pi _——~—" Immanuel Kant Kant isa political philosopher of the very First rank Whose evolutionary political goale would, if actually realized, constitute a valuable revalution in history (Riley 1987-267) What Kant aimed to set forth in the Critique of Pure Reason was the limits of pure reason. He had to solve this problem by Iogieal means He spoke as an epistomologisl limiting knowledge lo ils own domain, lo he fleld of possible experience and to the principles of moralily (Cassirer 1945.78) The Critique of Pure Reason is the most important work of philosophy to have walllen in modem Limes; i is also one of the moet difficult IL poses questions x novel and comprehensive that Kant judged it necessary lo invent technical terms wilh which to discuss them. These terms have a strange beauty and compellingness, and it is impossible to ncqulte a full appresiation of Kans work without experiencing the order and connectedness that his vocabulary imposes upon the traditional problems of philosophy (Scruton 1982: 10), Immanuel Kant (1724-1804), along with (Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716), primarily a mathematician, and Johannes Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832), or Aufidarung On the whole, it helped to develop modern German philosophy. Unlike French philosophy that was empiricist, German philosophy embraced mysticism. The German thinkers were more erudite but also more professorial and more abstract than their British and French counterparts. Unlike Britain, Germany did not offer much to the intellectuals 264un 265 fr | Self thinking was to seek the highest touchstone of truth in one’s self, Je, one's own reason (Kan! cited in Hallowell 1960: 118). In the general background of the period of the enlightenment, the French Revolution of 1789 exerted considerable impact on Germany. It aroused German political thinking from its deep slumber and paved the way for modern political thought (Gooch 1920; Reiss 1970: 8). Many, in Germany, welcomed the revolution at first regarding it as the dawn of the new age. But the disillusionment set in with the onset of reign of terror. Kant and Goethe, the then two leading minds in Germany assessed correctly that while the revolution answered a great political need in France, the situation in Germany was still not ready for revolutionary activity. The bourgeoisie had come into existence in Germany, as in Britain and France, but it had not become emancipated from the dominance of the princes and aristocracy. Germany was relatively poorer as compared to Britain and France and despite the self-confidence of the bourgeoisie, cal freedom was restricted. Freedom of speech meant freedom to criticize religion, but not the government. Anotler impeding factor was the small size of most German principalities as that meant much closer supervision of the subjects by rulers than in larger countries. Bureaucratic control and the lack of economics of scale hindered economic development sapping the self-confidence of the bourgeoisie. But in spite of such formidable local impediments, Kant, transcending such localism could embark on the boldest attempt to grasp the spiril of the enlightenment and think of a higher state inhuman evolution Kant’s most seminal contribution was in making politics subordinate to morals, and the need to treat all individuals as means and ends. He spoke of the importance of reason and the need for international peace. His philosophy was essentially individualistic and liberal. Kant's philosophy, because of these reasons, has continued to inspire subsequent political theorists, particularly within liberalism. Kant's theory was individualistic, a philosophy that affirmed the supreme worth of the individual. This belief in the primacy of the individual was Fist explicitly stated. by Hobbes and developed by Locke. In the eighteenth century, problem of political obligation within a ‘community was also a problem of human relations which could be best resolved by recognizing individual rights and obligations. Kant, who belonged to this school, defined the community as the ‘kingdom of ends’266 A History of Political Thought: Plato to Marx which meant treating humanity in one’s own person, and in that, of others as an end and as means but never as means alone. Its philosophical foundation were laid down by Rousseau and according to Kant, Rousseau was a restorer of the rights of humanity, a thinker who unmasked the fortions and concealment and discovered the ‘real huiman_person’. Kant was concerned with moral law and autonomy of human will which he identified with the realization of freedom. LIFE SKETCH Kant was bor in a poor and pious family of Scottish descent in 1724. He was the fourth of the nine children in a family of harness-maker. He entered the university at the age of 16, and graduated six years later. Unable to secure an academic position, Kant worked as a