∗ 𝐼𝑛 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠, 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 (𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑[𝑟⁄𝑠])

𝑜𝑟 (𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒 [𝑟𝑝𝑚])

𝜋
1[𝑟𝑝𝑚] = [𝑟⁄𝑠]
30

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 [𝑟⁄𝑠] < [𝑟𝑝𝑚]

∗ 𝐼𝑛 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠, 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠[𝑊 ]
𝑂𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑑, 𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠[𝑊 ]
𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝐻𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟[ℎ𝑝]
1[ℎ𝑝] = 746[𝑊 ]
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 [ℎ𝑝] < [𝑊 ]
∗ 𝐼𝑡 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 𝑏𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑑
𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠:
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 [𝑊 ] = 𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 [𝑁. 𝑚] × 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 [𝑟⁄𝑠]
∗ 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠:
−𝐷𝐶 𝑀𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠 → 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟[𝑊 ] = 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡[𝐴] × 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒[𝑉 ]
−𝐴𝐶 𝑀𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠 − 1𝜃 (𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒) →
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟[𝑊 ] = 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡[𝐴] × 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒[𝑉 ] × 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
−𝐴𝐶 𝑀𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠 − 3𝜃 →
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟[𝑊 ] = √3 × 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡[𝐴] × 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒[𝑉 ] × 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟[𝑊 ] = 3 × 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡[𝐴] × 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒[𝑉 ] × 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
Magnetic field
∗ The total flux in the core due to the current i in the winding is
𝑁𝑖𝐴
∅ = BA = μ ,𝑁 → 𝑁𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠, 𝑖 → 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙, 𝐴 → 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 −
𝐿𝑐
𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑, 𝐿𝑐 → 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑔 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑠, 𝜇 →
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦

Where ∅(magnatic field)in Webers[Web], B(magnatic field dencity)in

Webers per square meter[Web/𝑚2 ]
𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑎𝑠 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑙𝑎[𝑇]
*right hand rule:-four fingers in the direction of the current
-the thumb in the direction of the magnatic field
-palm of the hand in the direction of the force
In the magnetic circuit:
∗ The reluctance of a magnetic circuit is the counterpart of electrical resistance, and
its units are ampere − turns per weber

∅ = 𝐵𝐴 = 𝜇𝐻𝐴 ℱ → 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡

𝑁𝑖 𝜇𝐴
∅ = 𝜇 ( ) 𝐴 = 𝑁𝑖 ( ) ∅ → 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑐 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡, ℜ → 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝐿𝑐 𝐿𝑐
𝜇𝐴 ℱ
∅ = ℱ( ) = 𝐻 → 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝐿𝑐 ℜ

𝐵 = 𝜇𝐻
Linear DC Machine
∗ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑎 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎
𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑:
𝐹 = 𝑖 (𝐿 × 𝐵) → 𝐹 = 𝑖𝐿𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐹 → 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒, 𝑖 → 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒, 𝐵 → 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

𝐿 → 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒. 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐿 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤

∗ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑎 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑎

𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑:
𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 = (𝑣 × 𝐵). 𝐿 → 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 = (𝑉𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 )𝐿 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 → 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒, 𝑣 → 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒, 𝐵
→ 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟, 𝐿 → 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑

∗ 𝐾𝑖𝑟𝑐ℎℎ𝑜𝑓𝑓 ′ 𝑠 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑤 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑒

𝑉𝐵 − 𝑖𝑅 − 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 0 → 𝑉𝐵 = 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 + 𝑖𝑅 = 0
*Newton’s law for the bar across the tracks:
𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎
Linear DC Machine cases:
First case: (Ideal motor)

𝑉𝐵
1. 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑖 = (𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡)
𝑅
2. 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑟 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑒
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 𝑖𝐿𝐵
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 ∆𝑣
3. The bar accelerates due to the induced force as a = =
𝑚 ∆𝑡
4. The bar moves to the right, producing an induced voltage 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 𝑣𝐵𝐿 𝑎𝑠 𝑖𝑡
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑠 𝑢𝑝
5. This induced voltage reduces the current flow 𝑖 = (𝑣𝐵 − 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 ↑)/𝑅
6. The induced force is thus decreased 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 = i ↓ LB until eventually 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 0 At that
𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡. 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 𝑉𝐵 , i = 0, and the bar moves at a constant no − load speed
𝑣𝑠𝑠 = 𝑉𝐵 ⁄𝐵𝐿 where a = 0 (note that 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 0)
Second case: (real case of DC motor)

∗ 𝑖𝑓 𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑝𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑂𝑃𝑃𝑂𝑆𝐼𝑇𝐸 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = −𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑒:
1. The bar decelerates due to the load force as a = 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 /𝑚 = ∆𝑣/∆𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 < 0
𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 < 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑
2. The effect of this net force will reduce 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 𝑣 ↓ 𝐵𝐿 𝑎𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑠 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛
3. This induced voltage increases the current flow i = (𝑉𝐵 − 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 ↓)/𝑅
4. The induced force is thus increased F = i ↑ LB until |𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 | = |𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 | 𝑎𝑡 𝑎 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑣

5. An amount of electric power equal to 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑖 is now being converted to mechanical

power equal to 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑣, and the machine is acting as a motor.
Third case:

∗ If a force 𝐹𝑎𝑝𝑝 is applied to the bar in the SAME direction of motion, hence
the net force is 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐹𝑎𝑝𝑝 and the following events occur:
1. The bar acelerates due to the load force as a = 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 /𝑚 = ∆𝑣/∆𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 > 0
2. The effect of this net force will increase 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 𝑣 ↑ 𝐵𝐿 𝑎𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑠 𝑢𝑝
3. This induced voltage reverses the direction of the current flow i = (𝑉𝐵 − 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 ↑)/𝑅
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑉𝐵 < 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 )
4. The induced force is thus reverses its direction due to the reversed current

−𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 = −𝑖𝐿𝐵 𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑙 |𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 | = |𝐹𝑎𝑝𝑝 |. 𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐹𝑎𝑝𝑝 − 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑒

5. An amount of mechanical power equal to 𝐹𝑎𝑝𝑝 𝑣 is now being converted To electric power equal to

𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑖, and the machine is acting as a generator.

DC Machines-simple rotating loop

∗ If the rotor of this machine is rotated, a voltage will be induced in the wire loop.
∗ To determine the total voltage 𝑒𝑡𝑜𝑡 on the loop, we need to examine each segment
of the loop separately and sum all the resulting voltages. The voltage
on each segment is given by
 𝒗𝑩𝑳 𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒐 𝒑𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆
𝒆𝒃𝒂 = (𝒗 × 𝑩). 𝑳 = { ….(1)
𝟎 𝒃𝒆𝒚𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝒆𝒅𝒈𝒆𝒔
𝒆𝒄𝒃 = 𝟎, 𝒃𝒆𝒄𝒂𝒖𝒔𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒄𝒐𝒔 …..(2)
𝒗𝑩𝑳 𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆
𝒆𝒅𝒄 = (𝒗 × 𝑩). 𝑳 = { ….(3)
𝟎 𝒃𝒆𝒚𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝒆𝒅𝒈𝒆𝒔
𝒆𝒂𝒅 = 𝟎, 𝒃𝒆𝒄𝒂𝒖𝒔𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒄𝒐𝒔 …..(4)
𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒐𝒐𝒑 𝒆𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝒊𝒔 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒃𝒚:
𝒆𝒊𝒏𝒅 = 𝒆𝒃𝒂 + 𝒆𝒄𝒃 + 𝒆𝒅𝒄 + 𝒆𝒂𝒅
𝟐𝒗𝑩𝑳 𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔
𝒆𝒊𝒏𝒅 = { ……(5)
𝟎 𝒃𝒆𝒚𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝒆𝒅𝒈𝒆𝒔

𝑮𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒗 = 𝒓𝝎, ∅ = 𝑨𝒑 𝑩, 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝑨𝒑 = 𝝅𝒓𝑳, 𝒂𝒏

