C955 Formulas and Key Concepts

This summary of the formulas and key concepts is intended to supplement

the MindEdge textbook and should not be treated as a replacement.
(Please use this document to help you review material, not to learn it in the
first place.)

Table of Contents

Module 1: Basic Numeracy & Calculation Skills..................................... 2

Module 2: Fractions, Decimals, & Percentages ...................................... 3
Module 3: Basic Algebra .......................................................................... 4
Module 4: Descriptive Statistics for a Single Variable ........................... 5
Module 5: Descriptive Statistics for Two Variables .............................. 10
Module 6: Correlation & Regression ..................................................... 12
Module 7: Probability.............................................................................. 15
Module 1: Basic Numeracy & Calculation Skills

Intervals: Pages 1.05-1.05.1

• An open circle denotes that the value is not to be included.
o Example for “Less Than”

o Example for “Greater Than”

• A closed circle means that the value is included.

o Example for “Less Than or Equal To”

o Example for “Greater Than or Equal To”

Sign rule for multiplication and division: Page 1.08

• Multiplying the same signs will result in a positive number
o ➕×➕=➕
o ➖×➖=➕
• Multiplying different signs will result in a negative number
o ➖×➕=➖
o ➕×➖=➖

Order of Operations: Pages 1.12-1.13

• Remember the acronym PEMDAS
o Parentheses
o Exponents
o Multiplication or Division (Left to Right)
o Additions or Subtraction (Left to Right)

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Module 2: Fractions, Decimals, & Percentages

Converting Decimals, Fractions, and Percentages: Page 2.14

• Decimals, Fractions, and Percentages are just different ways of
showing the same value
o = . = %

Unit Conversions: Pages 2.15-2.15.3

(only the most common; a complete list can be found in MindEdge on page
2.15)
• Common Unit Conversions for Household Measures of Volume:
o 1 tablespoon = 3 teaspoons
o 1 fluid ounce = 2 tablespoons
o The conversions involving one gallon can be visualized below:

• Common Metric Conversions:

o 1 L = 1000 mL
o 1 kg = 1000 g
o 1 g = 1000 mg (milligrams)

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Module 3: Basic Algebra

Like terms: Pages 3.04, 3.04.1, 3.04.2, and 3.04.3

• Terms that have the same variable(s) raised to the same
exponent(s); they can be combined using addition and subtraction
o Example: The expression 7𝑥 + 10 − 2𝑥 + 3 is equal to 5𝑥 + 13

Solving Linear Equations: Pages 3.12 and 3.13

• If we add/subtract/multiply/divide the same quantity to both sides of
an equation, the result will remain equal. (÷ by zero is not allowed)
o Example: Starting with 𝑥 − 2 = 7, we can add 2 to both sides of
the equation to conclude 𝑥 = 9.
• Linear Inequalities: Page 3.19: We solve linear inequalities the
same way, but with one important exception – Whenever we multiply
or divide both sides of an inequality by a negative number, we must
switch the direction of the inequality.

Slope-intercept equation of a line: Pages 3.17, 3.17.1

• y = mx + b, where m is slope of the line and b is the y-intercept.
• The slope of a line is a description of its steepness. Positive slopes
create “uphill” lines while negative slopes create “downhill” lines.

Graphing Linear Equations: Page 3.18

• First plot the y-intercept, where the line crosses the y-axis.
Rise (↕)
• Next, use Slope = , to locate a 2nd point on the line.
Run (↔)
1
• Example: Graph 𝑦 = − 𝑥 + 2
3

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Module 4: Descriptive Statistics for a Single Variable

Types of Data: Page 4.02

Quantitative (numerical) data - consists of data values that are numerical,
quantities that can be counted or measured (additions/subtractions make
sense)
Examples: Height, Salary, Chance of rain, Weight

Categorical (qualitative) data - consist of data that are groups or labels,

and are not necessarily numerical (additions/subtractions do not make
sense)
Examples: Hair Color, Country of Origin, Blood Type, Zip Codes

Graphical Displays for a single Categorical Variable: Pages 4.03-4.03.2

Pie Chart – Displays parts of the whole, percentages

Real Estate %
amil %

ealth %
Education %

areer %

inance %

Bar Chart – Displays counts or frequencies of each category

pples ananas ranges Grapes Limes

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Graphical Displays for a single Quantitative Variable: Pgs. 4.04-4.04.3,
4.07
Histogram – displays the shape and spread of data

Box Plot – displays center, spread and outliers. Each section covers 25%
of the data regardless of length. Can be horizontal or vertical.

