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Chapter 7 - Climate Change and Microbes

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Chapter 7 - Climate Change and Microbes

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C H A P T E R

7
Climate change and microbes
Stanley Maloy
San Diego State University, San Diego, CA, United States

O U T L I N E

1. Introduction 195 7. Changes in biodiversity 200


2. Does 1–2° matter? 196 8. One Health 200
3. Generation of greenhouse gases 196 9. Take-home points 202
4. Altered geographical distribution of Acknowledgments 202
insect vectors 196
References 202
5. Altered precipitation 198
Web references 203
6. Elevated ocean temperature 200

1 Introduction

Microbes are critical for life on earth. Microbes catalyze the key biogeochemical cycles that
make our planet hospitable—providing forms of carbon and nitrogen that are essential for
life. Different microbes can both trap greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide (CO2), methane
(CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O), and produce these greenhouse gases. The balance of these
microbial processes plays an important role in the abundance of these chemicals on earth
and in our atmosphere.
Microbes have been both changing the climate and responding to climate change since life
first developed on earth. As the climate changes, microbes can adapt to the changes or evolve
new traits that enhance their survival, playing contradictory roles that can either speed-up
climate change or mitigate the impacts of climate change.

The Impacts of Climate Change 195 Copyright # 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-822373-4.00022-7
196 7. Climate change and microbes

2 Does 1–2° matter?

The mean global temperature increase because of global warming, so far, is only about
0.6–1.2°C (1–2°F). Nevertheless, the global warming that we have already experienced has
had major impacts on our planet. Many of these impacts involve microbes. Some examples
include: thawing of the Arctic permafrost; altered geographical distribution of insects that act
as vectors for microbial diseases in plants and animals; emergence of pathogens in new en-
vironments; invasive species that reduce biodiversity and decrease resilience of the ecosys-
tem; nutrient run-off into freshwater lakes where the nutrients promote “blooms” of
microbes that are often accompanied by production of toxins that can kill fish, animals,
and humans; nutrient run-off into the ocean that promotes microbial growth, reducing oxy-
gen in marine environments and killing fish; and many other examples (Maloy et al., 2016). In
addition, these seemingly small temperature changes result in increasing incidence of ex-
treme weather events that promote microbial diseases.

3 Generation of greenhouse gases

Microbes both incorporate carbon into large molecules that enter the food web, and break
down large organic molecules, recycling waste and dead matter to be reused. Both halves of
this process are critical for life on earth with a balanced equilibrium between the incorpora-
tion of carbon into organic material and the breakdown of organic materials with the release
of CO2 (Maloy et al., 2016).
However, as climate change increases the global temperature, increased metabolism of or-
ganic compounds by microbes can stimulate the release of CO2 and CH4 and thereby stim-
ulate the rate of climate change. This is observed in many places, including the arctic, the
tropics, and the ocean. For example, there is a tremendous amount of organic material and
an equally large number of microbes in the arctic tundra. When covered by layers of ice
the metabolism of these microbes is greatly slowed. The permafrost maintained the limited
microbial activity. As climate change causes the overlying ice to melt, metabolism of the mi-
crobes increases, breaking down the organic material in the tundra and releasing large
amounts of greenhouse gases ( Jansson and Taş, 2014). Likewise, tropical forests also store
a large amount of carbon in the trees, but deforestation and global warming can reverse
the uptake of CO2 during photosynthesis, releasing CO2 into the atmosphere (Sullivan
et al., 2020).

4 Altered geographical distribution of insect vectors

Insects and ticks are often adapted to particular ranges of temperature, humidity, and rain-
fall, which are influenced by climate change. When the environment changes, they often shift
their range—as the global temperature increases many of these vectors have begun to shift to
higher elevations or to cooler regions closer to the poles (see Fig. 1; Levy and Patz, 2015).

B. Physical impacts
4 Altered geographical distribution of insect vectors 197

FIG. 1 As the global temperature increases, many disease vectors are migrating from tropical regions toward the
poles.

Mosquitos spread a wide variety of serious microbial diseases, including Malaria, Dengue,
Chikungunya, Yellow Fever, Zika, and West Nile, as well as numerous other diseases. These
diseases are transmitted to humans through mosquito bites (or from the mosquito’s perspec-
tive, a blood meal). The growth of mosquitos and the frequency that they take a blood meal is
influenced by the temperature (Paaijmans et al., 2010). In addition, mosquitos require stand-
ing water to reproduce. For this reason, small changes in temperature and rainfall can influ-
ence the range of mosquitos. Global warming has expanded the range of mosquitos to higher
altitudes and latitudes. As the temperature has increased, Malaria has become common in
high mountain villages in Africa and South America where it was previously rare (Siraj
et al., 2014), and other diseases transmitted by mosquitos that were previously limited to
the tropics are beginning to appear in temperate climates (Ryan et al., 2019).
Ticks also spread many human diseases, including Lyme Disease, Rocky Mountain Fever,
Tularemia, and many others. Lyme disease is caused by an infection with the bacterium
Borrelia. The bacteria are transferred to humans and animals by the bite of certain types of
ticks. To reproduce, these ticks must take blood meals from multiple hosts, including birds,
squirrels, and mice for early development, and deer for later development. If a tick takes a
blood meal from a host infected with Borrelia, they can transmit the bacteria to a new host
when they take their next blood meal. When the ticks bite humans or dogs, the bacteria

