and their attitude towards education of the students’
subculture can help us to determine the objectives of education.

3. The Learner
Pupils are independent entities with their own needs, interests and aspirations which must
receive special attention when we are formulating objectives.

4. The school itself

Curriculum implementation is a controlled interaction between pupils, teachers, time space,
facilities, materials and equipment, content and learning activities. All these will have some
influence on objectives and have therefore to be considered while formulating objectives.

5. Knowledge
 Meaningful objectives are formulated in the light of the available knowledge.
 To achieve any objective there must positive interaction between the learner and
some kind of knowledge.
 It is necessary to avoid formulating objectives which cannot be achieved because of
the absence of appropriate knowledge content.
 There is need for the advice of the subject specialists on the value and application of
knowledge in their subject areas.

6. Philosophy (National philosophy goals of education)

 National philosophy reflect the values and aspirations of the nation
 Formulation of objectives should take into consideration the national philosophy as
outlined in the goals of education.
 The national goals of education should be translated to curriculum objectives so that
education can be in line with nations philosophy of education

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7. Psychology
 The psychology of learning which includes theories of both learning and child
development from an important source for selecting objectives.
 Psychology reveals both the ability and effective methods of teaching and learning
which are important in determining education objectives.

Relationship between National Goals and Curriculum Objectives:

 Both are purposes or outcomes an educational system would wish to attain for its
learners.
 National goals / aims of education are general statements of intent , ideas and
aspirations
 The government regards education as the most suited vehicle for meeting the
national concerns, needs and aspirations.

National Goals of Education and Related DTE objectives

1. Foster nationalism, patriotism and promote national unity

 Prepare a teacher who can develop leaners sense of citizenship and national
patriotism and nationalism
 To promote national unity, national development and social equality

2. Promote the social, economic, technological and industrial needs for national
Development
 To develop in the teacher the ability to adapt to change and appreciate innovations
 To develop teachers’ appreciation of technology in national development
 Develop innovation in the field of education
 Employ a rational approach to problem solving through enquiry and research.

3. Promote individual development and self – fulfillment

 Provide opportunities for learners with special learning needs

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  Demonstrate knowledge, skills and positive attitudes in nature and practice of
teaching profession.
 Identify and provide support for children with psycho social needs
 Develop learners’ ability to critical and imaginative thinking and self-expression
 Build a firm foundation for further education

4. Promote sound moral and religious values

 To guide the learner to develop spiritually, morally, emotionally, mentally, and
physically.

5. Promote social equality and responsibility

 To promote national unity, national development social equality and
responsibility

6. Promote respect for and development of Kenya’s rich and varied culture.
 To foster in the teacher understanding and respect for own and other peoples
culture and their place in contemporary society.

7. Promote international consciousness and foster, positive attitudes towards other

nations.
 To foster in the teacher understanding and respect for own and other people’s
culture and their place in contemporary society.
 To appreciate interrelationship among nations

8. Promote positive attitude towards health and environment protection

 Demonstrate appreciation and promotion of environmental care and good health

National Goals and relationship with education curriculum

1. Foster nationalism, patriotism and promote national unity
 Study of philosophy of education

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  Study of history of education in Kenya
 Study of education management in Kenya

2. Promote the social, economic, technological and industrial needs for national
Development.
 Study of research methods
 Study of sociology of education

3. Promote individual development and self-fulfillment

 Study of guidance and counseling
 Study of psychology

4. Promote sound moral and religious values

 Study of philosophy of education
 Study of guidance and counseling

5. Promote social equality and responsibility

 Study of sociology of education
 Study of guidance and counseling

6. Promote respect for and development of Kenya’s rich and varied culture
 Study of history of education
 Study of sociology of education

7. Promote international consciousness and foster, positive attitudes towards other

nations.
 Study of comparative education

8. Promote positive attitude towards health and environment protection

 Study of mental health

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  Study of environmental education

Curriculum Instructional Objectives: Derived from the National goals of Education.

 An instructional objective is a statement of intent which describes the expected
performance of an individual in a class
 They specify the behaviour, knowledge and skills to be acquired after going through a
program. E.g. by the end of curriculum development course the learner is expected to
explain various steps in curriculum development.

Characteristics of instructional objectives:

Should be SMART
S - Specific – Say exactly what the learner is expected to do
M - Measurable - What is expected in learning can be observed at the end of the lesson
A - Achievable – Objective can be met within the
R - Realistic – Relevant to the participant
T - Time bound – Achievable within limits of time.

Classification of Objectives / Dimensions of schooling:

1. Cognitive / intellectual dimension
It deals with the acquisition of knowledge, comprehension of knowledge and the desire
for knowledge.

2. Affective dimension / social dimension

Refers to learning that involves feelings and values. It pays attention to the total
individual including concerns for the physical emotional and psychological aspects of the
individual as well as the adaptive aspects of persons in regard to home, family and work.

3. Motor skills – domain

Involves manual and other physical skills e.g. athletic

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 Functions of curriculum objectives:
a) Guide decisions about selection of content, learning experience and learning
strategies.
b) Help select from a vast area of knowledge in various disciplines what is necessary for
varied outcomes.
c) Serve as a guide in evaluating instructional progress.
d) Reflect the needs and aspirations of the society.

Documentation of a school curriculum from the National goals

 Syllabus
 Schemes of work
 Teaching guidelines
 Circulars from MOE, KNEC, TSC, KICD
 Legal instruments e.g. Education act, Kenya National Examination Council Act,
University Act.
 Educational reports e.g Ominde commission report (1964), Gachathi report (1976)
sessional papers.
 Orange book – A book containing all recommended textbooks in a school.

Qualities of a good school curriculum

A good curriculum should;
 Equip the pupils with necessary skills for modern living
 Develop individual’s potential abilities
 Help the child to become fully integrated member of his community
 Seek to preserve and transmit cultural heritage of the society
 Incorporate countries’ national philosophy
 Proceed content from known to unknown

Determinants of curriculum / sources curriculum information:

1. Dynamism of knowledge:

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 Knowledge is dynamic; therefore, new content is added to curriculum depending on the
discovery of new knowledge for example in the dynamics of information communication
technology and development of new scientific laws.

2. Economic factors:
The state of the economy determines the shape and direction of the curriculum.
Curriculum planners consider resource availability and affordability when they
recommend resource materials for various instructional programmes.

