CHAPTERE ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Project Outline

This project envisages the design and implementation of a small wind turbine
for electric power generation: 1-5 kW. The project encompasses the mechanical
design of the wind blades, tower, gearbox, and choice of the proper electricity
generator. The ability to provide a feasible and reliable electrical supply shall
be emphasized. Connection to electricity networks with the associated proper
frequency and voltage requirements and the involved technical modifications is
described and discussed. The wind turbine shall be tested under local conditions
in Toowoomba and Ipswich.
1.2 Project Introduction:
This project envisions the design and appropriate implementation of a 1-5 kW
electricity producing wind turbine. The turbine will ideally be designed for
implementation in remote communities to power individual house’s electrical
needs or to be fed directly into a local energy grid. The aim of the project is to
design a wind energy converter comprising of a rotor system, a gearbox and a
generator that will successfully produce the specified electrical power. As wind
turbines are not new technology the project will be aimed at proving and
optimising a system based on existing technology to achieve the desired power
output. Considerations are taken in designing the turbine with an effective post
life recycling scheme in mind so that there will be minimum wastage of
resources once the turbine is made redundant. Ultimately the aim of this project
is to make use of a natural resource to supply mankind’s energy requirements in
a sustainable manner. If a wind turbine can be designed and constructed so that
it can produce more power over its life time than it takes to be produced and
maintained over its useful life, then it is a sustainable answer to our global
energy requirements. It is obvious now that we are facing an oncoming global
energy shortage. Fossil fuel prices are rising in conjunction with the decrease in
their stockpiles and it is vital that alternative methods of energy production be
investigated and introduced on a global scale to maintain our standard of life.
Wind energy has the potential to meet our requirements and several nations
have already begun effectively producing and harvesting this form of green
energy.
1.3 Project Objectives
As previously mentioned, the electricity producing wind turbine is an already
existing technology and this project is focused on redesigning and adapting
mechanical and electrical engineering principles to achieve the specified energy
output. Realistically the simplest method to achieve the goal in this project
would be to scale down an existing turbine until its power output fell into the
category of 1-5 kW. However it is vital that a good understanding of the
concepts and principles behind wind turbine design is developed so that
existing methods of wind energy production can be improved and made more
efficient. There are a wide variety of wind energy converters already available
on the market and many of these will be investigated throughout the course of
the report. The objectives of the project are:
- To provide thorough background information on wind energy and wind
turbines
- To employ mechanical design principles gained over the duration of a BENG
Mechanical degree.
- To design a suitable wind turbine to meet the specifications set out in the
project outline.
- To develop a sustainable, environmentally friendly alternative to fossil fuel
consuming energy production.

The main objective of the design project is to develop a mechanical system that
is capable of providing driving force to a generator using only the energy
contained in wind. The generator in the system is the mechanical-electrical
converter in the wind turbine and the gearbox and rotor blades need to be
designed to supply the generator with an input that will yield the desired output
power. This being said, a suitable generator first needs to be selected and tested
to determine the input speed required to produce 5 kW before any other design
goes ahead. Once this has been determined a rotor system and gearbox can be
designed to produce the required revolution speed and torque to supply
mechanical power to the generator. In selecting a generator consideration needs
to be made as to what type of current is being produced and where it will flow
to, if it will be stored or if it will be directly applied in an electrical device.
1.4 Consequential effects of project outcomes
In our current global situation, both environmental and economic, it is evident
that drastic changes need to be made to the way we treat our planet and each
other. Rather than dwell on the problems of the past and present, this research
project aims at creating an understanding of a proven environmentally friendly
alternative to fossil fuel based power production. Although as yet a wind
turbine on its own cannot provide the same scale of power as a steam turbine in
a coal fired power plant, it is a technology that will long outlast fossil fuel
technology. Aside from its initial construction and ongoing maintenance costs,
the wind turbine provides electrical power without any extra input. This project
aims at designing a small scale 1-5kW turbine for personal use in isolated areas
where grid connection is not available as yet. By supplying wind powered
electricity generators to these areas, it alleviates the need for the construction of
electrical networking (powerlines) to the specified areas saving both money and
resources. In a country like Australia where the population to landmass ratio is
relatively low and the majority of the population residing in coastal regions,
wind energy converters have been put aside due to the cheap coal and oil prices
at the time. Coal fired power stations have been the method of preference due
to their high power output capabilities. However coal resources are only finite
and therefore it is time to start looking for other viable energy sources such as
wind power. A turbine producing 5kW of electrical energy is sufficient to
power a refrigerator, a television and a household’s lighting quite comfortably.
This being said, a feasible wind turbine design would not only be a
demonstration and application of 4 years of study but could potentially spark
global change leading to a better future for our planet. A potential consequence
of the success of this project would ultimately be the refinement of the design
and future production and commercialisation of the turbine. For the purpose of
the project, the design of the turbine is for the demonstration of applied
technical knowledge gained over the duration of a mechanical engineering
degree. However, particularly in this project there is a great opportunity to
continue research and development beyond the timelines and aims mentioned in
the project specification. One of the issues on a social level with wind turbines
is the aesthetic appeal of the structure. If every house in a community had a
wind turbine in its back yard, understandably there would be an issue with
noise and aesthetic appeal. However if the turbines were grouped, as in a wind
farm either on land or out at sea the issue could be successfully avoided,
however a power distribution network would need to be created. A power
distribution network would alleviate the issue of storing the electricity once it
has been produced, rather than subsequently having one battery in every
household which would see costs increase dramatically, not to mention the
environmental effects incurred by the eventual disposal of the batteries.
1.5 Methodology
The process of designing a wind turbine involves the conceptual
implementation of a number of electrical and mechanical subsystems to create a
machine capable of converting the energy contained in wind to useful electrical
energy. This process is constrained by various factors, the most notable being
the economic viability of the design. If the machine can be designed and is able
to produce energy at a cost less than its opposition of fossil fuels and nuclear
energy, then the project is deemed economically viable. However in today’s
global situation there is also the challenge of environmental and ethical
viability to contend with. Renewable energy projects should be prioritised and
subsidised by the appropriate government agencies due to the benefits they
offer to society. However, along with the majority of design projects, it is a
fundamental design goal to keep the energy cost at a lower level than of
existing energy producing systems.
Design procedure outline There are a variety of different approaches that can
be taken in wind turbine design and accordingly there are also a number of
issues that need to be taken into account. The design procedure outlined in
“(McGowan 2003)” (p248), sets guidelines for the design of a wind energy
converter and has been taken into consideration for application in this project.
Proposed Design Procedure:
1. Determine application