private tutor in many homes. He obtained a post at the age of 31 as private docent without a salary with responsibilities of delivering public lectures and securing meagre reward from private tuitions. Kant led a quiet life as a professor in his native town Konigsberg. between moral motivestand legal motives, The Critique of Pure Reason was in response to the questions on perception and reality posed by Descartes, Hume, Leibniz and other contemporaries. It proposed that all persons ssophy in general Proposed that the human mind discovered the law of nature forkantjiit Ta satan Gave eat baw oin lamsan tocar eee ‘esteeether. In pointing out that only a select few sniversal truths in the ‘world were valid, Kant effectively diverged with the premise of the entire French enlightenment. Inv the Groundwork: for the Metaphysics of Morals whom he admired and revered and whose portrait hung, prominently in his study. Interestingly, Rousseau’s portrait was the only one that he possessed. It was well known that Kant, who was known for his punctuality and clock work regularfmmanuel Kant 267 routine forget time when he received Rousseau’s Entile (1760). He was $0 absorbed teading the book that he forgot his daily walk. He regarded Rousseau “not as a founder of a new system, but as the thinker who possessed a new conception of the nature and function of philosophy, of its vocation and dignity” (Cassirer 1945: 1). Out of the Kantian philosophy ‘emerged subjective idealism of Johann Gottlieb Fichte (1762-1814), Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling (1775-1854) and Hegel. Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) too was influenced by Kant. Kant led a life filed with routine and discipline. Tt was said that housewives in Konigsberg would set their clock by his time of passing. His house was simple and Spartan. He had instructed his manservant to wake him up at 5 o'clock every morning. He would work fill 7 o'clock wearing his nightcap and robe. After delivering, his morning lectures he would return to study till one and then have a single meal and following it with a walk no matter what the weather was like. He liked to walk alone believing thal conversation would cause men to breathe in open ait which was unhealthy. His love for solitude was balanced by his d for people. He invited people to join him during his midday meals, ensuring, a favourite dish of his guest was prepared, conversing delightfully till 3 o'clock and ending the meal with a hearty laughter. He believed that laughter would lead to better digestion. He was averse to noise, music and visual arts, He twice contemplated marriage, but never got married. Kant delivered his last lecture in 1796. Towards the enc! of his life he lost clarity of mind, the ability to recognize his friends and even to complete a simple sentence. He became senile. He finally died on 12th s funeral was attended by a large number of people. In spite of his senility, he was regarded as the best mind and the greatest slory of Konigsberg. His grave was restored in 1881 after having crumbled. His remains were removed in 1924 and deposited with a cathedral. In 1950, the sarcophagus was broken and vandalized. By that time, Konigsberg, ceased to be a seat of learning, became a part of the former Soviet Union and was renamed alter one of Stalin's henchmen. Even during the heyday of communism in the Munich University Kant’s immortal phrase, written n the Critique of Practical Reason and engraved on the wall of Konigsberg castle, ‘Two things fill the heart with ever renewed and increasing. awe and reverence, the more often and the more steadily we mediate upon them: the starry firmament above and the moral law within was not erased which explained Kant’s standing at a time when those in power were totally against his philosophy, Context of Kant’s Political Thought268 A History of Poliical Thought: Plato to Marx The problem with induction was brought out by Hume, thereby arousing Kant from his dogmatic slumber. In order to refute Hume and to vindicate science philosophically he began his enquiry from mind rather than experience. According to him the laws of nature were constructions of the'mind/and ‘Tosteanibereretireraitare, FEDNTAYSiEIELSEAETOUMNSTxD IANS ROASTER ‘necessary "principles: logically prior” to and’ independent: of experience, and'ideas of rexson. Therefore, the philosophical problem of epistemology which he took up how was synthetic a priori judgements possible? In other words, the question was the need to formulate propositions that were necessary, universal, logically independent of sense experience and capable of being contradicted. He referred to this function of mind in ordering scientific experience as the Copernican revolution in philosophy and his arguments and elaboration in the Critique of Pure Reason was innovative in philosophy. Other than areas of human experience, how