𝒂𝒍𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒆𝒙𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒄𝒂𝒏 𝒃𝒆 𝒐𝒃𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅.
𝟐𝒓𝝎𝑩𝑳 𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔
𝒆𝒊𝒏𝒅 = {
𝟎 𝒃𝒆𝒚𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝒆𝒅𝒈𝒆𝒔
𝟐
𝑨 𝑩𝝎 𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔
𝒆𝒊𝒏𝒅 = {𝝅 𝒑
𝟎 𝒃𝒆𝒚𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝒆𝒅𝒈𝒆𝒔
𝟐
∅𝝎 𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔
𝒆𝒊𝒏𝒅 = { 𝝅 …….(6)
𝟎 𝒃𝒆𝒚𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝒆𝒅𝒈𝒆𝒔
𝑽𝑩
-This is for single loop (𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒓𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝝎 = 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝑽𝑩 = 𝒆𝒊𝒏𝒅 )
𝟐𝒓𝑳𝑩
∗ 𝑺𝒖𝒑𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒆 𝒂 𝒃𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒚 𝒊𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒏𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒂𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒉𝒐𝒘 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒒𝒖𝒆 𝒊𝒔
𝒅𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒅𝒆 𝒊𝒕.(P11 in slides)

𝑭𝒂𝒃 = 𝒊(𝑳 × 𝑩) = 𝒊𝑳𝑩 (𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒕𝒐 𝒅𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏)…(7)

𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒒𝒖𝒆 𝒐𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒄𝒂𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝒊𝒔
𝝉𝒂𝒃 = 𝒓𝑭𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 = 𝒓(𝒊𝑳𝑩)𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟗𝟎° = 𝒓𝒊𝑳𝑩 𝑪𝑪𝑾….(8)
𝑭𝒃𝒄 = 𝒊(𝑳 × 𝑩) = 𝟎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝑳 𝒊𝒔 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒍 𝒕𝒐 𝑩….(9)
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝝉𝒃𝒄 = 𝟎 … . . (𝟏𝟎)
𝑭𝒄𝒅 = 𝒊(𝑳 × 𝑩) = 𝒊𝑳𝑩 (𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒕𝒐 𝒅𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏) ….(11)
𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒒𝒖𝒆 𝒐𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒄𝒂𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝒊𝒔
𝝉𝒄𝒅 = 𝒓𝑭𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 = 𝒓(𝒊𝑳𝑩)𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟗𝟎° = 𝒓𝒊𝑳𝑩 𝑪𝑪𝑾….(12)
𝑭𝒅𝒂 = 𝒊(𝑳 × 𝑩) = 𝟎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝑳 𝒊𝒔 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒍 𝒕𝒐 𝑩….(13)
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝝉𝒅𝒂 = 𝟎 … . . (𝟏𝟒)
∗ 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒒𝒖𝒆 𝒐𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒐𝒐𝒑 𝒊𝒔 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒃𝒚
𝝉𝒊𝒏𝒅 = 𝝉𝒂𝒃 + 𝝉𝒃𝒄 + 𝝉𝒄𝒅 + 𝝉𝒅𝒂
𝟐𝒓𝒊𝑳𝑩 𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔
𝝉𝒊𝒏𝒅 = { ….(15)
𝟎 𝒃𝒆𝒚𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝒆𝒅𝒈𝒆𝒔
𝑩𝒚 𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑨𝒑 ≈ 𝝅𝒓𝑳 𝒂𝒏𝒅 ∅ = 𝑨𝒑 𝑩
𝟐
∅𝒊 𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔
𝝉𝒊𝒏𝒅 = {𝝅 ….(16), 𝑷 = 𝝉𝝎
𝟎 𝒃𝒆𝒚𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝒆𝒅𝒈𝒆𝒔
 𝟐
𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝒊𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 𝒍𝒐𝒐𝒑 𝒊𝒇 𝒊𝒕′ 𝒔 𝒎𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝒘𝒊𝒍𝒍 𝒃𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒂𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒐𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕(𝑲)
𝝅

Power flow and losses

∗ 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒔 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒂𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅 𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈𝒔 𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒃𝒚:
𝑨𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔: 𝑷𝑨 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑨 𝑹𝑨
𝑾𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝑷𝑨 → 𝒂𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔, 𝑰𝑨 → 𝒂𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕, 𝑹𝑨 → 𝒂𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆

𝑭𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔: 𝑷𝑭 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑭 𝑹𝑭
𝑾𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝑷𝑭 → 𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅 𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒊𝒕 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔, 𝑰𝑭 → 𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕, 𝑹𝑭 → 𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆

∗ 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒃𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒉 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒔 𝒊𝒕 𝒊𝒔 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒃𝒚 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏:

𝑷𝑩𝑫 = 𝑽𝑩𝑫 𝑰𝑨
𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝑷𝑩𝑫 → 𝒃𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒉 𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒑 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔, 𝑽𝑩𝑫 → 𝒃𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒉 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒑, 𝑰𝑨 → 𝒂𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕

Page(42 in slides)

𝑷𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒗 = 𝝉𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝝎𝒎
𝑷𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒗 = 𝑬𝑨 𝑰𝑨
∗ 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝑫𝑪 𝒎𝒂𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒊𝒔 𝒅𝒆𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕
𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% 𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑷𝒊𝒏 𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕 + 𝑷𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔
𝑷𝒊𝒏 − 𝑷𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔
𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑷𝒊𝒏
DC Machines-Motors
∗ 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒓𝒆𝒈𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 (𝑺𝑹)𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝒎𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒊𝒔 𝒅𝒆𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚
𝝎𝒏𝒍 − 𝝎𝒇𝒍
𝑺𝑹 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% (𝒏𝒍 → 𝒏𝒐 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅, 𝒇𝒍 → 𝒇𝒖𝒍𝒍 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅)
𝝎𝒇𝒍
𝒏𝒏𝒍 − 𝒏𝒇𝒍
𝑺𝑹 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝒏𝒇𝒍

𝑬𝑨 𝒏
∗ 𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒓 → =
𝑬𝑨𝟎 𝒏𝟎
#Changing the Field Resistor Control Method:
𝟏. 𝑰𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑹𝑭 𝒄𝒂𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒔 𝑰𝑭 = (𝑽𝑭 ⁄𝑹𝑭 ↑) 𝒕𝒐 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆.
𝟐. 𝑫𝒆𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑰𝑭 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒔 ∅
𝟑. 𝑫𝒆𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 ∅ 𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒔 𝑬𝑨 = (𝑲∅ ↓ 𝝎).
𝟒. 𝑫𝒆𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑬𝑨 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒔 𝑰𝑨 = ((𝑽𝑻 − 𝑬𝑨 ↓)⁄𝑹𝑨 )
𝟓. 𝑰𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑰𝑨 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝝉𝒊𝒏𝒅 = (𝑲∅ ↓ 𝑰𝑨 ↑), 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆
𝒊𝒏 𝑰𝑨 𝒅𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒙.
𝟔. 𝑰𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝝉𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝒎𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒔 𝝉𝒊𝒏𝒅 > 𝝉𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 , 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝝎 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒔
𝟕. 𝑰𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝝎 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒔 𝑬𝑨 = (𝑲∅𝝎 ↑) 𝒂𝒈𝒂𝒊𝒏.
𝟖. 𝑰𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑬𝑨 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒔 𝑰𝑨
𝟗. 𝑫𝒆𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑰𝑨 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒔 𝝉𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝒖𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒍𝒍 𝝉𝒊𝒏𝒅 = 𝝉𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝒂𝒕 𝒂 𝒉𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒆𝒓
𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝝎
#Changing the Armature Voltage Control Method
𝟏. 𝑰𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑽𝑻 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒔 𝑰𝑨 = ((𝑽𝑻 ↑ −𝑬𝑨 )⁄𝑹𝑨 )
𝟐. 𝑰𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑰𝑨 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒔 𝝉𝒊𝒏𝒅 = (𝑲∅𝑰𝑨 ↑)
𝟑. 𝑰𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝝉𝒊𝒏𝒅 , 𝒎𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒔 𝝉𝒊𝒏𝒅 > 𝝉𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝝎 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒔
𝟒. 𝑰𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝝎 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒔 𝑬𝑨 = (𝑲∅𝝎 ↑)
𝟓. 𝑰𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑬𝑨 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒔 𝑰𝑨 = ((𝑽𝑻 − 𝑬𝑨 ↑)⁄𝑹𝑨 )
𝟔. 𝑫𝒆𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑰𝑨 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒔 𝝉𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝒖𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒍 𝝉𝒊𝒏𝒅 = 𝝉𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝒂𝒕 𝒂 𝒉𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝝎
#Inserting a Resistor in Series with the Armature Circuit
𝟏. 𝑰𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑹𝑨 𝒅𝒊𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒔 𝑰𝑨 = ((𝑽𝑻 − 𝑬𝑨 )⁄𝑹𝑨 ↑)
𝟐. 𝑫𝒆𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑰𝑨 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒔 𝝉𝒊𝒏𝒅 = (𝑲∅𝑰𝑨 ↓)
𝟑. 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝝉𝒊𝒏𝒅 , 𝒎𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒔 𝝉𝒊𝒏𝒅 < 𝝉𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝝎 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒔
𝟒. 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝝎 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒔 𝑬𝑨 = (𝑲∅𝝎 ↓)
𝟓. 𝑫𝒆𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑬𝑨 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒔 𝑰𝑨 = ((𝑽𝑻 − 𝑬𝑨 ↓)⁄𝑹𝑨 )
𝟔. 𝑰𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑰𝑨 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒔 𝝉𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝒖𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒍 𝝉𝒊𝒏𝒅 = 𝝉𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝒂𝒕 𝒂 𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝝎
𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝑫𝑪 𝒎𝒂𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒊𝒕𝒔 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅
𝒆𝒙𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒓𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒕𝒆 𝒊𝒔 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒃𝒚
𝒆𝑨 = 𝒌′ ∅𝒏
𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒉𝒊𝒑 𝒃𝒆𝒕𝒘𝒆𝒆𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒂𝒕 𝒕𝒘𝒐 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒖𝒔
𝑬𝑨𝟐 𝑲′ ∅𝒏𝟐 𝑬𝑨𝟐
= ′ → 𝒏𝟐 = 𝒏
𝑬𝑨𝟏 𝑲 ∅𝒏𝟏 𝑬𝑨𝟏 𝟏
𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒒𝒖𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒂𝒏𝒚 𝒐𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝒄𝒂𝒏 𝒃𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎
𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕 𝑷𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒗 = 𝑬𝑨 𝑰𝑨 = 𝝉𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝝎 →
𝑬𝑨 𝑰𝑨
𝝉𝒊𝒏𝒅 =
𝝎
𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒔𝒉𝒖𝒏𝒕 𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒊𝒔
ℱ𝑨𝑹
𝑰∗ 𝑭 = 𝑰𝑭 − , ℱ𝑨𝑹 [𝑨. 𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒏𝒔]
𝑵𝑭
#Transformers:
*Ideal transformer