3. The Society and Culture

 The knowledge, skills, values and attitudes imparted to learners are expected to
prepare them to fit in the society
 Emphasis on guidance and counseling in school curriculum is a way of preparing
teachers to cope with diverse behavioral disorders which have resulted from social
problems.
 Like skills education was introduced to help students cope and utilize / apply
knowledge acquired to become should preserve culture.

4. Political Ideologies
 Educational policies are subject to influence from politicians and political groups.
 This is because education can be used to further political ideologies, which in turn
influences power structures in the society
 Social studies for example in Geography, History and government had to change in
line with political changes adopted in the New Constitution (2010).
 Announcement from the head of state.

5. Special Interest Groups

Groups such as religious bodies, non-government organization (NGOs)
Employers (FKE – Federation of Kenya Employers) professional organizations and trade
unions have an interest in education. Their views on content and implementation must be
considered.

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 6. Technology
 Changes in technology would definitely influence curriculum
 It influences curriculum in terms of:
a) Content: Learning of computer operation in schools and colleges
b) Instructional Instruments: Use of calculators and computers in learning
c) Pedagogy: Use of PowerPoint and animations in classroom instruction

7. Authority (M.O.E)
 The state has a moral responsibility to define the content and purpose of education.
 Through the Ministry of Education, curriculum development processes need to
consider the needs of the society.

8. Target Population
 Any curriculum that is development must consider the intended learners the content
must be challenging and also at par with the developmental age of the learners, it is
therefore important to consider if the curriculum is for pre-school learners, primary
school and secondary school or even for training in specific professions.

9. Reports of Commission, Task forces

Development of curriculum in Kenya have been subject to reports such as Ominde (1964)
and Mackay (1981)

School Curriculum, facilities and staff (Principles of Curriculum)

These include the following:
1. Institutional environment
2. Existing curriculum
3. Trained manpower
4. Educational system
5. Individual needs

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Institutional Environment
 It includes the schools and arrangement of resources where the curriculum will be
implemented.
 In order to implement any curriculum physical facilities like classrooms, workshops,
administration block, dormitories laboratories and recreational facilities are necessary.

Existing Curriculum
 Before a new curriculum is developed the existing curriculum should be studied and
information about it analyzed.
 It analyzed to establish whether it meets the societal needs and the goals and
objectives of education in the country and also to establish its weakness as well as
strengths.
 A new curriculum is developed to overcome the weakness of the existing curriculum.

Trained manpower (Staffing)

 It is responsibility of curriculum developers to ensure that there are teachers for all
new subjects introduced in the new curriculum.
 They should also prepare the teachers on teaching and learning strategies, educational
resources and allocation of time required for various subjects in the curriculum and
means of evaluating it.

Educational System
- The educational system in Kenya has its goal and objectives. The Curriculum developments
should be based on those goals and objectives.
- There should also be considerations of the educational system whereby the various levels of
education are considered. These levels are:-
 Primary education
 Secondary Education
 Post Secondary Education
 Teacher training

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Curriculum models
 Are designed to provide a basis for decision regarding the selection structuring and
sequencing of xxxxx experience.

Individual need;
Any curriculum developed should consider the learners need. This enables them to select
subjects and content, for various levels of development.

Curriculum models/models of curriculum design.

Curriculum scholars have developed models that can be used to analysis and understand better
the nature and process of curriculum.

The Tyler Model (Objective model -1949)

He outlined four steps of curriculum design.

Step 1
Objectives
What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?
He put more emphasis on objectives and points that a successful program must have clear
education objectives.
He identified three sources of objectives:-
a) Study of the learners
 Education objectives represent the kind of changes in behavior the school is
expected to bring about to learners.
 The study of the learners would seek to identify needed changes e.g. the ability
and interest in order to design objectives that can be achieved when learning takes
place.

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 b) Study of contemporary life in society
 As a social institution the school should prepare the youth for life in the society,
the school curriculum should reflect what goes on outside the school.
 The interest of curriculum planners is to respond to concerns of the most people in
the society for example unemployment and insecurity.

c) Suggestions from subject specialist

 Subject specialists come up with school curriculum where they outline the
objectives to be attained through schooling.
 Subject specialists in a body like KICD have their views on curriculum and their
objectives highly regarded.
 Specialists also dominate the writing of books which largely reflect their views.

The objectives arrived at from the three sources should be filtered through philosophical and
psychological ‘screens’ in order to arrive at refined objectives.

Step 2
Selection of Learning Experiences
What S educational experiences can be provided that is likely to attain these purposes?
Learning occurs as a result of the learners carrying out certain learning activities.

Step 3
Organization of learning experiences
How can these educational experiences be effectively organized?
Learning experiences should be organized so as to reinforce each other and facilitate efficient
instruction and learning.

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Step 4
Evaluation
How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained?
It involves determining whether the desired results or objectives are being achieved.

Steps of Tyler’s Curriculum Design are shown below

EDUCATIONAL AIMS/OBJECTIVES

LEARNING EXPERIENCES

ORGANIZATION OF EXPERIENCES

ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION

According to Tyler
- Curriculum theory is technical
- Curriculum is deductive
- Predetermined behavioral objectives serve as a driving force that controls the pedagogical
and evaluative efforts that follow.
- Administrators should design curriculum and teachers implement it.
- Linear relation occurs in the four steps of curriculum design.

Strengths of Tyler Model

- Clearly stated objectives a good place to begin
- Provides a simple linear approach to development of behavioral objectives
- Involves active participation of the learner
- It provides organization and control.

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Criticism
- Narrowly stated objectives
- Learners are not control to the focus of educational purpose.
- Difficult time consuming in the construction of behavioral objectives
- Curriculum restricted to a constricted range of student skills and knowledge
- Critical thinking, problem solving and value acquiring processes cannot be plainly
declared in behavioral objectives
- It is very simple and does not make sufficient allowance for the interrelatedness of the
separate elements.
- Social and outlined evolution is not considered.
- Fails to consider valuable contribution that students make to occur to make learning
meaningful.