to understand science through moral experience was the subject ofthe Critique. ‘aboutimoralissues. In order to justify these rules we must suppose that 4 person was not only a phenomenal being, subject to strict casual laws, but also a noumenal being who was free. Not only was a person a means for the arbitrary use of this will or that, but in all his actions he must be regarded at the same time as an end, This assumption led to the ‘which was “Act always so that you treat humanity whether in your person or in that of another always as an end, but never as a means only”. Its implication was that “Act always in such a way as if you through your maxims: a law-making member of a universal kingdom of ends”. To"wet for tHe‘The principle of universality required that our social and political relations. thould be governed and our public conflicts settled in.a universal mann z 5 & E z 5 z g a 2gx 70 A History of Political Thought: Plato to Marx olitical problem must be capable of solution not only by good men but by a nation of devils. The basis'offa constitution and ofall laws was allowing | this all other principles of politics follow. and since we must be considered our own law-pivers, we should be asked to consider as right only those laws to which we could agree or ought to have agreed if we had been asked to do so. nvimportant cotollary"of this principle g é 2 t a Z = & 5 2 e i & : z 4 3 reverted back to it time and again. z : 5 & a z i 2 : Z 5fmanuel Kant 271 ‘persons tovattainshapspiness'initheit GWA Way. In the process he rejected benevolent despotism and defending in his writings on politics, by Pred the Great. The raler-would ‘have tor make such laws'and actin sucha ‘manner so that his subjects would not try to destroy: the state and to ‘overthrow the'system’of laws. For this purpose, men must be treated as ends and not as means. Here lies a paradox of political freedom. Man's freedom could be safeguarded only by his submitting to coercion; as law presupposes coercion and thus infringement of individual freedom. Kafit of his citizenship OF the state the reason for this stale of affairs, bul he solved the paradox seeing it as a necessary condition of civilization. Heltrieditorexplaias aws'which hevhad/authored, thus differing from Hobbes, for whom the sovereign was the above the law and the law was the command of the aimanner:thaballowsfor‘exceptions. Kant attacked the system of feudal privilege and rejected in principle, slavery or any inferior political status for a clizen, Hla ieciar hee ae on poltical ean Ie at Each citizen ought to have one vote, however larger his estate might be. None would have more legislative power than what was agreed to by law regarding the delegation of legislative power. While272 A History of Political Thought: Plato to Marx Sause None could be coerced by others except by a public law executed by the sovereign similarly none could deny himself of this right celther. that ina properly organized state, men could find security and justice. Unlike Rousseau’ Kant did not consider the state oF nature as a’ state of ‘on the contrary, tHe Like Hobbes Kant si the’ slate"of The social contract however was not a historical fact as such a conception was fraught with dangers, as it could, very likely, encourage disobeclience or even active rebellion against, the existing law. The social contract was a practical idea of reason, a state that ought to be established in accordance with the principles of right. For Kant human personality was immensely valuable. He conceived of society as composed of autonomous self possessed individuals, each having inalienable rights including the impartant right to pursue happiness In goes oo ae rs one’s own manner. Freedam is independence of the compulsory will af another and i 50 far as it can co-sxist with the freccom of all according to a universal Jaw, iis the one sole original, bor right, belonging lo everyman in virtue of his humanity (Kant 1970; 150),fmmanuel Kant 273 ‘egulatest onder of dependence; thal 1s; In: A’ civil state: repulated by laws of right. This relation of dependence thus arises out Of his own ‘eeu Taw ving WA (Kant ibid 174) (Kart 75). These ‘attributes ‘were’ constitutional Freedom, In the Essay on Theory and Practice Kant insisted that these attributes were “fundamental conditions according to which along the institution af the state is possible in conformity with the pure rational principles of external human right generally” (Kant ibid: 176). principles were intuitively recognized, for instance, keeping promises or speaking the truth. Every action ought to be in accordance with right which enabled the freedom of each nas will fo exe topeter with the freedom of all others to act according to the u Kant believed in the supremacy of reason as reason was a distinctive human trait. Since the conditions for harmonious exercise of practical reason was not