Introduction

• Concepts to help students progress through the early parts of circuit

analysis and prepare them for the more detailed analysis that follow.
For some students this would be a beneficial revision of material seen
before
• This chapter defines the basic characteristics and components of
electrical circuits.
Introduction
• It is expected that on completion of this Lecture students will
understand the concept of units, current, voltage, power, sources,
and electrical loads.
• They will be able to understand the relation between voltage and
current in a resistance provided by Ohm’s law and its application to
resistive circuits.
• The characteristics and relationship between voltage and current in
active and passive components will also be studied
Units
• A conference in units was organized to unify criterion on units.
• The conference concluded with an International System of Units or SI
system.
• The SI system was formally introduced in 1960 and has been accepted
by many countries and institutions as their system of measurements.
• The SI system selects six physical quantities as the basis of their units.
All other units are derived from these basic units.
Derived Units
• There is a much larger number of derived units. All derived units are
related to the six basic units and can be expressed in terms of the
basic quantities: mass, length, time, electric current, absolute
temperature, and luminous intensity.
• For example, a unit of area can be expressed as the square of length,
that is, square meters. Other common examples are shown below
Six Physical Quantities
• The Quantities Selected in SI System of Units as the basis of units
Unit of Charge
• In electrical and electronic engineering there are some common units
used in different types of physical quantities, devices, components,
and circuits.
• Here are short definitions of some of the units
• The unit of charge is the coulomb (C). The coulomb is defined as the
quantity of electricity that flows in a circuit when a current of 1
ampere (A) is maintained for 1 second (s). One Coulomb is equal to
6.24 × 1018 electrons. The electric charge (Q) can then be expressed
in terms of time and current as
Q = I⋅t [C]
Unit of Charge
Q = I⋅t [C]

• where I is the current in amperes, t is the time in seconds, and Q is

the charge in coulomb.
Unit of Force
• The unit of force is the newton (N). A newton is defined as the force
that, when applied to a mass of 1 kilogram (kg), gives it an
acceleration of 1 m/s2. The force (F) can then be expressed in terms
of mass and acceleration as
F = m ⋅a [N]
• where m is the mass in kilograms, a is the acceleration in meter per
second squared, and F is the force in newton.
• The unit of work or energy is the joule (J). The joule is defined as
energy transferred when a force of 1 N is applied through a distance
of 1 m in the direction of the force. The energy (E) can then be
expressed in terms of force and length as
E = F⋅l [J]
• where F is the force in newton, l is the distance in meters moved by
the body in the direction of the force, and E is the energy in joules.
Unit of Power
• The unit of power is the watt (W). Power is defined as the rate of
transferring energy. The power (P) can then be expressed in terms of
energy and time as

• Where E is the energy transferred in joules, t is the time in seconds,

and P is the power in watts.
• The energy (E) can also be expressed in terms of power and time asE
E = P⋅t [J]
Unit of Power
• This provides energy expressed in watts per second, when dealing
with large amounts of energy consumption, the unit used is the
kilowatt hour (kW h) where
Unit of Electric Voltage
• The unit of electric voltage is the volt (V). One volt is defined as the
difference in potential between two points in a circuit when carrying
a current of 1 A dissipates 1 W. The voltage (V) can be expressed in
terms of power and current as

• Where P is the power in watts, I is the current in amperes, and V is

the voltage in volts.
Unit of Electric Resistance
• The unit of electric resistance is the ohm (Ω). One ohm is defined as
the resistance between two points in a circuit as 1 V applied at the
two points provides a current of 1 A. The resistance (R) can then be
expressed in terms of voltage and current as

• Where V is the potential difference across the two points containing

the resistance in volts, I is the current flowing between the two points
in amperes, and R is the resistance in ohms.
Unit of Electric Conductance
• The reciprocal of resistance is called conductance and is measured in
siemens (S). The conductance (G) can then be expressed in terms of
the resistance as

• Where R is the resistance in ohms and G is the conductance in

siemens
Power
• The electric power from a direct current (dc) can also be expressed in
terms of voltage and currents as P VI I R V R = = 2 = W 2 [
Review Question 1
• An electric iron has a dc current of 7 A flowing to its resistance of 25
Ω. Calculate the potential difference across its resistance and the
power dissipated by its resistance.
• Potential difference, V = IR = 7 × 25 = 175V
• Power dissipation, P = VI = 175 × 7 = 1225W = 1.225kW
or
= = 1.225k[W]
Review Question 2
• Calculate the voltage supply and the power dissipated by an electric
heater of 10 Ω resistance when a current of 5 A flows through it. If
the heater is connected to the voltage supply for 10 h determine the
energy used and cost assuming that the value (cost) of a unit of
electricity is TZS 180
• Solution:
The voltage of the power supply is: V = IR = 5 × 10 = 50V
Power dissipation is: P = VI = 50 × 5 = 250W
or
• Power dissipation = 52 × 10 = 250W = 0.25k[W]
Review Question 2
• Unit of electricity = 1 kW h
• Then the cost of energy used per hour is:
• Cost of energy in 1h = Power used × time × cost of electricity unit
= 0.25 × 1 × 180 = 45 TSh (per kWh)