Dot Plot – displays clusters, gaps, and outliers for smaller data sets. Each
data value is seen in a dot plot.

Stem Plot – Display shape according to place values. Each data value if
seen in a stem plot.
ata et

tem Leaf

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Histogram Shape: Page 4.04.2
Symmetric Normal - left half is (roughly) same as right half.
• Mean, Median, and Mode are approximately equal.

Skewed Right (positively skewed) – tail stretches to the right of the peak.
• Mode < Median < Mean.

Skewed left (negatively skewed) – tail stretches to the left of the peak.
• Mean < Median < Mode.

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 Measures of Center: Page 4.05.1 - value which represents the “t pical”
data point in a data set
• Mode - value that occurs most often in a data set
• Median - halfway point, equal number of data points above the
median as below, always order the data from smallest to largest first
• Mean (common average) - add up all the data points and divide by
how many data points there are

Standard Deviation Rule: Page 4.05.2 (68-95-99.7 Rule) - for Normal

Distributions (bell shaped curves)

% %
. % . %
. % . %
. % . %

• 68% of the data is within 1 standard deviation of the mean.

• 95% of the data is within 2 standard deviations of the mean.
• 99.7% of the data is within 3 standard deviations of the mean.

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Misrepresenting Data with Graphical Displays: Page 4.09
• Scale of Axis- The vertical scale should start at zero. Each axis
should have consistent scaling (For example, d ’ use 10, 60, 70,
80, 90 for an axis)
• Omitting Labels or Units- leaves size and categories unspecified
• Using a 2-Dimensional Graph to Represent a 1-Dimensional
Measurement- In graphs like the one below, our eyes see area,
which distorts the true differences we are trying to illustrate, the
heights of each circle. Avoid using such graphs!

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Module 5: Descriptive Statistics for Two Variables

Relationship Between Two Variables: Page 5.02

• Explanatory Variable – Influences the response variable.
• Response Variable – Is affected by the explanatory variable.

Graphical Displays of Two Variable Data: Pages 5.03, 5.04, 5.05

V bl yp : C → C
Graphical Display: Two Way Table
Numerical Measure: Conditional Percentages

V bl yp : C → Q
Graphical Display: Side by Side Boxplots
Numerical Measure: Five Number Summary

V bl yp : Q → Q
Graphical Display: Scatterplot
Numerical Measure: Correlation Coefficient (r value)

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C l (Q → Q): P g , , , ,
• Direction:
o Positive Correlation – scatterplot reveals an “uphill trend.” s
the explanatory variable increases, the response variable
increases.
o Negative Correlation - scatterplot reveals a “downhill trend.”
As the explanatory variable increases, the response variable
decreases.
o No Correlation- scatterplot reveals no trend between the
variables

• Strength: On a scatterplot, the closer the points are laid out in a line,
the stronger the correlation.
o Correlation Coefficient (r) - measures the direction and
strength of the linear relationship between the variables
▪ The closer r is to +1, the stronger the positive correlation.
▪ The closer r is to -1, the stronger the negative correlation.
▪ The closer r is to 0, the weaker the correlation.

o Examples:

r= r= . r= . r= r= . r= . r=
tronger ea er tronger
orrelation orrelation orrelation

Module 4/5 Summary of Graphical Displays: Pages 4.03-4.04.3, 4.07,

5.03-5.05
• Just C – Pie chart or bar chart
• Just Q – Histogram, stem plot, boxplot, or dot plot
• C → C – Two-way table with Conditional Percentages
• C → Q – Side-by-side boxplot with 5-number summary
• Q → Q – Scatterplot with correlation coefficient

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Module 6: Correlation & Regression

Sampling Methods: Page 6.02, 6.02.1

• Collecting Data:
o Population - the collection of people or objects that is the main
focus of the research being done.
o Sampling Frame - the list of people or objects that can
potentially be included in the study
o Sample - the subset of the sampling frame that is actually
being studied

• Bias occurs when the Sampling Frame does not accurately represent
the Population
o Example: A manager wanted to know if all of their employees
were satisfied with the company. They sent out a survey to all
of the part-time employees asking them to rate their satisfaction
from 1 to 10, 10 being the most satisfied.
▪ This introduced bias since the population was all
employees, but their sampling frame was only the part-
time employees.