The Taba Model (1962)

- Taba’s idea on curriculum design can be considered as a further elaboration of Tyler’s
rather psychological principles of curriculum development.
- She attributes them a more pedagogical and practical nature
- Taba introduced a model of curriculum consisting seven steps;
i) Diagnosis of needs. The teacher (Curriculum designer) starts the process by identifying
the need of the students for whom the curriculum is to be planned.
ii) Formulation of learning objectives; after the teacher has identified the needs that require
attention, he or she specifies objectives to be accomplished.
iii) Selection of learning content. The objectives selected or created suggest the subject
matter or content of the curriculum.
iv) Organization of content: Teacher organizes content in a sequence, taking into
consideration the maturity of the learners, their academic achievement, and their interests.
v) Selection of learning experiences. Teachers select instructional methods that will involve
students with the content.
vi) Organization of learning experiences learning experiences are arranged in sequences
taking into consideration the students to be taught.

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 vii) Evaluation. Involves determining what have been achieved Students and teachers to
determine the procedures of evaluation.

Strength of the Taba Model

- Gifted students begin thinking of concepts, then dive deepen into that concept.
- Focuses on open ended questions either right or wrong answer
- The openness requires more abstract thinking benefits to our gifted students.
- The questions and answer lead themselves to rich classroom discussion.
- Easy to assess students learning.

Limitation
Can be difficult for non- gifted learners to group
Difficult for xxxx classrooms

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 Works well for fiction and non –fiction may be difficult to sensibly use in all subject.

Teacher
Input

Evolutio
n
Diagnosis Organization
of of learning
Teacher Objectives activities
input

Formulation
of objectives

Selection
of
Selectio
learning
n of
activities
content
Organiza
tion of
content

Teacher
input

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The seven steps involving interaction of five components in which objectives, content, learning
experiences, teaching strategies and evaluative measures as shown below

- Taba introduces a model which engages relationship between external factors and
internal components in curriculum design.
- Taba makes content very conspicuous
- The model also emphasizes the interrelatedness or relationship among elements.
- Is inductive and emphasizes the role of the teacher in curriculum design

Limitation
- It is linear in nature which limits interaction of components

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 - Curriculum development cannot be solely the preserve of the teacher.

Taba Model
 Inductive approach
 Is teacher approach
 Taba believe that teacher are aware of the students’ needs hence they should be the one to
develop the aim.
 It is the grassroots approach
 The main idea to this approach is at the force found to the xxx

The Wheeler Model (1978)

 Wheeler reacts to the simplicity of Tyler’s linear model
 He converts Tyler’s original ideas into cyclic form and offers a 5- stage model of the
curriculum process.
 Wheeler (1978) who believes that curriculum decision making can start from any point
and can come back to any of the points e.g. like a cycle.
 Aims should be discussed as behaviors referring to the end product of learning which
yields the ultimate goals.
 Aims are formulated from the general to the specific in curriculum planning. This results
in the formation of objectives at both an enabling and terminal level.
 Content is distinguished from the learning experiences which determine that content.

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 Evaluation

Aims, Goals &

Objectives

Organization & Integration

of Learning Experiences &
Content Selection of Leaning
Experiences

Selection of
Content

Criticism
a. Except for the cyclic nature of the curriculum process there is no significant conceptual
difference between the wheeler model and that of Tyler.
b. It does not bring out the dynamic interrelatedness
c. Evaluation appears rather to be standing last in the model and yet it should be a
continuous process rather than being delayed until the exercise is over.

Kerr’s Model (1968)

John Kerr’s work is one of the earliest attempts in Britain to analyze and map out the field of
curriculum.

He divides the domain of curriculum into four areas – Objectives, content, school learning
experiences and evaluation

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 Objective

Evaluation Content

Learning
Experience

 Kerr singles out objectives as very important and advises starting with the objectives
section of the model as the most logical.
 He emphasizes that the components of the model influence each other hence showing
their interrelatedness.
 The four domains are interrelated directly or indirectly
 Objectives are derived from school learning experiences and content.

Criticism
 Just like Taba and Wheeler, Kerr has been criticized for paying very little attention to the
content of what is to be leant
 They are also criticized as simplistic in nature and fail to provide explicit criteria for
various curriculum processes.

Lawton’s Model (1973)

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  He came up with a model for curriculum planning in which objectives, content and
procedures should be selected with references to three main considerations:
a. The nature of knowledge – How can it help to answer curriculum question
b. The nature of the child
c. The nature of the society
 Nature of the child refers to what are the needs, interest and problems of the individual
children for whom the curriculum is being planned? This is done to cognitive
development and child development
 The nature of Society; the pressure and needs of the society
 He developed 5 stages in curriculum planning.

Stage 1
It is about the need to achieve clarity of knowledge about educational goals, knowledge and
values with which education should be concerned. In This process, the aims of education should
be defined to reflect the philosophical orientation of the society.

Stage 2
It is about the improvement of the society through education. The main concern is about the
knowledge, skills and attitudes that are likely and yet required in education in order to level up
society.
Stage 3
It addresses the curricula content at different levels of the educational system. Both universal and
special culture elements for study are identified such as arts, craft, skills, knowledge, and belief
of behavior. Education also needs to expose foreign culture in order for learners to appreciate
what is universal in it.

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 Stage 4
He emphasized the role of psychology in curriculum planning, theory about the learning process
and the nature of the child has implications for the school curriculum.
These are to be considered:
i. The age and grouping of children
ii. Duration of learning each subject
iii. The learning environment.

Stage 5
He suggests that the school curriculum should be organized in sequence stages e.g. from single
to complex.

Philosophical questions (cultural Sociological questions (cultural

universals) aim of education and Variables) e.g. the kind of society we
worthwhile knowledge (1) have or want (2)

Psychological questions and theories

Selection of content at different e.g of learning, instruction,
levels of education (3) development knowledge (4)

Curriculum organized in sequence

stages (5)

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G, P Oluoch Model (1982)
Oluoch’s curriculum design is composed of objectives, learning activities and student’s
assessment

Objectives

Student’s assessment Learning Activities

Formal Dimension
Informal Dimension
Non-Formal Dimension

Curriculum Objectives
 They are expected outcomes of learning experiences at a given level of learning.
 They are the first elements of school curriculum
 Curriculum objectives reflect the wishes of political dispensation
 Curriculum developers design ways how the objectives could be achieved.