• Total cost of the electricity for the use of this heater for 10 h is equal
to:
Total cost = No. of hours × Cost of unit of electricity = 10 × 45 = 450
TSh.
Concept of Electric Charge and Current
• In our universe all matter consists of atoms. These atoms contain
particles classified according to their charge as electrons, protons,
and neutrons
• A short definition in terms of type of charge for these particles is
• An electron is an elementary particle charged with a small and
constant quan tity of negative electricity.
• A proton is an elementary particle charged with a small and constant
quantity of positive electricity.
• A neutron is uncharged.
• If an atom has excess electrons, it is said to be negatively charged. If
an atom has excess protons, it is said to be positively charged. A
charged atom is called an ion. A body containing a number of ionised
atoms is also said to be electrically charged.
Movement of Electrons and Electric Current
in a Circuit
• Any movement of charges creates an electric current.
• Conventionally, current is defined in terms of movement of electrons.
Electrons vibrate within the atoms, but their movement is in different
directions that can cancel each other’s movement, adding up to a total
movement of all electrons equal to zero.
• As a consequence, in a material with no external energy applied, there is
no current circulating through it. If an ammeter is connected to measure
their total current it will indicate 0 A.
• But if an external energy is applied to a material making electrons move in
a concerted motion in one direction then a current is produced. Electrons
have a certain potential energy moving freely from one energy level to
another and this movement, when undertaken in a concerted manner, is
called an electric current flow
• For convenience the point of high potential is termed the positive
and the point of low potential is termed the negative, hence
conventionally a current is said to flow from positive to negative.
Because electrons are assumed to have negative charge, conventional
current flow is in the opposite direction to that of an electron flow.
• In any practical application, it is required that the current flow
continuously for as long as it is needed. In order to obtain a current in
a circuit it is necessary that two conditions must be fulfilled:
• 1. There must be an entire circuit around which the electrons may
move.
• 2. There must be a driving stimulus to cause the continuous flow.
These two conditions will lead to the concept of circuit and
electromotive force (emf).
Circuit & Circuit Components
• Circuit: The path required to allow electrons to move to fulfill condition 1.
This path will generate what is known as the electric circuit.
• Electromotive Force: The driven stimulus required to fulfill condition 2 is
known as the electromotive force (emf). Each time a charge passes through
the source energy provided by the emf the continuous current flow is
maintained
• Source: An element that provides electrical energy supplied to a circuit is
termed a source. The emf in a circuit is provided by source energy such as a
battery or a generator and is measured in volts. A change in electric
potential between two points in an electric circuit is called a potential
difference.
Circuit & Circuit Components
• Load: When a current is established in a circuit, some elements in this
circuit will absorb or convert the electrical energy supplied by the
source. An element that absorbs and/or converts the electrical energy
supplied by the source is termed a load.
• We can classify electrical elements in a circuit according to whether
they provide energy to the circuit as active components or whether
they absorb or convert energy to a circuit as passive components.
Passive Components
• Passive components in an electric circuit are components that do not
add energy to the circuit. They usually dissipate or transform energy.
• There are different types of passive components according to their
relationship between their voltages and currents.
• Some of the most common types of components found in an electric
circuit are resistors, capacitors and inductors.
Resistors (Resistance)
Inductors (Inductance)
Capacitors (Capacitance)
Passive Components
• The potential difference (V) across the terminals of circuit component
is proportional to the current (I) flowing between them.
V proportional to I
• This proportionality varies for different components. We can identify
the type of passive component according to its relationship between
the voltage and the current.
• In this lecture we can look at some of the characteristics of these
three types of passive components.
Resistors Connected in Series
• If the current passing through resistors is the same then these
resistors are connected in series.

• It is possible to reduce all resistors connected in series as one

equivalent resistor RT

Series Connection: RT =R1 + R2 + R3 + …+ Rn

Resistors Connected in Parallel
• Resistors in parallel

• For n resistors connected in parallel the equivalent resistance RT is

given by
Special Case of Two Resistors
• For the special case of two resistors connected in parallel an easy
reduction can be found
Capacitance
• A capacitor is a component that can store charges.
• The effect of storing charges in a capacitor makes the relationship
between voltage and current more complicated and creates an
electric field.
• A capacitor consists of two conducting surfaces separated by an
insulating layer called a dielectric.
 Capacitance
• Capacitors

Tubular capacitor made from metal foil and flexible dielectric Integrated circuit capacitor
Capacitance
• Capacitors are better understood if we consider a simple capacitor
consisting of two parallel plate capacitor

Parallel plates capacitor

Parallel Plate Capacitor
• Electrons flowing around a circuit can produce a positive charge on
one side of the capacitor and an equal negative charge on the other.
This results in an electric field between the two plates
Parallel Plate Capacitor
• The charge stored in a capacitor (Q) is directly proportional to the
voltage across it (V). The constant of proportionality is the
capacitance C.