∗ 𝐹𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑎𝑦 ′ 𝑠 𝑙𝑎𝑤 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

∆Φ𝐵
𝜀 = −𝑁
∆𝑡
𝜀: 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑚𝑓, 𝑁: 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝𝑠, ∆Φ/∆t: 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑧′𝑠 𝑙𝑎𝑤

∗ 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑧′𝑠 𝐿𝑎𝑤
∗ 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠
𝑁𝑃 𝑖𝑆
ℱ𝑃 = Φℛ = ℱ𝑆 → 𝑁𝑃 𝑖𝑃 = 𝑁𝑆 𝑖𝑆 → = =𝑎
𝑁𝑆 𝑖𝑃
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝒂 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒏𝒔 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐

∗ 𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑎𝑦 ′ 𝑠 𝑙𝑎𝑤𝑠

𝑉 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑁 (𝑉 ∝ 𝑁)
𝑉𝑃 𝑁𝑃
= =𝑎
𝑉𝑆 𝑁𝑆
∗ 𝑉𝑃 𝑖𝑃 = 𝑉𝑆 𝑖𝑆 → 𝑆𝑖𝑛 = 𝑆𝑜𝑢𝑡
∗ 𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝑃 𝑖𝑃 (𝜃𝑃 ), ∗ 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉𝑆 𝑖𝑆 (𝜃𝑆 )
∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑉𝑝 𝑖𝑝 = 𝑉𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑎𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑
𝑏𝑦 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝜃𝑝 = 𝜃𝑠

∗ The primary and secondary windings of an ideal transformer have the same
power factor then 𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑄𝑖𝑛 = 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡
#𝐼𝑓 𝑁𝑃 < 𝑁𝑆 → 𝑉𝑃 < 𝑉𝑆 → 𝑖𝑃 > 𝑖𝑆 (𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝 − 𝑢𝑝 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟)
#𝐼𝑓 𝑁𝑃 > 𝑁𝑆 → 𝑉𝑃 > 𝑉𝑆 → 𝑖𝑃 < 𝑖𝑆 (𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝 − 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟)
∗ The impedance of a device or an element is defined as the ratio of the phasor
Voltage across it to the phasor current flowing through it
𝑉𝐿
𝑍𝐿 =
𝐼𝐿
𝑉𝑃 𝑎𝑉𝑆 𝑉𝑆
∗ 𝑍′𝐿 = = = 𝑎2
𝐼𝑃 𝐼𝑆 ⁄𝑎 𝐼𝑆
→ 𝑍 ′ 𝐿 = 𝑎2 𝑍𝐿

𝑉
∗ 𝐼𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 = ,𝑉 = 𝐼𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑍𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 , 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = (𝐼𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 )2 𝑅𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 , 𝑍𝑒𝑞 = 𝑍𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 + 𝑍 ′ 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑍𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 + 𝑍𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

#Operation of real transformer

#The questions about this case will be concept questions

∗ The flux in the primary coil of the transformer can thus be divided into two components: a mutual
flux, which remains in the core and links both windings, and a small leakage flux, which passes
through the primary winding but returns through the air, bypassing the secondary winding:

̅ 𝑃 = Φ𝑀 + Φ𝐿𝑃
Φ
̅ 𝑃 : 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥, Φ𝑀 : 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑠,
Φ

Φ𝐿𝑃 : 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥

∗ There is a similar division of flux in the secondary winding between mutual flux and leakage flux which
passes through the secondary winding but returns through the air, by passing the primary winding:

̅ 𝑆 = Φ𝑀 + Φ𝐿𝑆
Φ
̅ 𝑆 : 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥, Φ𝑀 : 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑠,
Φ
Φ𝐿𝑆 : 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥

∗ Since in a well designed transformer Φ𝑀 ≫ Φ𝐿𝑃 and Φ𝑀 ≫ Φ𝐿𝑆 the

ratio of the total voltage on the primary of a transformer to the total voltage on
the secondary of a transformer is approximately
∗ The smaller the leakage fluxes of the transformer are, the closer the total transformer voltage
ratio approximates that of the ideal transformer
𝑣𝑃 (𝑡) 𝑁𝑃
= =𝑎
𝑣𝑆 (𝑡) 𝑁𝑆
∗ 𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑛 − 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡:
∘ The conductance of the core − loss resistor is given by
1
𝐺𝑐 =
𝑅𝑐
∘ The susceptance of the magnetizing inductor is given by
1
𝐵𝑀 =
𝑋𝑀
∘ Since these two elements are in parallel, their admittances add, and the total
excitation admittance is
𝑌𝐸 = 𝐺𝑐 − 𝑗𝐵𝑀
1 1
𝑌𝐸 = −𝑗
𝑅𝑐 𝑋𝑀
∘ the following relations can be obtained
𝐼𝑜𝑐
|𝑌𝐸 | =
𝑉𝑜𝑐
𝑃𝑂𝐶 −1
𝑃𝑂𝐶
𝑃𝐹 = cos(𝜃) = ⇒ 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( )
𝑉𝑂𝐶 𝐼𝑂𝐶 𝑉𝑂𝐶 𝐼𝑂𝐶
𝐼𝑜𝑐 𝐼𝑜𝑐
𝑌𝐸 = ∠ − 𝜃 ⇒ 𝑌𝐸 = ∠ − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (𝑃𝐹 )
𝑉𝑜𝑐 𝑉𝑜𝑐
1 1
𝑅𝑐 = =
𝐺𝑐 𝑌𝐸 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃)
1 1
𝑋𝑀 = =
𝐵𝑀 𝑌𝐸 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃)
∗ 𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡 − 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡:

∘ The magnitude of the series impedances referred to the primary side of the
transformer is
𝑉𝑠𝑐
|𝑍𝑆𝐸 | =
𝐼𝑠𝑐
∘ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑑
𝑃𝑆𝐶 𝑃𝑆𝐶
𝑃𝐹 = cos(𝜃) = ⇒ 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 ( )
𝑉𝑆𝐶 𝐼𝑆𝐶 𝑉𝑆𝐶 𝐼𝑆𝐶
𝑉𝑆𝐶 ∠0 𝑉𝑆𝐶
𝑍𝑆𝐸 = = ∠𝜃
𝐼𝑆𝐶 ∠ − 𝜃 𝐼𝑆𝐶
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑍𝑆𝐸 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃)
𝑋𝑒𝑞 = 𝑍𝑆𝐸 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃)
𝑍𝑆𝐸 = 𝑅𝑒𝑞 + 𝑗𝑋𝑒𝑞 = (𝑅𝑃 + 𝑎2 𝑅𝑆 ) + 𝑗(𝑋𝑃 + 𝑎2 𝑋𝑆 )
∗ 𝐷𝐶 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡:

 Using Ohm’s law and measurements of voltage and current, the internal
resistor of the winding can be determined as

R=V/I
 It should be noted that this test can be done on both sides of the
transformer
 Moreover, the DC power supply should be adjusted so that maximum DC
current is not exceeded.
 Note that the coil can handle a DC current that is certainly less than the
rated AC current.