present, men must strive towards reason and realize the ideal of a kingdom of ends in which reason alone would be sovereign. In order to realize this ideal, a universal league of natures would be required which meant decrease in the importance of the nation state. Kant’s philosophy marked by order, law, coherence and consistency was in sharp contrast with that of Rousseau. In the initial phase, Rousseau was viewed by Germans as a prophet of a new gospel of nature and as the thinker who had rediscovered the primitive power of the emotions and passions and had emancipated them ftom all restrictions, from the restriction of convention as well as that of reason (Cassirer 1945: 13)274 A History of Political Thought: Plato to Marx enccrade weer ay the ater cul Os espe as ncn one -majority:view, It would be in contradiction of the universal will and P i 3 : nor its unfettered power to legislate as rary will in action. He diel, however, ne to give laws, and that legistation of ail. advocate the rule of the maj that represented another form of atl state explicitly that all should com would emanate from the tmited w: | E E g es a Bz Fe. ad 38 BE Ba ge 2a a a8 2F Be ae aH 23 gE BE widest, republican rule would be easily assured. Interestingly, wr the background of the French Revolution of 1789 which he admired, he observed that the revolution was not a revolution in the legal sense; as the king had surrendered his sovereign power to the Third Estate, Kant’s view on rebellion was ambivalent.Ta government was newly established, as in England in 1688, it had to be accepted and obeyed. OF PHILOSOPHY OF HISTORY Kant believed that the history of the human race could be viewed as progress towards a perfect political constitution as well as in the arena of morals. The various states in the moral development of human beings were anomy, heteronomy and autonomy. In the primitive natural anomic stage, the human impulses were naive and innocent which were similar ta Rousseau's belief of human beings in the earlier stages of the state of nature, the pre-civitization stage of human beings. Human civilization began when human beings made a break with this natural state and accepted the obligation of moral law imposed from outside. This, according to Kant was the stage of heleronomy. However, there was still a higher form which Kant called autonomy which was destined to be a state of absolute freedom in which the individual obeyed only a self-imposed law which Kant called the moral imperative. The process of history, according to Kant, was not mechanical or rigidly deterministic. He argued that we could think of history as progressive and make our efforts, but beyond that nothing was plausible, However, looking at history of human beings, Kant asserted there was reason to believe that the natural process supported the ultimate goal of perpetual peace. He explained this with reference to the idea of human beings! tunsocial sociability depicting a split personality for human beings could not live with fellow beings and could not do without them either. In earlier times, human beings spread over the entire surface of the earth ta escape others, but the necessities of existence led to the development of trade and commerce which brought people together. In the same process, Kant believed nations would be brought together making the dream of perpetual peace a reality.278 A History of Poliical Thought: Plato to Marx whereas for Kant, autonomy was possible anly through the peace ensured by cosmopotitan political organization. Kant agreed with Leibniz about the existence of a providential order behind the apparent random natural chaos, but disagreed with Leibniz that cosmic harmony expressed divine will, Leibniz’s divinely ordained harmony was temporal while Kant believed that cosmopolitan harmony could be attained by free human activity through a long and antagonistic struggle. Interestingly, Kant’s successor Hegel also saw history as a description of the antagonistic but provielentially progressive emergence of a rational and self-legislative world order, but did not share Kant’s optimism of a cosmopolitan world order. Marx shared Kant's belief that history was driven forward by paradaxes and contradictions, but not his concern of rights and civil society. NOTION OF PERPETUAL PEACE AND COSMOPOLITANISM Inspired by Rousseau’s emphasis on the dignity of the human be ‘The people had rights but did not owe any duty to the sovereign. According to Kant it was sovereign who had duties towards e | = z administered only in a state without prejudice to rank and privilege, Which was a union of human beings. Laws wereltheconditionsibylwhich the will of one particular individual would be harmonized and united with the will of others within the framework of a general law whose basis was freedom. Only ina epublican state wonld all human begs ‘be free/equal/ independent and/autonomous. “A