Learning Activities
 Are the second elements of the school curriculum
 Are statements of planned learning activities through which desired learning takes place
 The learning activities may take formal, non-formal or informal dimensions

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Student Assessment
 After working out learning activities, the curriculum planners should prepare a student
assessment scheme to see how students have done to achieve the objectives.
 Assessment can be done through observation or tests.

PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATION OF CURRICULUM DEVELIPMENT

It refers to the reflection of life experiences, common sense, and the general beliefs and values of
the people in the policy to select and formulate education objectives, content, learning
experiences and methods of evaluation.
 Philosophy helps the curriculum planner to establish ideas and notions that will indicate
priority of values in selecting experiences for the curriculum.
 The values system of a country is often expresses in the philosophical statements and
beliefs of that country.
 The appropriate system of education of any nation will take into account the philosophy
of that nation’s culture.
 Decisions on communities, society and learner’s needs as well as methods of
presentation, skills to be developed and desirable attitudes to be formed correct are
derived from philosophy and policy of country.

Purpose of Philosophical Foundations of Curriculum

Foundation of curriculum helps to;
i. Preserve culture heritage
ii. Control the direction and size of education
iii. Assist in designing and determining size of education
iv. Useful in selecting curriculum aims, goals and objectives
v. Useful to identify curriculum implementation strategies.
vi. Guide in the development of curriculum evaluation instruments.
vii. Used for identifying innovation needs
viii. Used for cultivating desired attitudes knowledge and skills.
ix. Used in policy and decision making

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Major schools of philosophy which have guided the writing, organizing and designing of
school curriculum:

Types of philosophical foundation of curriculum.

1) Idealism:
 Plato is the father of idealist philosophy.
 Idealism emphasis moral and spiritual development reality as clear explanation of
the world.
 Truth and values are seen as absolute, timeless and universal.
 The world of mind and ideas is permanent, regular and orderly.
 The idealist educator prefers the order and pattern or subject matter i.e
curriculum that relates ideas and concepts to each other.
 Idealism believes that knowledge is within the mind
 It emphasis on the intellectual aspects of life at the expense of physical aspects
 Teachers should remain role models
 It views education as a process of transiting values from one generation to the
next.
 Aspect of curriculum instruction such as memory, problem solving and
comprehension are based on idealism.
 It use deductive reasoning in the quest for answers to the current day problems
(Deductive reasoning starts with a general statement and examines possibilities to
reach a specific and logical conclusion as in scientific method to test hypothesis
and theories.
 It forms the basis of subjects such as literature and religion.

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 2) Realism:
 Aristotle often linked to the development of realism,
 The realism views the world in terms of object and matter
 People come to know the world through their senses and reason
 Everything is derived from nature and is subject to its laws.
 Realism uses inductive method in solving the current day problems and forms the
basis of experimental methods in science (Inductive reasoning makes broad
generalization from specific observation: scientists use it to from hypotheses and
theories).
 Realism urges that education should induct learners into their culture and help
them adjust to the natural order of things in order to live in harmony with the
universe.
 Realism advocate study of physical and social sciences which are instruments to
explain natural phenomena.
 Realists see the subject expert as a veritable source and authority for the
determination of the curriculum;
 They also advocate that curriculum should emphasize grammar, rhetoric, logic,
classical and modern language, mathematics and the great books of the truth,
which is the same today as was then and always, shall be.
 These thinkers add to the curriculum the study of the Bible and theological
writings.

3) Pragmatism
 Associated with philosophers such as Charles Peirce and John Dewey
 This philosophy is sometimes referred as experimentalism it is based on change
process and relativity
 Pragmatism is the philosophy of considering practical consequences or real
effects to be vital components of both meaning and truth.
 Concepts and theories are measured as useful, not by whether they are true of
false, but by how effective they are in explaining and predicting phenomena.

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  Pragmatism constructs knowledge as progress in which reality is constantly
changing
 Learning goes on as the student engages in problem solving

According to pragmatist curriculum should be organized on the basis of;

 Learner’s interests and needs
 Subject matter should be selected to help the learner solve the problems
 Teaching should be exploratory rather than explanatory
 Considers teaching and learning as a process of reconstructing experience
according to scientific method
4) Progressivism:
 Associated with John Dewey
 Subject matter is viewed as a medium for teaching life processes and skills.
 Educators must therefore be ready to modify methods and policies in light of the
new knowledge and change in the environment.
 The student and environment are constantly changing.
Progressivism advocate that;
- Education should be life itself not preparation for living.
- Learning should be directly related to the interest of the child
- Learning should be through problem solving
- Learning should be to the interest of learners needs
- They view education not as a product to be learned e.g. facts as
lifelong process
- Learning should provide individual differences no single pattern of
subject matter can be appropriate to all.
- They believe in classroom school democracy where teachers operate at
the same level with leaners as facilitators.
- The school should encourage cooperation as opposed to competition.

5) Essentialism:
 Subject matter should be taught for use.

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  They maintain that there are certain essentials each student in a school supposed
to know.
 The essentialists propose a curriculum with core units that have what each
student ought to know. E.g. presence of core (compulsory subjects and units in a
curriculum).

6) Existentialism
It is doctrine that holds that there are no values outside human beings as such which
submits that human beings should gave the freedom to make choices and then be
responsible for the consequences of such choices.

The philosophy proposes that;

 Education must anchor on the perceptions and feelings of the individual in order
to facilitate understanding of personal reaction or responses to life situations.
 The major concern is the individual and education should be determined by the
learner.
 Leaners desires should be facilitated by the system
 Teacher role should be non-directive
 Individual learners should not be subjected to predetermined education
Predetermined education programs.

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 The philosophy provides basis for;
 Provision of diversity in curriculum to allow a wide selection of subjects
 Adoption of various modes of learning such full time, part time and distant
learning.

PATTERNS OF CURRICULUM ORGANIZATION/ TYPE OF CURRICULUM

 The concept curriculum design is used in educational literature to refer to the
organization of the components or curriculum elements.
 Components which are included in any curriculum design are aims, goals and
objectives, subject- content, learning activities and evaluation.
 Curriculum design is therefore how all these components are structured in any
curriculum.