B. Physical impacts
198 7. Climate change and microbes

can cause an infection that has short-term symptoms, but if untreated, the person can later
develop serious chronic diseases including arthritis, heart disease, and neurological symp-
toms. Like mosquitoes, the tick vectors are very sensitive to temperature and humidity. In
regions with winter snow, the ticks do not begin to seek out new hosts until the temperature
rises to about 7°C (45°F). As global warming has shortened the winter, the ticks have been
emerging earlier—an observation seen in North America, in Northern Europe, and at the op-
posite pole in South America (Bouchard et al., 2019). The early emergence allows the repro-
duction of the ticks to go through more reproductive cycles, increasing the transmission to
animals and humans and expanding the infection range closer to the two poles. In addition,
global warming increases the humidity which enhances the survival of the immature ticks.
The rate of reproduction of the ticks that carry Lyme Disease in Old Lyme, Connecticut—
the location this disease was named after—nearly doubled between 1980 and 2014 (Ogden
et al., 2014).
The shift in insect vectors is not limited to animals. Insect vectors that transmit plant dis-
eases are also increasing in response to climate change (Garrett et al., 2016). Since 1980, the
average growing season in the United States has increased by approximately 12 days be-
cause of an earlier Spring thaw and later Fall frost. Freezing winter climates at higher lat-
itudes diminished the abundance of agricultural pests by reducing their survival over the
winter season, and the shorter growing season limited their reproductive cycles. With ear-
lier warming, both the survival and number of reproductive cycles of insect pests has in-
creased. This both has direct impacts on agriculture and also increases the transmission
of plant diseases via insect vectors. In addition, changes in rainfall patterns and increased
humidity associated with climate change promote the growth of fungal diseases (“rust”)
that harm mature plants.

5 Altered precipitation

Climate change has also accelerated the hydrological cycle—the process where water
evaporates from the ocean, accumulates in clouds that move to a landmass, and release rain
that subsequently flows back to the ocean. As the temperature increases, this cycle is
disrupted resulting in periodic drought followed by flooding. Both drought and flooding in-
crease the transmission of microbial diseases (Cann et al., 2013).
Flooding can contaminate fresh water supplies with sewage, which increases pathogens
like Salmonella and Vibrio cholerae in drinking water and agricultural water. Although we
know how to decontaminate food and water to prevent these diseases, Salmonella, pathogenic
E. coli, Vibrio, and many other microbes continue to cause a tremendous amount of illness and
death. People in regions of the world with reliable clean water supplies and sewage systems
may view these diseases as a rare annoyance, but in many parts of the world where effective
sanitary systems are not available, diseases transmitted by food and water are responsible for
a large proportion of childhood deaths. The multiple problems that accompany extreme
weather events further limit the access to potable water, often for extended periods. Follow-
ing such natural disasters, water-borne diseases like Cholera kill many people around the
world (Relman et al., 2008).

B. Physical impacts
5 Altered precipitation 199
It seems counterintuitive, but drought also increases the incidence of pathogens in wa-
ter. During a drought, the supplies of potable water are limited, enticing people to store
containers of fresh water in containers for their personal use. However, frequent tapping
into these water supplies increases the likelihood that an infected person will contami-
nate the entire container. In addition, animals drawn to dwindling water sources are
more likely to remain closer to the water, potentially contaminating the upstream water
supply.
Flooding also leaves areas of still water that provides a breeding ground for mosquitos,
which promotes the transmission of diseases such as Malaria, Dengue, and West Nile
Disease.
Periodic drought followed by periods of heavy rain often increases the population of
rodents that can transmit disease. An excellent example of this is the outbreak of a new
disease in a remote region where the states of Utah, Colorado, New Mexico, and Arizona
meet, called the “Four Corners” (Engelthaler et al., 1999). This rural, arid region had an
extended drought for several years in the early 1990s, followed by a heavy snowfall
and spring rains that stimulated the rapid growth of plants. The increased vegetation pro-
duced abundant seeds that were consumed by deer mice, resulting in a deer mouse pop-
ulation explosion. The increase in mice led to more encounters with humans and
transmission of a disease carried by the mice—infection with the Sin Nombre virus was
often lethal (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Emerging
and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases (NCEZID), Division of High-Consequence Pathogens
and Pathology (DHCPP), 2020, https://www.cdc.gov/hantavirus/outbreaks/history.
html). As climate change causes more of these drought-flood cycles, we have seen many
other examples of enhanced transmission of diseases from animals to humans (see Fig. 2;
Atlas and Maloy, 2014).