Study Design: Page 6.02

• Experimental Study - Researchers randomly assign participants to
two or more groups. One group is designated as a control group
where no treatment (placebo) is given while all other groups are given
treatments to determine if there is causation between variables.
• Observational Study - There are no treatment or control groups
because the participants self-select their groups. Researchers
observe if there is an association between variables.

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Association Vs Causation: Page 6.03
• Association means there is a relationship between two variables.
Association does not necessarily imply causation.
o We can use scatterplots to visualize the data and determine if
there is at least an association, but we cannot determine
causation from a scatterplot alone.
o Can establish association through an observational study.
• Causation - A change in one variable creates a change in the other
variable.
o Can only be determined from an experiment.

Lurking Variables: Page 6.04

• A lurking variable is a variable not included in the study, but affects
the variables that were included in the study
• Never assume that a causation exists just because there is an
association between two variables – always be on the lookout for
lurking variables.

p ’s Paradox: Page 6.05

• A counterintuitive situation that occurs when a result that appears in
individual groups of data disappears or reverses when the groups are
combined.
• Can only occur when the sizes of the groups are inconsistent
• Example:

assed rep ourse assed rep ourse

ohort = % = %
ohort = % = %
Total = . % = . %
o Prep Course A had a higher passing percentage in Cohort #1
and Cohort #2, but overall Prep Course B had a higher passing
percentage.

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Regression Analysis: Pages 6.06, 6.07, 6.07.1
• Simple linear equation (regression line or line of best fit) - models
the data on a scatter plot with a line
o x is the explanatory variable, and y is the response variable
o Equation is given by y = mx + b where m is the slope and b is
the y-intercept

• Used to predict data

o Plug explanatory values in for x and calculate corresponding
response values for y.
o Example:

iles from it enter

▪ Using the linear regression above, we can predict that the

monthly rent, y, for a home 50 miles from the center will
be about: 𝑦 = −0.082(50) + 11 = −4.1 + 11 = 6.9 or
$690.

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Module 7: Probability

Probability: Page 7.02

• Probability is the chance of an event occurring and can be
expressed as a percentage, decimal, or fraction.
o The notation (E) to represent “the probabilit of event E.”
o Example: The probability of flipping a tails on a coin can be
represented as:
▪ P(T) = 50% = 0.5 =
• 0% probability – Impossible
• More than 0%, but less than 40% probability – Unlikely
• 40% to 60% probability – As likely as unlikely
• more than 60%, but less than 100% probability – Likely
• 100% probability – Certain

Sample Spaces and Probability: Pages 7.04 7.05, 7.05.1

Number of outcomes with the desired event
• Theoretical Probability =
Total number of outcomes

• Sample Space - set of all possible outcomes.

• Tree Diagram – Used to determine the sample space.
o Example: The sample space for flipping 2 coins can be found
by created the diagram below. In the diagram H represents
heads and T represents Tails.
st nd ample
oin oin pace

T T

T
T
T TT
▪ The sample space is {HH, HT, TH, TT} and the total
number of outcomes is 4.

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Complementary Events: Page 7.07
• Complementary events are those that do not have any common
outcomes and when combined they comprise the sample space.
o P(not A) = 1 – P(A)

Probability Formulas: Pages 7.08, 7.09, 7.11.1, 7.11.2

• Notation
o P(A or B) represents the probability that event A will occur, or
event B will occur, or both A and B will occur.
o P(A and B) represents the probability that events A and B will
occur at the same time.
o P(A|B) represents the probability that event A will occur, given
that event B has already occurred.

• Vocabulary
o Disjoint Events cannot occur at the same time.
▪ P(A and B) = 0
▪ Example:
• A = Randomly selecting a person with type B blood.
• B = Randomly selecting a person with type O blood.
o Independent Events – We say events A and B are
independent if the occurrence of one of them does not affect
the probability that the other will occur.
▪ P(A|B) = P(A) and P(B|A) = P(B)
• “probabilit of will be the same whether or not B
has already occurred. Also, probability of B will be
the same whether or not has alread occurred.”
▪ Example:
• A = Flipping a coin and landing on tails
• B = Rolling a die and landing on 3

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• Formulas
o OR Rule (General Addition)
▪ P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A and B)
▪ Simplifies to P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) for disjoint events
o AND Rule (General Multiplication)
▪ P(A and B) = P(A) x P(B|A)
▪ Simplifies to P(A and B) = P(A) x P(B) for independent
events
o Conditional Probability
( and )
▪ P(B|A) =
( )

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