∗ 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒈𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 (𝑽𝑹)

𝑽𝑺.𝒏𝒍 − 𝑽𝑺.𝒇𝒍
𝑽𝑹 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑽𝑺.𝒇𝒍
𝑽𝑷 ⁄𝒂 − 𝑽𝑺.𝒇𝒍
𝑽𝑹 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑽𝑺.𝒇𝒍
𝑽𝑷
∘ = 𝑽𝑺 + 𝑹𝒆𝒒 𝑰𝑺 + 𝒋𝑿𝒆𝒒 𝑰𝑺
𝒂
∗ 𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚
Transformers are also compared and judged on their efficiencies. The efficiency of
a device is defined by the equation
𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕
𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑷𝒊𝒏
𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕
𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕 + 𝑷𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔
𝑷𝒊𝒏 − 𝑷𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔
𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑷𝒊𝒏
To calculate the efficiency of a transformer at a given load, just add the losses the
equation of efficiency such that
𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝑽𝑺 𝑰𝑺 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽𝑺
𝑽𝑺 𝑰𝑺 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽𝑺
𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑷𝑪𝒖 + 𝑷𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒆 + 𝑽𝑺 𝑰𝑺 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽𝑺
𝑷𝑪𝒖 = (𝑰𝑺 )𝟐 𝑹𝒆𝒒

(𝑽𝑷 ⁄𝒂)𝟐
𝑷𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒆 =
𝑹𝑪
∗ 𝐼𝑛 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠, 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 (𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 [𝑟⁄𝑠])
𝑜𝑟 (𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒 [𝑟𝑝𝑚])
𝜋
1[𝑟𝑝𝑚] = 30 [𝑟⁄𝑠]

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 [𝑟⁄𝑠] < [𝑟𝑝𝑚]

∗ 𝐼𝑛 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠, 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠[𝑊 ]
𝑂𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑑, 𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠[𝑊 ]
𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝐻𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 [ℎ𝑝]
1[ℎ𝑝] = 746[𝑊 ]
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 [ℎ𝑝] < [𝑊 ]
∗ 𝐼𝑡 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 𝑏𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑑
𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠:
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 [𝑊 ] = 𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 [𝑁. 𝑚] × 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 [𝑟⁄𝑠]
∗ 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠:
−𝐷𝐶 𝑀𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠 → 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟[𝑊 ] = 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡[𝐴] × 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒[𝑉]
−𝐴𝐶 𝑀𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠 − 1𝜃 (𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒) →
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟[𝑊 ] = 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡[𝐴] × 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒[𝑉] × 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
−𝐴𝐶 𝑀𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠 − 3𝜃 →
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟[𝑊 ] = √3 × 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 [𝐴] × 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 [𝑉] × 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟[𝑊 ] = 3 × 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡[𝐴] × 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒[𝑉 ] × 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
Magnetic field
∗ The total flux in the core due to the current i in the winding is
𝑁𝑖𝐴
∅ = BA = μ ,𝑁 → 𝑁𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠, 𝑖 → 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙, 𝐴 → 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 −
𝐿𝑐
𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑, 𝐿𝑐 → 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑔 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑠, 𝜇 →
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦

Where ∅(magnatic field)in Webers[Web], B(magnatic field dencity)in

Webers per square meter[Web/𝑚2 ]
𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑎𝑠 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑙𝑎[𝑇]
*right hand rule:-four fingers in the direction of the current
-the thumb in the direction of the magnatic field
-palm of the hand in the direction of the force
In the magnetic circuit:
∗ The reluctance of a magnetic circuit is the counterpart of electrical resistance, and
its units are ampere − turns per weber

∅ = 𝐵𝐴 = 𝜇𝐻𝐴 ℱ → 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡

𝑁𝑖 𝜇𝐴
∅ = 𝜇 ( 𝐿 ) 𝐴 = 𝑁𝑖 ( 𝐿 ) ∅ → 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑐 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡, ℜ → 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑐 𝑐

𝜇𝐴 ℱ
∅= ℱ( )= 𝐻 → 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝐿𝑐 ℜ

𝐵 = 𝜇𝐻
Linear DC Machine
∗ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑎 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎
𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑:
𝐹 = 𝑖(𝐿 × 𝐵) → 𝐹 = 𝑖𝐿𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐹 → 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒, 𝑖 → 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒, 𝐵 → 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

𝐿 → 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒. 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐿 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤

∗ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑎 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑎

𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑:
𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 = (𝑣 × 𝐵). 𝐿 → 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 = (𝑉𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 )𝐿 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 → 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒, 𝑣 → 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒, 𝐵
→ 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟, 𝐿 → 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑

∗ 𝐾𝑖𝑟𝑐ℎℎ𝑜𝑓𝑓 ′ 𝑠 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑤 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑒

𝑉𝐵 − 𝑖𝑅 − 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 0 → 𝑉𝐵 = 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 + 𝑖𝑅 = 0
*Newton’s law for the bar across the tracks:
𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎
Linear DC Machine cases:
First case: (Ideal motor)

𝑉𝐵
1. 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑖 = (𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡)
𝑅
2. 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑟 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑒
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 𝑖𝐿𝐵
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 ∆𝑣
3. The bar accelerates due to the induced force as a = =
𝑚 ∆𝑡
4. The bar moves to the right, producing an induced voltage 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 𝑣𝐵𝐿 𝑎𝑠 𝑖𝑡
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑠 𝑢𝑝
5. This induced voltage reduces the current flow 𝑖 = (𝑣𝐵 − 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 ↑)/𝑅
6. The induced force is thus decreased 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 = i ↓ LB until eventually 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 0 At that
𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡. 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 𝑉𝐵 , i = 0, and the bar moves at a constant no − load speed
𝑣𝑠𝑠 = 𝑉𝐵 ⁄𝐵𝐿 where a = 0 (note that 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 0)
Second case: (real case of DC motor)

∗ 𝑖𝑓 𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑝𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑂𝑃𝑃𝑂𝑆𝐼𝑇𝐸 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = −𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑒:
1. The bar decelerates due to the load force as a = 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 /𝑚 = ∆𝑣/∆𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 < 0
𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 < 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑
2. The effect of this net force will reduce 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 𝑣 ↓ 𝐵𝐿 𝑎𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑠 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛
3. This induced voltage increases the current flow i = (𝑉𝐵 − 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 ↓)/𝑅
4. The induced force is thus increased F = i ↑ LB until |𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 | = |𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 | 𝑎𝑡 𝑎 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑣

5. An amount of electric power equal to 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑖 is now being converted to mechanical

power equal to 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑣, and the machine is acting as a motor.
Third case:

∗ If a force 𝐹𝑎𝑝𝑝 is applied to the bar in the SAME direction of motion, hence
the net force is 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐹𝑎𝑝𝑝 and the following events occur:
1. The bar acelerates due to the load force as a = 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 /𝑚 = ∆𝑣/∆𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 > 0
2. The effect of this net force will increase 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 𝑣 ↑ 𝐵𝐿 𝑎𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑠 𝑢𝑝
3. This induced voltage reverses the direction of the current flow i = (𝑉𝐵 − 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 ↑)/𝑅
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑉𝐵 < 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 )
4. The induced force is thus reverses its direction due to the reversed current

−𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 = −𝑖𝐿𝐵 𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑙 |𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 | = |𝐹𝑎𝑝𝑝 |. 𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐹𝑎𝑝𝑝 − 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑒

5. An amount of mechanical power equal to 𝐹𝑎𝑝𝑝 𝑣 is now being converted To electric power equal to

𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑖, and the machine is acting as a generator.