These are several ways of designing school curriculum

a) Subject – Centred Design:
 This is curriculum design where the organization of curriculum is in terms of
separate subjects such as English, Mathematics, Kiswahili etc
 It is the oldest and most popular design
 It organizes the curriculum in different and specific subjects each of which
represents specialized content.
 It organizes the curriculum in different and specific subjects each of which
represents specialized content.
 Content and skill to be mastered are divided into distinct areas with a logical order
and sequences as decided by the subject specialists.
 Sequences is determined by the logic of the subject matter and the maturity and
age of the learner and his ability to handle particular content.
 The subject curriculum is very exam oriented and encourages excessive
competition in both teaching and learning.
Advantages:
 It is possible and desirable to determine in advance what all children (leaners)
will learn in various subjects and grades (classes).
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  It is expected that teachers prepare students based on the same syllabus
 It is feasible (capable of being done) and necessary to determine curriculum
standards of performance and achievements for the knowledge specified in the
subject area.
 Almost all textbooks and support material present on the educational market are
organized on subject by – subject format.
 It is better understood by teachers because their training is based on this method
of subject specialization.
 Curriculum planning is easier and simpler in terms of development,
implementing, teaching, load allocating and time tabling.
 Intellectual powers of individual learners can be developed through this
approach.
 People have become familiar and more comfortable with this design and seem to
view it as part of the system of the school and education as a whole.
 Subjects constitute a logical and effective method of organizing and interpreting
learning.

Criticisms of subject centered design:

Criticism are based on the following arguments:
 Leads to fragmentation in the student understanding as they fail to see relationship
between subjects in the face of rapid expansion of knowledge
 Design is not based on real life experience; final use of knowledge and events in
the real world detaches students from reality.
 The design stresses on content and ignores students’ needs, interests, and
experiences
 It focuses on the intellectual performance at the expense of the other human
development
 It provides a narrow concept of acquiring knowledge and skills as it is associated
with teacher centered methodologies.
 It is too much oriented towards examination which test memorization rather than
understanding.
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 b) Integrated/ Broad fields curriculum Design:
In this approach two, three or more subject are unified into one broad course of study.
This organization is actually a system of combining and regrouping subjects that are
related in the curriculum into separate broad fields of study.

In 8-4-4 systems we have:-

 Language arts – both at primary and secondary levels – reading, writing,
grammar, literature, speech etc.
 Social science fields – history, political science government, economics
anthropology and sociology
 Social education in primary level
 General science to include natural and physical sciences.

Advantage of Broad filed Design:

The advocates of broad – fields design argue that:-
1. It provides for an orderly and systematic exposure to the cultural heritage
2. It integrates separate subjects into a single course to enables learners to see the
relationship among various elements in the curriculum
3. It saves time on the school time table
4. Shows a broad view of knowledge and universe
5. Prepares a student for self – reliance and survival skills

Criticism of Broad filed Design

Opponents of broad field’s curriculum design claim that;
i. It lacks depth and cultivates shallowness
ii. It provides only bits and pieces of information from a variety of subjects
iii. It does not account for psychological organization by which learning takes place
iv. Teacher are hardly trained for broad based curriculum

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 v. Normally occurs formally but teachers concentrate on their areas of
specialization.
c) Learner centred design/ child – centred / individualized approaches:
This design puts great emphasis upon individual development. The curriculum is
therefore organized around needs, interests and purposes of students who attend to
particular subject matter. When students have arrived, an attempt can be made to identify
their varied concerns, interests and priorities and then develop appropriate topics to
address meaningful issues. However, this type of curriculum design has not been popular
in developing parts of the world and only in well – developed nations has it been
practiced to some extend because they have enough manpower and resources.

Advantage of learner centered:

 The needs and interest of students are considered in the selection and
organization of content
 Students are well prepared for life since their needs and interest are considered in
planning of student work.
 Ensure student participation on leaning which facilitate understanding
 Allows for both teaching and assessment to go together
 It is major steps towards democratization of education.
Criticism of learner centred design:
 The interests and needs of students may not reflect specific areas of knowledge
that could be essential for successful functioning in the society in general)
 Interests and needs of students are usually short-lived change with time and are
influenced by the available conditions
 It is not possible to know enough about human growth development and learning
to be able to plan for individual students
 It is expensive to produce materials to satisfy the needs and interests of individual
students in a school
 It is time consuming

d) Core curriculum design

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  A core curriculum is a style of education in which all students are required to take
certain classes, regardless of major.
 It provides students with common learning
 It constitutes the segments of the curriculum that teach common concepts, skills
and attitudes needed by all individuals in order to functions effectively within the
society.
 Integration of leaning experience by writing subject area i.e. Social studies and
integrated science.
 Common for example in primary teacher training Colleges where students do
common subjects.
 Based in on assumption that people have common problems facing them.

Advantages
 Focus on what is meaningful to the learner
 Allows students to learn more than just what is necessary for their majors
 Allows student to make connections across fields
 The core curriculum provides a well –rounded education
 The core serves as a unifying force as students interact more when attending and
discussing core courses

Disadvantages
 May not be flexible to individual needs
 Curriculum reflects a combination of subjects rather than integration
 It is difficult to discover a problem that will have significant validity and scope
for curriculum purpose
 There is inadequacy of teaches with broad competence to cope with a
combination of subject.
 Does not offer significant and systematic knowledge due to combination of many
subjects and concepts.

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CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT PROCESS
This is the process of choosing and refining the contents of an education system which may later
on be implemented in schools. It is in nature an improvement or modification or change on the
existing educational programme.

Curriculum development and implementation process in Kenya

It consists of seven stages:-
1. Needs assessment
2. Policy formulation
3. Curriculum design
4. Curriculum of syllabuses
5. Development of curriculum support materials
6. Preparation of curriculum implementers
7. Piloting
8. Curriculum implementation
9. Monitoring and evaluation
1. Needs Assessment.
It is an activity that establishes the discrepancy between the current curriculum practice
and demands of the society in order in order to meet the set education objectives. A
baseline survey is conducted to establish initial condition and current situation to identify
the starting point for a program or project
Members of curriculum development team to carry out the survey may be composed of :-
- Education officer teachers
- Curriculum developers from KICD
- Examination officers from KNEC
- Quality assurance and standards officers
- University lecturers
- Other teachers
The researchers focus on:-
- Subject whose syllabus need to be reviewed
- Need for re-defining the objectives of the curriculum

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 - The time frame when the new curriculum should be implemented
- Reviewing assessment methods