The physical dimensions of a capacitor affects the amount of charge to

be stored, then the physical dimension of a capacitor affects the
capacitance of this component.
Capacitor Physical Properties
• The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is proportional to the
surface area of the plates and inversely proportional to their
separation.
• The constant of proportionality is the permittivity of the dielectric (ε).

• If the charge is measured in coulombs and the voltage in volts, the

capacitance is given in farads.
Capacitor Physical Properties
• The permittivity ε is a quantity that indicates the electrical
characteristic of a material.
• The permittivity is normally expressed as the product of the absolute
value εo (8.85 × 10-12F/m) and the relative permittivity εr

• Capacitance can be expressed as:

Electric Field and Flux Density
The charge on the plates of the capacitor The stored charge in a capacitor produces a force between
produces an electric field E, which is proportional positive and negative charges and is described in terms of the
to the voltage applied to it and inversely electric flux linking them. Flux density D given by the flux per
proportional to the distance of separation unit area can be expressed as
between the plates d. Then,
Capacitor Current–Voltage Relationship
• The relationship between voltage (Vc) and current (ic) in a capacitor is
very different compared to a resistor. The current–voltage
relationship can be expressed in terms of its voltage or current.
• Where:
• dVc /dt is the first derivative of the capacitor’s voltage with time
• ic is the current through the capacitor integrated as a function of time
and C is the capacitance
• It can be deduced that the permittivity of a dielectric within a
capacitor is equal to the ratio of the electric flux density to the
electric field strength

• When capacitors are used with sinusoidal signals the current leads
the voltage by 90°
Energy Stored in a Capacitor
• The energy (W) stored within a charged capacitor can be deduced in
terms of their voltage or charge as
Capacitors in Parallel
Capacitors in Parallel
• The charge on each capacitor is Q1 = VC1 and Q2 = VC2
• If the two capacitors are replaced by an equivalent capacitor CE then
the total charge Q of the single capacitor (CE) is equal to the sum of
the charges of the two capacitors in parallel, Q1 and Q2.
Capacitors in Series
• The capacitors are in series the current is the same, then charge
passing through the capacitors is the same.

• The charge Q in each capacitor C1, C2, and an equivalent capacitor CE

is the same
Capacitors in Series
• The sum of the voltages across C1 and C2 add to the total voltage V
applied across the two capacitors. Then, V = V1 + V2
Capacitors in Series
• In general, the reciprocal of the equivalent capacitor CT of n
capacitors connected in series is equal to the sum of the n reciprocal
capacitors
Review Qn: Capacitors
• Three capacitors C1 = 20 µF, C2 = 30 µF, and C3 = 50 µF are connected
in parallel to a dc voltage source Vs = 110 V. Calculate the total
equivalent capacitance of the three capacitors in parallel CT , the total
charge QT , and the charge on each capacitor
Inductors
• An inductor is a coil of conducting material.

An inductor with air-filled coil.

Inductors
• A changing current in the conducting wire produces a changing
magnetic field around the coil.

• This changing magnetic field induces an emf in the conductor within

the field.

• Then when a current changes in a coil it induces an emf in the coil.

• This is known as self-inductance or commonly known as inductance.

Inductor Current–Voltage Relationship
• The voltage of the emf in the coil depends on the rate of change of
the current with time.
• Then the voltage induced is proportional to the variation of current
with time di/dt.
• The proportionally factor is the inductance L and is measured in
Henry (H).
Inductor Current–Voltage Relationship
• Expression for the voltage:

• where the term diL /dt indicates the first derivative of the inductor
current with respect to time.
• The inductance of a coil depends on its dimensions and the material
around which it is formed.
Inductance
• The inductance of an air-filled coil can be expressed as:

• Where N is the number of turns in the coil, l is the length of the coil, A
is the cross-sectional area of the coil, and μo is the permeability of the
free space (air in this case)
• The permeability μ is a measure of the ease with which magnetic flux
can be established in a material. The permeability of free space μo is
4π × 10-7 H/m.
• The ratio of the permeability of any substance to that of the free
space is called the relative permeability, μr , a dimensionless number.
The permeability can be expressed in terms of the relative
permeability and the permeability of free space as

• The relative permeability for most materials is nearly one, but in

ferromagnetic materials such iron, nickel, cobalt, and their alloys μr is
very high
• If a ferromagnetic material is used in the coil, instead of air, the
inductance is greatly increased as the permeability is high

• A coil wound on an iron rod

Inductors in Series
• Inductors can be connected in series when the current passing
through them is the same.

• The equivalent inductance, LT, of n inductors connected is series is the

sum of all inductances, that is, inductors can be combined the same
way as for resistors
Inductors in Parallel
• Inductors can be connected in parallel when the voltage across them
is the same
Inductors in Parallel
• The reciprocal equivalent inductance, LT, of n inductances connected
in parallel is the sum of all n reciprocal inductances in parallel
Energy Storage W in an Inductor
• The energy added to the magnetic field in increment of time dt, is the
product of the voltage, the current and the increment time. Then the
energy added ΔW is

Replacing the voltage as function of inductance, we have

Energy Storage W in an Inductor
• The current is increased from zero to I, we can calculate to total
energy W as