DC Machines-simple rotating loop

∗ If the rotor of this machine is rotated, a voltage will be induced in the wire loop.
∗ To determine the total voltage 𝑒𝑡𝑜𝑡 on the loop, we need to examine each segment
of the loop separately and sum all the resulting voltages. The voltage
on each segment is given by
 𝒗𝑩𝑳 𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒐 𝒑𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆
𝒆𝒃𝒂 = (𝒗 × 𝑩). 𝑳 = { ….(1)
𝟎 𝒃𝒆𝒚𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝒆𝒅𝒈𝒆𝒔
𝒆𝒄𝒃 = 𝟎, 𝒃𝒆𝒄𝒂𝒖𝒔𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒄𝒐𝒔 …..(2)
𝒗𝑩𝑳 𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆
𝒆𝒅𝒄 = (𝒗 × 𝑩). 𝑳 = { ….(3)
𝟎 𝒃𝒆𝒚𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝒆𝒅𝒈𝒆𝒔
𝒆𝒂𝒅 = 𝟎, 𝒃𝒆𝒄𝒂𝒖𝒔𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒄𝒐𝒔 …..(4)
𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒐𝒐𝒑 𝒆𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝒊𝒔 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒃𝒚:
𝒆𝒊𝒏𝒅 = 𝒆𝒃𝒂 + 𝒆𝒄𝒃 + 𝒆𝒅𝒄 + 𝒆𝒂𝒅
𝟐𝒗𝑩𝑳 𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔
𝒆𝒊𝒏𝒅 = { ……(5)
𝟎 𝒃𝒆𝒚𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝒆𝒅𝒈𝒆𝒔

𝑮𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒗 = 𝒓𝝎, ∅ = 𝑨𝒑 𝑩, 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝑨𝒑 = 𝝅𝒓𝑳, 𝒂𝒏

𝒂𝒍𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒆𝒙𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒄𝒂𝒏 𝒃𝒆 𝒐𝒃𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅.
𝟐𝒓𝝎𝑩𝑳 𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔
𝒆𝒊𝒏𝒅 = {
𝟎 𝒃𝒆𝒚𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝒆𝒅𝒈𝒆𝒔
𝟐
𝑨 𝑩𝝎 𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔
𝒆𝒊𝒏𝒅 = {𝝅 𝒑
𝟎 𝒃𝒆𝒚𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝒆𝒅𝒈𝒆𝒔
𝟐
∅𝝎 𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔
𝒆𝒊𝒏𝒅 = { 𝝅 …….(6)
𝟎 𝒃𝒆𝒚𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝒆𝒅𝒈𝒆𝒔
𝑽𝑩
-This is for single loop (𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒓𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝝎 = 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝑽𝑩 = 𝒆𝒊𝒏𝒅 )
𝟐𝒓𝑳𝑩
∗ 𝑺𝒖𝒑𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒆 𝒂 𝒃𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒚 𝒊𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒏𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒂𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒉𝒐𝒘 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒒𝒖𝒆 𝒊𝒔
𝒅𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒅𝒆 𝒊𝒕.(P11 in slides)

𝑭𝒂𝒃 = 𝒊(𝑳 × 𝑩) = 𝒊𝑳𝑩 (𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒕𝒐 𝒅𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏)…(7)

𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒒𝒖𝒆 𝒐𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒄𝒂𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝒊𝒔
𝝉𝒂𝒃 = 𝒓𝑭𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 = 𝒓(𝒊𝑳𝑩)𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟗𝟎° = 𝒓𝒊𝑳𝑩 𝑪𝑪𝑾….(8)
𝑭𝒃𝒄 = 𝒊(𝑳 × 𝑩) = 𝟎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝑳 𝒊𝒔 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒍 𝒕𝒐 𝑩….(9)
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝝉𝒃𝒄 = 𝟎 … . . (𝟏𝟎)
𝑭𝒄𝒅 = 𝒊(𝑳 × 𝑩) = 𝒊𝑳𝑩 (𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒕𝒐 𝒅𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏) ….(11)
𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒒𝒖𝒆 𝒐𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒄𝒂𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝒊𝒔
𝝉𝒄𝒅 = 𝒓𝑭𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 = 𝒓(𝒊𝑳𝑩)𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟗𝟎° = 𝒓𝒊𝑳𝑩 𝑪𝑪𝑾….(12)
𝑭𝒅𝒂 = 𝒊(𝑳 × 𝑩) = 𝟎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝑳 𝒊𝒔 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒍 𝒕𝒐 𝑩….(13)
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝝉𝒅𝒂 = 𝟎 … . . (𝟏𝟒)
∗ 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒒𝒖𝒆 𝒐𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒐𝒐𝒑 𝒊𝒔 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒃𝒚
𝝉𝒊𝒏𝒅 = 𝝉𝒂𝒃 + 𝝉𝒃𝒄 + 𝝉𝒄𝒅 + 𝝉𝒅𝒂
𝟐𝒓𝒊𝑳𝑩 𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔
𝝉𝒊𝒏𝒅 = { ….(15)
𝟎 𝒃𝒆𝒚𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝒆𝒅𝒈𝒆𝒔
𝑩𝒚 𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑨𝒑 ≈ 𝝅𝒓𝑳 𝒂𝒏𝒅 ∅ = 𝑨𝒑 𝑩
𝟐
∅𝒊 𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔
𝝉𝒊𝒏𝒅 = {𝝅 ….(16), 𝑷 = 𝝉𝝎
𝟎 𝒃𝒆𝒚𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝒆𝒅𝒈𝒆𝒔
 𝟐
𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝒊𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 𝒍𝒐𝒐𝒑 𝒊𝒇 𝒊𝒕′ 𝒔 𝒎𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝒘𝒊𝒍𝒍 𝒃𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒂𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒐𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕(𝑲)
𝝅

Power flow and losses

∗ 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒔 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒂𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅 𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈𝒔 𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒃𝒚:
𝑨𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔: 𝑷𝑨 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑨 𝑹𝑨
𝑾𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝑷𝑨 → 𝒂𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔, 𝑰𝑨 → 𝒂𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕, 𝑹𝑨 → 𝒂𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆

𝑭𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔: 𝑷𝑭 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑭 𝑹𝑭
𝑾𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝑷𝑭 → 𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅 𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒊𝒕 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔, 𝑰𝑭 → 𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕, 𝑹𝑭 → 𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆

∗ 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒃𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒉 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒔 𝒊𝒕 𝒊𝒔 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒃𝒚 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏:

𝑷𝑩𝑫 = 𝑽𝑩𝑫 𝑰𝑨
𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝑷𝑩𝑫 → 𝒃𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒉 𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒑 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔, 𝑽𝑩𝑫 → 𝒃𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒉 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒑, 𝑰𝑨 → 𝒂𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕

Page(42 in slides)

𝑷𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒗 = 𝝉𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝝎𝒎
𝑷𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒗 = 𝑬𝑨 𝑰𝑨
∗ 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝑫𝑪 𝒎𝒂𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒊𝒔 𝒅𝒆𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕
𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% 𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑷𝒊𝒏 𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕 + 𝑷𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔
𝑷𝒊𝒏 − 𝑷𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔
𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑷𝒊𝒏
DC Machines-Motors
∗ 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒓𝒆𝒈𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 (𝑺𝑹)𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝒎𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒊𝒔 𝒅𝒆𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚
𝝎𝒏𝒍 − 𝝎𝒇𝒍
𝑺𝑹 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% (𝒏𝒍 → 𝒏𝒐 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅, 𝒇𝒍 → 𝒇𝒖𝒍𝒍 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅)
𝝎𝒇𝒍
𝒏𝒏𝒍 − 𝒏𝒇𝒍
𝑺𝑹 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝒏𝒇𝒍