constitution”, according ta Kant, was “where the subject is not a citizen, and which is therefore not republican, it is the simplest thing in the world to go to war ... reason as the highest legislative moral power, absolutely condemns war as a test of rights” (Kant 1970: 178). For Kant, morality and self-determination were the same thing and person acted on the basis of categorical imperative which impliedfrumanuel Kant 279 acceptance of general principles which one recognized within oneself and ‘was not self-contradictory and was universally applicable. This framework allowed Kant to make a synthesis between individual’s own moral will and the universal law. Action followed a philosophy of right which allowed the freedom of existence of an individual while allowing all athers to exist equally on the basis of a universal law. condemed erly and were united for the purpose of legislation, and thereby constituted a belonged to them by right. These attributes were-constitutional freedom, ‘civilvequalityrandpotitillsindependence, Kant did not dwell into the ‘ways and means of achieving a republican constitution, but merely indicated a set of absolutely valid principles for conflict resolution, ‘The overall optimism of the enlightenment, and the rise of republicanism and constitutional liberalism convinced Kast that pexpetual peace can be envisioned within the plurality of mation states. Maral practical neasan within ws pronounces the following iresiatible velo: there shall be no war, either between individual human beings fn the slate of nature, or between separate states, which although {ntemally law-govemed, sil lives ina lawless condition in their external relationships with one another Fer, war is mol the way in which anyone should. pursue their rights... I can indeed be sald that this task of establisting # universal and lasting peace is not just a part of the theory of right within the limile of pure reason, but its entive purpose (Kant sbid. 17) ‘The general perception in the eighteenth century was that the transition from monarchical to republican institutions would eclipse wars, and herald in an era of peace and moderation. “Kant and the other liberals were essentially correct about the benefits of demacracy. Peace is moze likely when societies have adopted nan-violent means of conflict resolution, executive authority is constrained by a system of checks and balances, and intertwined commercial interests make conflict uneconomical There has been a dramatic increase in the number of democracies since World War Il ... . The pacific efforts of interdependence provide more reason than ever, therefore, to believe that Hobbesian anarchy is being reconstructed to zeflect liberal values’ (Russet 1993).280 A History of Poliical Thought: Plato to Marx Kant believed that the history of human race was a progress towards 4 perfect political constitution, and considered the republican constitution as the perfect one. He asserted that there was a reason to believe that the natural process supported the ultimate goal of perpetual peace and explained this with reference to the idea of unsocial sociability of human beings, ‘meaning that the personality of human beings was that of a split personality. They could not live with one another and could also not do without one another. In earlier times, human beings spread over the entire surface of the earth to escape others, but the necessities af existence led them to develop trade and commerce and the latter two in han brings people together. In the same process, he was convinced that nations would be brought together making the dream of perpetual peace a reality. He applied the categorical imperative to the relations of states and rejected any action ‘or policy that would make peace among nations impossible. Like individuals, He based the right to a universal peaceful union of all nations on the juridical principle of legal justice, namely that all people have a right to associate with one another as they originally share the entire soil of earth. He also insisted that even though perpetual peace may not be a reality in the near future, but must be worked for, as one’s duty and states that “the universal and lasting establishment of peace constitutes not merely a part, but the whole final purpose and end of the science of right as viewed within the limits of reason” (Kant ibid: 69). ‘of social evalustion. the sovereignty ; inipeacticalyeconomically. Reiterating Montesquieu, he highlighted the value of interstate commerce as paving the way eventually for an international government, as commercial activity and material prosperity were a panacea against war.fmmanuel Kant 281 in the background of luis indignation at the separate treaty of Basel in which Prussia ceded France territory west of the Rhine so that it could partition Poland along with Russia and Austria. Kantdeseribed his proposed ‘peace programme with reference to two steps—the preliminary articles ‘As far as the first was concerned, he stipulated the following: 1. No secret treaty of peace shall be held valid in which there was tacitly reserved matter for a future war. 2 No independent states, large or small, shall come under the dominion of another state by inheritance, exchange, purchase, of donation, ‘3. Standing Armies shall in time be totally abolished. 