FIG. 2 Effect of extreme weather on transmission of infectious diseases.

B. Physical impacts
200 7. Climate change and microbes

6 Elevated ocean temperature

Like the terrestrial temperature, the temperature of the ocean has increased by about
0.6–1.2°C (1–2°F). Does this small increase in ocean temperature matter?
Certain microbes found in seawater can cause serious human diseases. One example is a bac-
terium called Vibrio parahaemolyticus. This pathogen can cause a very serious gastrointestional
disease. It accumulates in shellfish and is most often acquired via consumption of infected raw
oysters. However, Vibrio parahaemolyticus does not grow below 15°C (59°F) so oysters grown in
the cold waters off of Alaska had always been safe—that is, until 2002 when the water temper-
ature exceeded 15°C. The water has continued to warm since then, and so these once pristine
oyster beds are now a source of occasional outbreaks (McLaughlin et al., 2005).
Another serious pathogen that lives in water is Vibrio cholerae, which causes the disease
Cholera. Careful analysis of changes in ocean temperature have shown that Cholera out-
breaks closely lag increases in water temperature, and the incidence of Cholera is strongly
correlated with climate change (de Magny and Colwell, 2009).

7 Changes in biodiversity

Changes in temperature and water availability influence the growth and survival of dif-
ferent plants and animals in specific environments. As climate change has altered the physical
environment, certain species move to more favorable environments while other species take
over their previous habitat. Sometimes people think of this change in biodiversity as a natural
occurrence that doesn’t have major human consequences. However, changes in biodiversity
can impact both agriculture and health. As certain species move out of a habitat that is no
longer hospitable, new species can move in to take their place, including agricultural pests
and weeds that reduce the yield of important crops.
Biodiversity can also impact animal and human health. A nice example of this is the observed
changes in animals occupying different parts of Yosemite National Park (Santos et al., 2017). As
the temperature increased at lower elevations, certain species moved to higher elevations. This
change in species diversity can have a major impact on the transmission of Lyme disease, because
the bacterium cannot reproduce as well in different hosts. If the species diversity shifts to more
animals that are sensitive to infection, there will be a greater chance that a tick will bite an infected
host and transmit disease. Hence, species diversity can reduce the spread of disease.
The impact of climate change on biodiversity is also a potential problem for microbes them-
selves. It is possible that climate change could impact the beneficial microbial communities
(microbiomes) that promote the health of plants by changing the local environment in ways
that restricts growth of key members of the community (Reese, 2016).

8 One Health

A unifying concept underlying the impact of climate change on increases in infectious dis-
ease is called “One Health.” This concept is based on the observation that disruption of the

B. Physical impacts
8 One Health 201
environment has negative impacts on plants, wild and domesticated animals, and humans.
The negative impacts may be manifested in many ways, from reducing agricultural produc-
tivity to an increase in infectious diseases. The role of the environment in emerging infectious
diseases is shown in Fig. 3.
The One Health concept not only describes the relationship between environmental health,
animal health, and human health, but also makes predictions that may be important for ad-
aptation to climate change. Instead of identifying and treating disease, the One Health ap-
proach focuses on recognizing environmental changes and predicting downstream
outcomes (Fig. 4). In some cases, this may allow us to make upstream environmental changes
that avoid the negative impacts on agriculture, animals, and humans (Atlas et al., 2010).

FIG. 3 Environmental disruption and emerging infectious diseases in animals and humans.

FIG. 4 How the One Health concept can facilitate to changes in infectious disease prevalence in response to climate
change.

B. Physical impacts
202 7. Climate change and microbes

9 Take-home points

Microbes mediate many of the health impacts of climate change. The spread of infectious
diseases is amplified and accelerated by the increase in terrestrial and ocean temperatures,
extreme weather, flooding and drought, and altered humidity caused by climate change.
These impacts may either be driven by directly influencing the microbe or indirectly by
influencing a vector that transmits the microbe, the local biodiversity, or even the plant, an-
imal, or human host. Microbes also play beneficial roles in plant, animal, and human health,
so the health impacts of climate change could occur by disrupting these beneficial
microbiomes.
In addition to their roles in health and disease, microbes play crucial roles in the biogeo-
chemical cycles that are essential for life on earth. This includes consuming greenhouse gases
and generating greenhouse gases, depending on the microbe and environment. The ability of
microbes to consume greenhouse gases provides promise that microbes can be engineered to
efficiently scrub greenhouse gases from the atmosphere (Mangodo et al., 2020). So, in addition
to being part of the problem, microbes are likely to be part of the solution.

Acknowledgments
Our work on climate change and emerging infectious diseases was supported by the WM Keck Foundation (Grant
#G00009442). I also want to thank my colleagues Al Sweedler PhD, who is an expert in the physics of climate change,
and Nancy Marlin PhD, who is an expert on human behavior. Our interdisciplinary discussions have expanded my
understanding of the many nuances of the physical and human impacts of climate change.

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B. Physical impacts

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