𝑬𝑨 𝒏
∗ 𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒓 → =
𝑬𝑨𝟎 𝒏𝟎
#Changing the Field Resistor Control Method:
𝟏. 𝑰𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑹𝑭 𝒄𝒂𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒔 𝑰𝑭 = (𝑽𝑭 ⁄𝑹𝑭 ↑) 𝒕𝒐 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆.
𝟐. 𝑫𝒆𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑰𝑭 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒔 ∅
𝟑. 𝑫𝒆𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 ∅ 𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒔 𝑬𝑨 = (𝑲∅ ↓ 𝝎).
𝟒. 𝑫𝒆𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑬𝑨 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒔 𝑰𝑨 = ((𝑽𝑻 − 𝑬𝑨 ↓)⁄𝑹𝑨 )
𝟓. 𝑰𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑰𝑨 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝝉𝒊𝒏𝒅 = (𝑲∅ ↓ 𝑰𝑨 ⇑), 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆
𝒊𝒏 𝑰𝑨 𝒅𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒙.
𝟔. 𝑰𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝝉𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝒎𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒔 𝝉𝒊𝒏𝒅 > 𝝉𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 , 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝝎 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒔
𝟕. 𝑰𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝝎 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒔 𝑬𝑨 = (𝑲∅𝝎 ↑) 𝒂𝒈𝒂𝒊𝒏.
𝟖. 𝑰𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑬𝑨 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒔 𝑰𝑨
𝟗. 𝑫𝒆𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑰𝑨 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒔 𝝉𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝒖𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒍𝒍 𝝉𝒊𝒏𝒅 = 𝝉𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝒂𝒕 𝒂 𝒉𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒆𝒓
𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝝎
#Changing the Armature Voltage Control Method
𝟏. 𝑰𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑽𝑻 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒔 𝑰𝑨 = ((𝑽𝑻 ↑ −𝑬𝑨 )⁄𝑹𝑨 )
𝟐. 𝑰𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑰𝑨 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒔 𝝉𝒊𝒏𝒅 = (𝑲∅𝑰𝑨 ↑)
𝟑. 𝑰𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝝉𝒊𝒏𝒅 , 𝒎𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒔 𝝉𝒊𝒏𝒅 > 𝝉𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝝎 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒔
𝟒. 𝑰𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝝎 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒔 𝑬𝑨 = (𝑲∅𝝎 ↑)
𝟓. 𝑰𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑬𝑨 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒔 𝑰𝑨 = ((𝑽𝑻 − 𝑬𝑨 ↑)⁄𝑹𝑨 )
𝟔. 𝑫𝒆𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑰𝑨 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒔 𝝉𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝒖𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒍 𝝉𝒊𝒏𝒅 = 𝝉𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝒂𝒕 𝒂 𝒉𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝝎
#Inserting a Resistor in Series with the Armature Circuit
𝟏. 𝑰𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑹𝑨 𝒅𝒊𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒔 𝑰𝑨 = ((𝑽𝑻 − 𝑬𝑨 )⁄𝑹𝑨 ↑)
𝟐. 𝑫𝒆𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑰𝑨 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒔 𝝉𝒊𝒏𝒅 = (𝑲∅𝑰𝑨 ↓)
𝟑. 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝝉𝒊𝒏𝒅 , 𝒎𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒔 𝝉𝒊𝒏𝒅 < 𝝉𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝝎 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒔
𝟒. 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝝎 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒔 𝑬𝑨 = (𝑲∅𝝎 ↓)
𝟓. 𝑫𝒆𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑬𝑨 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒔 𝑰𝑨 = ((𝑽𝑻 − 𝑬𝑨 ↓)⁄𝑹𝑨 )
𝟔. 𝑰𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑰𝑨 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒔 𝝉𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝒖𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒍 𝝉𝒊𝒏𝒅 = 𝝉𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝒂𝒕 𝒂 𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝝎
𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝑫𝑪 𝒎𝒂𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒊𝒕𝒔 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅
𝒆𝒙𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒓𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒕𝒆 𝒊𝒔 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒃𝒚
𝒆𝑨 = 𝒌′ ∅𝒏
𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒉𝒊𝒑 𝒃𝒆𝒕𝒘𝒆𝒆𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒂𝒕 𝒕𝒘𝒐 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒖𝒔
𝑬𝑨𝟐 𝑲′ ∅𝒏𝟐 𝑬𝑨𝟐
= ′ → 𝒏𝟐 = 𝒏
𝑬𝑨𝟏 𝑲 ∅𝒏𝟏 𝑬𝑨𝟏 𝟏
𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒒𝒖𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒂𝒏𝒚 𝒐𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝒄𝒂𝒏 𝒃𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎
𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕 𝑷𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒗 = 𝑬𝑨 𝑰𝑨 = 𝝉𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝝎 →
𝑬𝑨 𝑰𝑨
𝝉𝒊𝒏𝒅 =
𝝎
𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒔𝒉𝒖𝒏𝒕 𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒊𝒔
𝓕𝑨𝑹
𝑰∗ 𝑭 = 𝑰𝑭 − , 𝓕𝑨𝑹 [𝑨. 𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒏𝒔]
𝑵𝑭
∗ 𝑰𝒇 𝑬𝑨𝟏 = 𝑬𝑨𝟐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑠
∅𝟐 𝒏𝟐 ∅𝟏
𝟏= → 𝒏𝟏 = 𝒏
∅𝟏 𝒏𝟏 ∅𝟐 𝟐
𝑺𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝑫𝑪 𝑴𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒔

∗ The output characteristic of series DC motors can be derived from the

induced voltage and torque equations of the motor plus Kirchhoff ′ s
voltage law such as
𝝓 = 𝒄𝑰𝑺 = 𝒄𝑰𝑨 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝑰𝑨 = 𝑰𝑺 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝝓 = 𝒄𝑰𝑨
𝑹𝒆𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝝉𝒊𝒏𝒅 = 𝑰𝑨 𝑲𝝓 = 𝒄𝑲𝑰𝟐𝑨 ⟹ 𝝉𝒊𝒏𝒅 ∝ 𝑰𝟐𝑨
𝝉𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝝉𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝒄𝝉𝒊𝒏𝒅
𝑵𝒐𝒕𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝑰𝑨 = √ 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝝓 = 𝒄√ =√
𝒄𝑲 𝒄𝑲 𝑲
𝑽𝑻 = 𝑬𝑨 + 𝑰𝑨 (𝑹𝑨 + 𝑹𝑺 ) = 𝑲𝝓𝝎 + 𝑰𝑨 (𝑹𝑨 + 𝑹𝑺 )
∗ 𝐓𝐡𝐞 𝐨𝐮𝐭𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐫𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐢𝐜 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐬 𝐃𝐂 𝐦𝐨𝐭𝐨𝐫𝐬 𝐜𝐚𝐧 𝐛𝐞 𝐝𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐯𝐞𝐝 𝐟𝐫𝐨𝐦 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐢𝐧𝐝𝐮𝐜𝐞𝐝
𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐭𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐭𝐨𝐫𝐪𝐮𝐞 𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐦𝐨𝐭𝐨𝐫 𝐩𝐥𝐮𝐬 𝐊𝐢𝐫𝐜𝐡𝐡𝐨𝐟𝐟′𝐬 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐭𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐥𝐚𝐰 𝐬𝐮𝐜𝐡 𝐚𝐬
𝒄𝝉𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝝉𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝑽𝑻 𝟏 (𝑹𝑨 + 𝑹𝑺 )
𝑽𝑻 = 𝑲 √ 𝝎+√ (𝑹𝑨 + 𝑹𝑺 ) ⟹ 𝝎 = −
𝑲 𝒄𝑲 √𝒄𝑲 √𝝉𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝒄𝑲
#Transformers:
*Ideal transformer

∗ 𝐹𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑎𝑦 ′ 𝑠 𝑙𝑎𝑤 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

∆Φ𝐵
𝜀 = −𝑁
∆𝑡
𝜀: 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑚𝑓, 𝑁: 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝𝑠, ∆Φ/∆t: 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑧′𝑠 𝑙𝑎𝑤

∗ 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑧′𝑠 𝐿𝑎𝑤
∗ 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠
𝑁𝑃 𝑖𝑆
ℱ𝑃 = Φℛ = ℱ𝑆 → 𝑁𝑃 𝑖𝑃 = 𝑁𝑆 𝑖𝑆 → = =𝑎
𝑁𝑆 𝑖𝑃
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝒂 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒏𝒔 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐

∗ 𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑎𝑦 ′ 𝑠 𝑙𝑎𝑤𝑠

𝑉 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑁 (𝑉 ∝ 𝑁)
𝑉𝑃 𝑁𝑃
= =𝑎
𝑉𝑆 𝑁𝑆
∗ 𝑉𝑃 𝑖𝑃 = 𝑉𝑆 𝑖𝑆 → 𝑆𝑖𝑛 = 𝑆𝑜𝑢𝑡
∗ 𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝑃 𝑖𝑃 (𝜃𝑃 ), ∗ 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉𝑆 𝑖𝑆 (𝜃𝑆 )
∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑉𝑝 𝑖𝑝 = 𝑉𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑎𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑
𝑏𝑦 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝜃𝑝 = 𝜃𝑠