Reviewing teacher preparation programmes

2. Policy formulation
 Involves formulating polices related to the curriculum to be developed
 Policy formulation is based on;
- The results on needs analysis
- Reports of education commissions
- Prudential decrees, acts of parliament
- International education commitments
- Local social economic policies
 This stage provide experts in curriculum development and other education
stakeholders to interrogate and address all aspects of education that need review.
 The stage provides education stakeholders to come with a common stand on the
direction for a given curriculum in-terms of addressing the required social
political , cultural, economic, scientific and technological needs of the country

The policy decisions are guided by;

 Reports of Education commission and committees
 Presidential announcements
 Acts of parliament
 Action research by KICD or university specialists
 International commitments as in EFA and MDGs and SDGs
 Local social economic policies such as Vision 2030

3. Curriculum Design
Development of curriculum design is done by subject panels and is composed of;
- Objectives of the curriculum
- Subjects to be taught in each level of education
- List of topics to be taught in each subject
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 - Assessment of evaluation procedures
- Time allocation for each subject in each level
- Target population

4. Development of the syllabus

The syllabus is developed from curriculum design. The syllabus is validated by course
panel and academic committee before dissemination to the implementing institution. The
panel membership is drawn from relevant stakeholders in order to ensure relevance.

5. Development and selection of teaching and learning materials:-

The KICD develops both print and electronic approved from private published
curriculum support materials. These include teachers hand books, training manuals, audio
visuals and digital content which facilitate interpretation and implementation of the
curriculum. Publisher develop course books which are vetted by KICD to ascertain the
material;
 Meets the requirements of the specific syllabus
 Are reader friendly
 Are gender sensitive
 Are durable
 Are well priced
6. Piloting / Curriculum try out
 This refers to curriculum try out in a sample of schools
 It involves finding out to which extent objectives will be or will not be met

Try out / piloting involves

a. Selection of schools and colleges
b. Briefing of education and the general public
c. Preparation od school teachers and heads for try out
d. Supply of materials and equipment to the try out schools
e. Conducting try out in schools

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 f. Gathering and analyzing feedback
g. Use of the feedback for the modification of the curriculum plan, materials and
equipment’s.

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 7. Preparation of Curriculum implementers
Teacher, quality assurance and standard officers are oriented on the curriculum
preparation for national implement the curriculum.

8. National curriculum implementation:

 Implementation is the making real of that which has been planned
 After the programme has been piloted, evaluated and improved it can then go to
all schools in the country.

Implementation of curriculum has the following process

 Persuading the people especially policy makers teachers and parents to accept the
new curriculum.
 Informing the public through mass media, seminars, public lectures e.t.c
 Training of teachers through both pre-service and in-service teacher education
programmes
 Educating teacher trainers/ educators:- theses include educational administrators,
district quality assurance and standards officer (QUASOS) college tutors TAC
Tutors, (Teacher advisory centre Tutors).
 Providing the necessary facilities, equipment and materials in schools.
 Releasing of the necessary funds for the purpose of the curriculum support
materials
 Presentation of the new curriculum it is advisable that the actual presentation of
the curriculum should start from the bottom of the purpose of the curriculum
support materials
 Instituting appropriate assessment methods
 Providing continuous support for the new curriculum.

9. Monitoring and Evaluation:

 It refers to quality control measure and finding out the extent to which educational
goals and objectives have been achieved.

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  It involves gathering information for making decisions on either to accept,
improve or reject the project

There are three types of curriculum evaluation: -

- Pre – assessment (diagnostic) evaluation. It is conducted before
providing any instructional programme
- Formative evaluation is continuous evaluation as the implementation
goes on e.g termly or yearly tests
- Summative evaluation – conducted after the curriculum has run its full
cycle in schools from the time of it national-wide implementation e.g
KCPE, KCSE other tools of evaluation may include questionnaires,
interview and discussion schedules and tests.

ROLE OF KICD AND OTHER AGENCIES IN CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT AND

INNOVATION
a). The role / functions of Kenya of curriculum development (KICD).
1. To conduct research and prepare syllabuses for all levels of education, below the
University level.
2. To conduct research and prepare teaching and evaluation materials to support any
syllabuses, including the preparation of books, teaching guides, mass media programmes
and materials.
3. To conduct in service and workshops for teachers and teacher trainer who are involved.
4. To carrying out experiments and trials of any syllabuses and teaching materials.
5. To conduct seminars on any syllabus and teaching materials for QUASOS of schools
and teachers’ trainers.
6. To conduct orientation programmes for field officers and to keep them informed of the
developments that are taking place in the schools and teachers’ college curriculum.
7. To develop and transmit programmes through mass media to support the developments
that are taking place in education.
8. To prepare distance education courses for students, teachers, and the general public.

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 9. To conduct courses, seminars and orientation programmes for the guidance of teachers
and educational administrators.
10. To publish and print educational materials.
11. To vet course/ approve course books to be used in schools.

Challenges faced by KICD in curriculum development and implementation:

1) Development of syllabuses at the KICD is done through a panel system that takes
long to respond to the rapid change in the industrial sector.
2) Syllabus of some areas of special needs such as those for gifted and talented
learners and those with communication disorders has not been prepared.
3) Some levels of education such as technical, industrial, vocational and
entrepreneurship (TIVET) suffer from inadequate curriculum support materials like
textbooks, trainee materials and handbooks.
4) There is limited dissemination of audio- visual materials, as a result of poor
infrastructure e.g. electricity, long distance between schools and lack of support by
school administration.
5) Most of the resource materials at the educational media service (Ems) and libraries
is not current; so curriculum developers lack access to current materials and
information.
6) Lack of sufficient funds to carry out adequate research on curriculum development
and implementation.
7) Political influence in curriculum design.
b) Role of Education Standards and Quality Assurance Council
Quality Assurance and Standards Officers are the custodians of standards in curriculum
implementation in Kenya.
Role:
i. Working closely with other educational stakeholders such as KICD in organizing and
conducting in-service courses, workshops, seminars and orientation courses for teachers
and educational administrators.
ii. Organizing and administering all non-formal curriculum activities e.g. sports,
competitions drama, music.

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 iii. Overseeing and coordinating all national examinations in the country.
iv. Chairing courses and subject panels at the KICD.
v. Providing information and advice to MOE with regard to education policy formulation.
vi. Visiting institutions of learning to check physical facilities, equipment and administration
and the actual teaching by members of staff.

c) Kenya National Examination Council:

It is the National body which supervises and oversees all national examinations in Kenya.