4. National debts shall not be contracted with a view to the external friction of states. '5. No state shall by force interfere with the constitution or governunent ‘of another state. ‘6. No state shall, during war, permit such acts of hostility which ‘would make mutual conficlence in the subsequent peace impossible: sich aretha employs of aca, beach oF capitulo, and int to treason in the opposing state. He added that a tind no right to wage a punitive war because just punishment smust come from a superior authority and not an equal. Like ‘Bentham, Kant emphasized that justice must be delivered publicly and open to scrutiny. ii) The law of nations shall be founded on a Federation of Free states. IF all ware"have'to’beended forever, then there must be a league of peace and if more republics ‘associate with one another the more practical a federation becomes. Eventually, the conflict between the individual's obligation qua citizen to obey the law of the state and his obligation qua man to obey the cosmopolitan law will cease282 A History of Political Thought: Plato to Marx as the member states of the universal confederation cease to contravene the cosmopolitan law. ‘ASairesult/ithelin oral: responsibilities lofreitizen and man will coincide and citizenship would assume a universal status. Kant’s argument for perpetual peace rested on the assumption that human beings have the singular potential for reasoning and moral development. But Kant did not advocate world government as centralized authority was detrimental to individual freedom. ‘thinkers. Herbert George Wells (1866-1946), writing in the early days of World War |, believed that this War would be the war to end all wars on the grounds that once popular government replaces Prussian militarism and autocracy there would be no war among European nations. 11909, ‘Sir Ralph Norman Angell (1872-1967) reiterating Kant pointed out that war had: become vinprofitable due’ to: modern’ commerce even’ for the technically: victorious country and an interdependent European community basecl on economic self interest then political wars would cease in the same way as religious wars had stopped in the West (Angell 1910: 335). Angell rationalist, believed that war could be eliminated through the growth and progressive application of human reason to international affairs. He pointed out that once human beings were convinced that war ‘was mutually destructive with no winners, disarmament and peace would become possible, However, Angell failed to realize that most of the modern wars, including the first World War, were not necessarily due to economic reasons. Schumpeter argued that modern states were inherently peaceful and opposed conquest due to capitalism’s success in ensuring prosperity. Clarence Streit in Linton Now (1938) proposed a federal union of democratic states modelled after the US constitution on the grounds that trade and peaceable ways of democracy would keep this union perpetual. It included common citizenship, a defense force, a tariff-free market, and a common Women and Family but did not mention the reasons for not regarding them otherwise. He merely assumed that reason dictated that men transmit their tithes of nobility to their wives and not the other way around. He-defined a citizen as one who was free, independent andfmmanuel Kant 283 mt regarded sex as incompatible to human dignity and worth. It was an animal function even in monogamous relationships, and had nothing to do with moral love. Sexual gratification was a form of exploitation. He iegatted imen'to ibeinahurally superior’ to: women’ and ‘did’not espouse sexual equality: In'certain places, he regarded men and -andliked'to please’and’wereinot rational. Moreover, it would be foolish to grant them political power or authority for Jealous and domineering. KANT AND HEGEL If the contemporary reality was not based on reason, then the reality had lo be altered. This general framework of German political theory was given a highly sophisticated personal touch by Hegel with his hvofold argument that, first, history was not merely a chronological table, but had a meaning which was both profound and purposeful, the particularly important thing for him being to recreate Greek harmony within the context of modern society based on individualism and reason. Second, as Macintyre (1971: 199) observed, it was Hegel who was the first thinker to have understood very clearly that questions concerning, morality changed