∗ The primary and secondary windings of an ideal transformer have the same
power factor then 𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑄𝑖𝑛 = 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡
#𝐼𝑓 𝑁𝑃 < 𝑁𝑆 → 𝑉𝑃 < 𝑉𝑆 → 𝑖𝑃 > 𝑖𝑆 (𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝 − 𝑢𝑝 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟)
#𝐼𝑓 𝑁𝑃 > 𝑁𝑆 → 𝑉𝑃 > 𝑉𝑆 → 𝑖𝑃 < 𝑖𝑆 (𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝 − 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟)
∗ The impedance of a device or an element is defined as the ratio of the phasor
Voltage across it to the phasor current flowing through it
𝑉𝐿
𝑍𝐿 =
𝐼𝐿
𝑉𝑃 𝑎𝑉𝑆 𝑉𝑆
∗ 𝑍′𝐿 = = = 𝑎2
𝐼𝑃 𝐼𝑆 ⁄𝑎 𝐼𝑆
→ 𝑍 ′ 𝐿 = 𝑎2 𝑍𝐿

𝑉
∗ 𝐼𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 = ,𝑉 = 𝐼𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑍𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 , 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = (𝐼𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 )2 𝑅𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 , 𝑍𝑒𝑞 = 𝑍𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 + 𝑍 ′ 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑍𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 + 𝑍𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

#Operation of real transformer

#The questions about this case will be concept questions

∗ The flux in the primary coil of the transformer can thus be divided into two components: a mutual
flux, which remains in the core and links both windings, and a small leakage flux, which passes
through the primary winding but returns through the air, bypassing the secondary winding:

̅ 𝑃 = Φ𝑀 + Φ𝐿𝑃
Φ
̅ 𝑃 : 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥, Φ𝑀 : 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑠,
Φ

Φ𝐿𝑃 : 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥

∗ There is a similar division of flux in the secondary winding between mutual flux and leakage flux which
passes through the secondary winding but returns through the air, by passing the primary winding:

̅ 𝑆 = Φ𝑀 + Φ𝐿𝑆
Φ
̅ 𝑆 : 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥, Φ𝑀 : 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑠,
Φ
Φ𝐿𝑆 : 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥

∗ Since in a well designed transformer Φ𝑀 ≫ Φ𝐿𝑃 and Φ𝑀 ≫ Φ𝐿𝑆 the

ratio of the total voltage on the primary of a transformer to the total voltage on
the secondary of a transformer is approximately
∗ The smaller the leakage fluxes of the transformer are, the closer the total transformer voltage
ratio approximates that of the ideal transformer
𝑣𝑃 (𝑡) 𝑁𝑃
= =𝑎
𝑣𝑆 (𝑡) 𝑁𝑆
∗ 𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑛 − 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡:
∘ The conductance of the core − loss resistor is given by
1
𝐺𝑐 =
𝑅𝑐
∘ The susceptance of the magnetizing inductor is given by
1
𝐵𝑀 =
𝑋𝑀
∘ Since these two elements are in parallel, their admittances add, and the total
excitation admittance is
𝑌𝐸 = 𝐺𝑐 − 𝑗𝐵𝑀
1 1
𝑌𝐸 = −𝑗
𝑅𝑐 𝑋𝑀
∘ the following relations can be obtained
𝐼𝑜𝑐
|𝑌𝐸 | =
𝑉𝑜𝑐
𝑃𝑂𝐶 −1
𝑃𝑂𝐶
𝑃𝐹 = cos(𝜃) = ⇒ 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( )
𝑉𝑂𝐶 𝐼𝑂𝐶 𝑉𝑂𝐶 𝐼𝑂𝐶
𝐼𝑜𝑐 𝐼𝑜𝑐
𝑌𝐸 = ∠ − 𝜃 ⇒ 𝑌𝐸 = ∠ − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (𝑃𝐹 )
𝑉𝑜𝑐 𝑉𝑜𝑐
1 1
𝑅𝑐 = =
𝐺𝑐 𝑌𝐸 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃)
1 1
𝑋𝑀 = =
𝐵𝑀 𝑌𝐸 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃)
∗ 𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡 − 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡:

∘ The magnitude of the series impedances referred to the primary side of the
transformer is
𝑉𝑠𝑐
|𝑍𝑆𝐸 | =
𝐼𝑠𝑐
∘ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑑
𝑃𝑆𝐶 𝑃𝑆𝐶
𝑃𝐹 = cos(𝜃) = ⇒ 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 ( )
𝑉𝑆𝐶 𝐼𝑆𝐶 𝑉𝑆𝐶 𝐼𝑆𝐶
𝑉𝑆𝐶 ∠0 𝑉𝑆𝐶
𝑍𝑆𝐸 = = ∠𝜃
𝐼𝑆𝐶 ∠ − 𝜃 𝐼𝑆𝐶
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑍𝑆𝐸 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃)
𝑋𝑒𝑞 = 𝑍𝑆𝐸 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃)
𝑍𝑆𝐸 = 𝑅𝑒𝑞 + 𝑗𝑋𝑒𝑞 = (𝑅𝑃 + 𝑎2 𝑅𝑆 ) + 𝑗(𝑋𝑃 + 𝑎2 𝑋𝑆 )
∗ 𝐷𝐶 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡:

 Using Ohm’s law and measurements of voltage and current, the internal
resistor of the winding can be determined as

R=V/I
 It should be noted that this test can be done on both sides of the
transformer
 Moreover, the DC power supply should be adjusted so that maximum DC
current is not exceeded.
 Note that the coil can handle a DC current that is certainly less than the
rated AC current.

∗ 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒈𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 (𝑽𝑹)

𝑽𝑺.𝒏𝒍 − 𝑽𝑺.𝒇𝒍
𝑽𝑹 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑽𝑺.𝒇𝒍
𝑽𝑷 ⁄𝒂 − 𝑽𝑺.𝒇𝒍
𝑽𝑹 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑽𝑺.𝒇𝒍
𝑽𝑷
∘ = 𝑽𝑺 + 𝑹𝒆𝒒 𝑰𝑺 + 𝒋𝑿𝒆𝒒 𝑰𝑺
𝒂
∗ 𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚
Transformers are also compared and judged on their efficiencies. The efficiency of
a device is defined by the equation
𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕
𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑷𝒊𝒏
𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕
𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕 + 𝑷𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔
𝑷𝒊𝒏 − 𝑷𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔
𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑷𝒊𝒏
To calculate the efficiency of a transformer at a given load, just add the losses the
equation of efficiency such that
𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝑽𝑺 𝑰𝑺 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽𝑺
𝑽𝑺 𝑰𝑺 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽𝑺
𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑷𝑪𝒖 + 𝑷𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒆 + 𝑽𝑺 𝑰𝑺 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽𝑺
𝑷𝑪𝒖 = (𝑰𝑺 )𝟐 𝑹𝒆𝒒

(𝑽𝑷 ⁄𝒂)𝟐
𝑷𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒆 =
𝑹𝑪
#Autotransformer:
*Voltage relationship:
𝑉𝐻 = 𝑉𝐶 + 𝑉𝑆𝐸 𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝐶 ⁄𝑉𝑆𝐸 = 𝑁𝐶 ⁄𝑁𝑆𝐸 , 𝑠𝑜 →
𝑁𝑆𝐸
𝑉𝐻 = 𝑉𝐶 + 𝑉 , 𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉𝐶 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡 →
𝑁𝐶 𝐶
𝑁𝑆𝐸 𝑁𝑆𝐸 + 𝑁𝐶
𝑉𝐻 = 𝑉𝐿 + 𝑉 = 𝑉𝐿 →
𝑁𝐶 𝐿 𝑁𝐶
𝑉𝐿 𝑁𝐶
=
𝑉𝐻 𝑁𝑆𝐸 + 𝑁𝐶

*Current relationship:
𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝐶 + 𝐼𝑆𝐸 , 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝐼𝐶 = (𝑁𝑆𝐸 ⁄𝑁𝐶 )𝐼𝑆𝐸 , 𝑠𝑜 →
𝑁𝑆𝐸
𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼 + 𝐼𝑆𝐸 , 𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝐼𝐻 = 𝐼𝑆𝐸 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡 →
𝑁𝐶 𝑆𝐸
𝑁𝑆𝐸 𝑁𝑆𝐸 + 𝑁𝐶
𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝐻 + 𝐼𝐻 = 𝐼𝐻 →
𝑁𝐶 𝑁𝐶
𝐼𝐿 𝑁𝑆𝐸 + 𝑁𝐶
=
𝐼𝐻 𝑁𝐶