Roles/functions in curriculum evaluation:

i. To conduct such academic technical and professional examinations within Kenya as it
may consider desirable in the public interest, e.g. KCPE, KCSE, Business exams, DJE,
PTE.
ii. To award diplomas and certificates to successful candidates in these examinations.
iii. To find out the effectiveness of the teaching strategies and instructional materials used.
iv. To diagnose the progress in the learning of content and acquisition of skills.
v. To ascertain whether or not all the curriculum areas that were supposed to be covered
have been covered effectively.
vi. Guiding learners in their choice of subjects, course of study or future careers.
vii. Predicting learners’ potential abilities aptitudes or future success for further education or
training.
viii. Highlighting content areas that may be difficult for the level of being assessed and
targeting them for review.
ix. Grading learners according to their performance. This grading is used during the
selection of learners for further education, training or career choice.
x. Carrying out research on performance of students.

d) TSC
Role of TSC in curriculum development and implementation include:-
i. Deploying teachers to public educational and training institutions.
ii. Maintaining professional standards by ensuring that qualified teachers are employed.

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 iii. Appointing head teachers, deputy head teachers and heads of departments to supervise
curriculum implementation.
iv. Organizing induction courses for teachers.
v. Providing teachers to participate in subject panels and vetting panels at the KICD.
vi. Recruiting and employing registered teachers and assigning them to serve in any public
school.
vii. Promoting or transferring any such teachers to schools where their services may be in
demand.
viii. Disciplining errant teachers.
ix. Contributing to the professional growth of teachers by granting them study leave.
x. Publishing the TSC code of regulations.
xi. Paying remuneration and allowance to teachers.
e) Teachers Advisory Centre Tutors (TACS)
TACS are regional resource centres designed to provide support for the total developmental
needs of the education system such as those needs generated by change in the curriculum.
TAC tutors are the officers appointed to man TACS.

Role of the TAC Tutors in curriculum implementation includes:-

i. Preparing and dispatching teaching and learning resources to teachers.
ii. Organizing and coordinating seminars, workshops, and refresher courses in the zone
or district.
iii. Preparing zonal schools – based examinations in conjunction with schools subject
panel heads.
iv. Updating teachers on changes, teaching methodologies and syllabuses under the
school – based training programme.
v. Are the secretary to zonal and district subject panels.
vi. Inducting new teachers.

f) Teachers
Role of the teacher in the general development and implementation of curriculum

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 i. Creating, selecting and modifying instructional strategies for use in class in
line with the abilities of the learners.
ii. Adapting the curriculum to the school situation by enriching it using local
examples, applying them to the local situation and using local materials.
iii. Improving resources and providing alternative resources for use in learning
situations.
iv. Maintaining professional records and using them to ensure that individual
needs of the learners are appropriately catered for.
v. Participating and showing interests in non-formal and informal curricular
activities with an aim of identifying and nurturing talents and potentialities
of learners.
vi. Guiding and counseling learners.
vii. Disciplining learners appropriately.
viii. Encouraging a positive relationship between the school and the community.
ix. Setting, moderating, administering and marking both internal and external
examinations.
x. Participate in the process of determining the curriculum content and learning
experiences as members of curriculum projects, teams and curriculum
development panels.
xi. Participate in producing learning materials such as teachers’ guide or
manuals.

Teacher/ staff factors that affect curriculum implementation

 Teacher qualification
 Turnover
 Absenteeism
 Job satisfaction
 Motivation

School factors that affect curriculum implementation

i. Availability of staff

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 ii. Availability of instructional materials
iii. Leadership styles
iv. Adequacy of instructional materials
v. School community support

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 g) Non- Governmental Organizations & United Nations Agencies:
e.g. UNICEF- United Nations Children’s Fund.
UNESCO- United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization.

They supplement on the government’s efforts in the provision of education by:-

i. Erecting physical facilities for learning such as workshops and classrooms.
ii. Providing teaching and learning facilities such as books and computer ware.
iii. Contributing ideas towards policy formulation such as those on children and gender
issues.
iv. Facilitating the staff exchange programme.
v. Offering scholarships and training opportunities for Kenyan learners with remarkable
academic performance within and outside Kenya.
vi. Providing direct funding for selected education projects such as Free Primary
Education.

CURRICULUM INNOVATION AND IMPLEMENTATION STRATEGIES

b) Curriculum innovation
Refers to reforms in curriculum or change of curriculum in aspects such as content, methods,
approaches, materials which involves subtracting and adding to what is existing.

Agencies for curriculum change:

1) Institutes of Education.
2) Curriculum development centres.
3) Research centres or Institutes.
4) School boards or committees.
5) Colleges of Education.
6) Universities.
7) Professional organizations or associations.
8) Private foundations.
9) Commercial agencies like publishers.

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 10) Quality Assurance and Standards office.
11) Local Education Authorities (municipalities)
12) Examination bodies or councils
13) Teachers’ Unions.

Factors affecting curriculum change

Factors which affect curriculum change or innovation are similar to those which affect the
curriculum development as a whole. These are:-

1) Social and demographic factors:

Innovations in curriculum may come out of a need to deal with the current population
problem such as drug abuse, poverty, and social evils

2) Economic factors:
Many innovations in the school curriculum have come about due to certain economic
problems e.g. unemployment. Curriculum can be changed to reflect economic aspirations
such as Vision 2030.

3) Political factors:
 Curriculum can be changed to reflect political dispensation for example changes
in social studies to reflect new constitution adopted in 2010.
 Ongoing implementation of computers in teaching in primary schools in line with
Jubilee Manifestation.
 8.4.4. was implemented through political announcement by President Moi
following recommendation of Mackay Report (1981).

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 4) Technological factors:-
 In planning, developing and implementing the curriculum, it is necessary to be
aware of what is going on in the world of technology.
 Technology affects methods of teaching as well as instructional devices.

5) Epistemological factors/ Dynamism of knowledge factors:

Knowledge is the prime source of the curriculum content, knowledge is always
expanding; new theories and concepts are emerging daily. Therefore curriculum is
changed to reflect new knowledge.