*Apparent Power Rating Advantage

𝑆𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑆𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉𝐻 𝐼𝐻
𝑆𝑖𝑛 = 𝑆𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑆𝐼𝑂
𝑆𝑊 = 𝑉𝐶 𝐼𝐶 = 𝑉𝑆𝐸 𝐼𝑆𝐸
𝑆𝑊 = 𝑉𝐶 𝐼𝐶 = 𝑉𝐿 (𝐼𝐿 − 𝐼𝐻 ) = 𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 − 𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐻
 𝑁𝐶 𝑁𝐶
𝑆𝑊 = 𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 − 𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 ( ) = 𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 (1 − )
𝑁𝑆𝐸 + 𝑁𝐶 𝑁𝑆𝐸 + 𝑁𝐶
𝑁𝑆𝐸 + 𝑁𝐶 − 𝑁𝐶 𝑁𝑆𝐸
𝑆𝑊 = 𝑉𝐼 𝐿𝐼 ( ) = 𝑆𝐼𝑂 ( )
𝑁𝑆𝐸 + 𝑁𝐶 𝑁𝑆𝐸 + 𝑁𝐶
∗ Therefore, the ratio of the apparent power in the primary and secondary of the
autotransformer to the apparent power actually traveling through its windings is
𝑆𝐼𝑂 𝑁𝑆𝐸 + 𝑁𝐶
= >1
𝑆𝑊 𝑁𝑆𝐸

#Three-Phase Transformers (Connection)

∗ The impedance, voltage regulation, efficiency, and similar calculations for three
− phase transformers are done on a per
− phase basis, using exactly the same techniques already developed for single
− phase transformers.
*Basic Concepts of Operation
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 ′ 𝑠 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦
120𝑓𝑒
𝑛𝑠𝑦𝑛𝑐 = , 𝑓𝑒 : 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑧, 𝑃: 𝑛𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑃
The voltage induced in a given rotor bar is given by the equation
𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 = (𝑣 × 𝐵) ⋅ 𝑙
𝑣: 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑,
𝐵: 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟,
𝑙: 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑

The induced torque in the machine is given by

𝜏𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 𝑘𝐵𝑅 × 𝐵𝑆
𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑘 = 𝐾 ⁄𝜇 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐾 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑒
In fact, the parameter k will not be constant since μ varies with the amount
of magnetic saturation in the machine.

Two terms are commonly used to define the relative motion of the rotor
and the magnetic fields
(1)One is slip speed, defined as the difference between synchronous
speed and rotor speed:
𝑛𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑝 = 𝑛𝑠𝑦𝑛𝑐 − 𝑛𝑚
𝑛𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑝 : the slip speed of the machine, 𝑛𝑠𝑦𝑛𝑐 : the speed of the rotating magnetic fields,

𝑛𝑚 : the mechanical shaft speed of motor

(2)The other is term used to describe the relative motion is slip, which is the
relative speed expressed on a percentage basis, and it is defined as
𝑛𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑝 𝑛𝑠𝑦𝑛𝑐 − 𝑛𝑚 𝜔𝑠𝑦𝑛𝑐 − 𝜔𝑚
𝑠= × 100% → 𝑠 = × 100% → 𝑠 = × 100%
𝑛𝑠𝑦𝑛𝑐 𝑛𝑠𝑦𝑛𝑐 𝜔𝑠𝑦𝑛𝑐

*If the rotor turns at synchronous speed s = 0, while if the rotor is stationary s = 1.
∗ It is possible to express the mechanical speed of the rotor shaft in terms of
synchronous speed and slip.
By Solving the previous Equations for mechanical speed yields
𝑛𝑚 = (1 − 𝑠)𝑛𝑠𝑦𝑛𝑐
𝜔𝑚 = (1 − 𝑠)𝜔𝑠𝑦𝑛𝑐
∗ 𝐴𝑡 𝑛𝑚 = 0 𝑟⁄𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑓𝑟 = 𝑓𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑝 𝑠 = 1.
∗ 𝐴𝑡 𝑛𝑚 = 𝑛𝑠𝑦𝑛𝑐 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑓𝑟 = 0𝐻𝑧 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑝 𝑠 = 0
∗ Based on the definition of the slip, the rotor frequency can be expressed as
𝑓𝑟 = 𝑠𝑓𝑒
*From the previous equations:
𝑛𝑠𝑦𝑛𝑐 − 𝑛𝑚
𝑓𝑟 = 𝑓𝑒 , 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑛𝑠𝑦𝑛𝑐 = 120𝑓𝑒 ⁄𝑃 𝑠𝑜 →
𝑛𝑠𝑦𝑛𝑐
𝑃 𝑃
𝑓𝑟 = (𝑛𝑠𝑦𝑛𝑐 − 𝑛𝑚 ) 𝑓𝑒 → 𝑓𝑟 = (𝑛 − 𝑛𝑚 )
120𝑓𝑒 120 𝑠𝑦𝑛𝑐

*Equivalent Circuit
−magnitude of the induced voltage at any slip will be given by the equation
𝐸𝑅 = 𝑠𝐸𝑅𝑂
−The frequency of the induced voltage at any slip will be given by the equation
𝑓𝑟 = 𝑠𝑓𝑒

−The reactance of an induction motor rotor depends on the inductance of the

rotor and the frequency of the voltage and current in the rotor. With a rotor
inductance of 𝐿𝑅 , the rotor reactance is given by
𝑋𝑅 = 𝜔𝑟 𝐿𝑅 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑟 𝐿𝑅 → 𝑋𝑅 = 2𝜋𝑠𝑓𝑒 𝐿𝑅 = 𝑠(2𝜋𝑓𝑒 𝐿𝑅 ) = 𝑠𝑋𝑅𝑂
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑋𝑅𝑂 is the blocked − rotor rotor reactance.
−In an ordinary transformer, the voltages, currents, and impedances on the
secondary side of the device can be referred to the primary side by means
of the turns ratio of the transformer:
𝑉𝑃 = 𝑉 ′𝑆 = 𝑎𝑉𝑆
𝐼𝑆
𝐼𝑃 = 𝐼′𝑆 =
𝑎
𝑍 ′𝑆 = 𝑎2 𝑍𝑆

−If the effective turns ratio of an induction motor is a𝑒𝑓𝑓 , then the transformed
rotor voltage becomes
𝐸1 = 𝐸 ′ 𝑅 = 𝑎𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝐸𝑅𝑂
𝐼𝑅
𝐼2 =
𝑎𝑒𝑓𝑓
 𝑅𝑅
𝑍2 = 𝑎2 𝑒𝑓𝑓 ( + 𝑗𝑋𝑅𝑂 )
𝑠
𝑅2 = 𝑎2 𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑅𝑅
𝑋2 = 𝑎2 𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑋𝑅𝑂

−The efficiency of an AC machine is defined by the equation

𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝜂= × 100%
𝑃𝑖𝑛
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝜂= × 100%
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
𝑃𝑖𝑛 − 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
𝜂= × 100%
𝑃𝑖𝑛
𝑃𝑖𝑛 = √3𝑉𝑇 𝐼𝐿 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝜏𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝜔𝑚
*Torque-Speed Characteristic
*Generators
−Voltage regulation (VR) is defined by the equation
𝑉𝑛𝑙 − 𝑉𝑓𝑙
𝑉𝑅 = × 100%
𝑉𝑓𝑙

−The total magnetomotive force in a separately excited generator is the

field circuit magnetomotive force less the magnetomotive force due to
armature reaction (AR):
ℱ𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑁𝐹 𝐼𝐹 − ℱ𝐴𝑅
−The equivalent field current of a separately excited DC generator is given by
ℱ𝐴𝑅
𝐼 ∗ 𝐹 = 𝐼𝐹 −
𝑁𝐹

−the difference between the speed of the magnetization curve and the real
speed of the generator must be taken into account:
𝐸𝐴 𝑛
=
𝐸𝐴𝑂 𝑛𝑂