6) Special interest groups

Groups such as religious organizations, Federation of Kenya employers and non-
governmental organizations such as FIDA may force changes in curriculum to reflect
religious morals, labour demand and gender sensitivity respectively.

7) Reports of adhoc national commissions

They reveal the need for and direction of change for example major curriculum changes
in Kenya are as a result of education commission such as Mackay (1981) and Ominde
(1964)

8) Community Expectations
Curriculum can be changed to reflect community aspirations and values.

9) Innovations in Education
Curriculum can be changed to blend with innovations in teaching methodologies and
evaluation modes.

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 10) Learners needs:
Failure of curriculum to meet learners’ individual needs, learner’s job requirements
necessitate curriculum needs.

c) Curriculum implementation strategies

 Persuading the people especially policy makers, teachers and parents to accept the new
curriculum.
 Informing the public through mass media, seminars, public lectures etc.
 Training of teachers through both pre-service and in-service teachers’ education
programmes.
 Educating teacher trainers/ educators:- these include educational administrators, district
quality assurance and standard officers (QUASOS) college tutors TAC Tutors, ( Teacher
Advisory Centre)
 Releasing of the necessary funds for the purpose of the curriculum support materials.
 Presentation of the new curriculum from the bottom of the ladder and move up year by
year.
 Instituting appropriate assessment and evaluation methods.
 Providing continuous support for the new curriculum.
 Re- evaluating of objectives, content and learning experiences.
 Employment of teachers.

RE-EVALUATION OF OBJECTIVES, CONTENT AND LEARNING EXPERIENCES.

It refers to seeking of information about the suitability of certain education programme which
involves analyzing all aspects of curriculum to facilitate decision making.

A) Re-valuation of objectives
a) Contemporary society
Why objectives should reflect current life styles and set-up of the society.

b) Local environment

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 Whether the education objectives reflect schools social economic and physical
situations well the subculture of the community.

c) Learner
Whether education objectives reflect learner’s abilities and interests

d) Psychology
Whether the objectives can be achieved through the lenses of available theories of
learning and motivation.

e) Philosophy
Whether education objectives reflect philosophy of education as outlined in the
learning and motivation

f) Knowledge
Whether objectives reflect the dynamics of knowledge.

g) Schools itself
Whether objectives are achievable within limits available human and physical
resources

B) Re-evaluation / evaluation of learning content

Content is totality of knowledge, skills and attitudes which the learner is intended to
acquire in the process of learning.

What to consider when evaluating / re-evaluation

a) Consistency with objectives
b) Relevance or practicability in real life situations
c) Comprehensiveness
d) Balance between scope and depth
e) Level of application

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 f) Suitability to the level of learners
g) Interests and needs of learners

C) Re-evaluation of learning experiences

Why learning experiences are re-evaluated / what is considered
a) Conformity with objectives – They should provide learners with the opportunity
to practice the kind of behaviour specified in the objectives.
b) Validity – They should be relevant to the subject areas and consistent with the
reinforcing the actual situation at home and in school.
c) Satisfaction – They should provide learners with a sense of achievement
d) Feasibility – They should reflect – limits of the learners with respect to their ages
and individual learning differences.
e) Economy – They should result in a number of learning outcomes.

Challenges facing effective curriculum implementation

 Teacher shortages due to high enrolments
 Inadequate funds due to low capitation as result national budget constrains
 Delayed disbursement of student capitation funds
 Embezzlement and misappropriation of funds
 Lack of adequate school facilities due to high enrolments
 School indiscipline which results to disruption of school calendar
 Lack of adequate consultation on curriculum changes and implementation
 Insecurity which leads to closure of schools
 Teacher absenteeism which results to students missing lessons
 Political interference in the management of schools
 Lack of effective administration of evaluation exercises which results to cheating
in examination

CURRICULUM CHANGES IN KENYA SINCE INDEPENDENCE

Structure

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  After independence in 1964 the structure of education was changed to 7,4,2,3 from
8,4,2,3, as per recommendation of Ominde Report (1964).
 In 1984, the system was changed from to 8,4,4 as recommended by Mackay Report
(1981).
 Primary school teacher training to take two years as per Bessy Report (1972).
 Diploma in Teacher Education training course duration was increased to three years
following introduction of 8.4.4 system.

Changes in Evaluation System

 Certificate of Primary Education was introduced in 1964 Common Entrance Examination
Abolished on recommendation of Ominde Report (1964).
 Ordinary and Advanced Level examinations were abolished and Kenya Secondary
Certificate of Secondary Education was established following introduction of 8.4.4
system.
 Internal evaluation in Diploma in Education course was abolished and KNEC DTE
examination was introduced in 2010.
 Teaching practice internship and evaluation was increased to two terms in 1990 following
recommendations of Kamunge Report (1988).
 Examinable subjects were increased from 3 papers to six papers in primary education
following introduction of 8.4.4 system.
 Later they were increased to 7 following introduction of Business Education in primary
education.
 In late 1990s examinable subjects were reduced to 5 papers following recommendations
of Koech report (1999).
 Examinable subjects were increased from minimum of six to minimum of 10 following
introduction of 8.4.4 system in secondary education.
 In late 1990s subjects examination subjects were reduced from 10 to minimum of 7
following Koech Report recommendation (1999).

Changes in Content
 Introduction of literature and religion as per Omonde Report (1964)
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  English to be medium of instruction as per Ominde Report (1964)
 Kiswahili was introduced as a subject as per Ominde report (1964)
 Agriculture was made part of general science as per Ominde report (1964)
 Technical subjects were introduced following adoption of 8.4.4. system in both primary
and secondary.
 Social ethics was introduced in secondary education as first mooted by Gachathi Report
(1976).
 Technical subjects were dropped in primary school to reduce workload of teachers and
students following recommendations of Koech Report (1999).
 Examinable subjects in secondary education were reduced to 7 and social ethics dropped
to reduce the bloated curriculum.
 Guiding and counseling course was introduced in teacher training institutions following
recommendations of Koech Report (1999)
 Introduction of life skills education in line with Koech Report (1999) and Sessional Paper
No. 1 2005
 In 1976 the language policy of using mother tongue as a language of instruction in pre-
primary and lower primary schools was adopted following recommendation of Gachathi
Report (1976)
 8.4.4 syllabus have also been reviewed in 1994 and 2004 in which some subjects and
contents were dropped and others merged.

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