The first step in the design process is determining for what type of application
the turbine is being designed for. A large 2 MW turbine will follow different
design and implementation procedures as opposed to a small scale 1-5 kW
machine. There is also a difference in blade configuration for water pumping
wind mills when compared to 3 bladed electricity producing turbines.

2. Review previous experience

This section of the process deals with the review and investigation of the
previous design of similar wind turbines. Reviewing previous work helps with
troubleshooting and allows the designer to narrow down the available options
and gain some direction as to conducting the design process.
3. Select topology

As there are a wide variety of different wind turbine designs, mainly varying
with the rotor type and orientation, it is important to identify the most suitable
option for the proposed application. The options include: (As listed, Wind
Energy Explained : Theory, Design and Application)
- Rotor axis orientation: horizontal / vertical
- Power control: stall, variable pitch, controllable aerodynamic surfaces and
yaw control
- Rotor position: upwind or downwind
- Yaw control: driven yaw, free yaw, fixed yaw
- Rotor speed: constant or variable
- Design tip speed ratio and solidity
- Hub type
- Number of blades

4. Preliminary loads estimate:

In the early stages of design it is important to have an approximate idea of what

sort of loading the wind turbine will be subject to. This helps in narrowing
down the design of individual components and employed techniques such as
scaling and ‘rule of thumb’. The estimates made in the preliminary stages of
design are adjusted throughout the project duration to conform to the required
design specifications. This will be done with the use of FEA programs such as
ANSYS and COSMOS.
5. Develop tentative design

Once an overall design layout has been determined, the preliminary turbine
design can be developed. The design can be broken up into a number of smaller
sub systems such as:
- Electrical Generator
- Gearing system
- Drive train
- Hub
- Yaw system
- Rotors
- Nacelle and tower

Modelling will be conducted using Pro Engineer and SOLID Works.

6. Predict performance

It is important to develop a power curve of the turbine which depicts the

performance of the turbine at different speeds. This primarily will relate to the
rotor design but also incorporates the type of gear box and generator and the
associated losses in each.

7. Evaluate design

Like all engineering designs the structural and mechanical integrity of the
proposed wind turbine needs to be thoroughly evaluated to ensure the turbine
can operate safely and effectively under various types of loading. As the turbine
is exposed to the forces of nature it needs to be designed with irregular weather
patterns taken into consideration. The turbine’s components will constantly be
subject to fatigue loading and an increase in wind speed can cause shock
loading to occur which needs to be taken into consideration in the design
stages. The turbine will also be subject to static, steady, cyclic, impulsive,
stochastic transient and resonance induced loads and will need to be able to
withstand these loads under all credible conditions, both normal and extreme.
The main loads of concern are those occurring around the rotor and hub. This is
a primary area of focus in the design of the proposed wind turbine.
8. Estimate costs and cost of energy

Before the wind turbine reaches prototyping or production stages a careful cost
analysis needs to be conducted to determine if the design is economically
viable. It is necessary to effectively quote the construction cost of the turbine in
both prototyping and production stages and also to then determine a
productivity cost, the cost of producing energy. In the prototyping stages
relatively high costs can be expected due to the work involved with designing
each individual component the associated fabrication and machining costs. In
the production stages the individual component cost will drop quite
significantly in relation to quantity and the possible off the shelf availability of
certain components.
9. Refine design

Once preliminary design, design evaluation and cost estimation has been
completed the refinement stage is reached. Changes are made in accordance to
the findings of the mentioned evaluation processes. Material selection,
component strength and component appearance may be changed to conform
with costing, structural and mechanical integrity and also aesthetic appeal.
Once the changes have been employed the redesigned turbine will then be
subject to re-evaluation to ensure the design still conforms to all safety
standards.
10. Build prototype (If time permits)

Once the design process has been completed a prototype should be designed to
verify any assumptions made, test concepts and insure that the turbine can be
fabricated, installed and operated as expected. Due to the time limit of the
project and the nature of the work associated in completing a prototype, this
stage has only been partially completed.
11. Test prototype

After installation of the prototype the turbine is subject to a variety of field tests
to determine the physical capabilities of the design and to determine the wind
turbine’s rated power output. Once again due to the time restraints of the
project the different subsystems will be tested to determine their individual
performance levels.
12. Design production machine

The final stage of the process is to redesign the prototype for a production
scenario. This would involve sourcing readily available off the shelf parts and
redesigning components so they can be easily mass produced. This stage of the
design process does not directly apply to the project but will be pursued in
future depending upon the success of the project.

1.6 Initial blade design methodology

The design of the turbines rotors is perhaps the most mathematically involving
element of the entire turbine design. The rotors use aerodynamic lift to provide
a turning moment and consequently an input torque to the gearbox. The sizing
and configuration of the blades is based upon the relative power coefficient of
the turbine and the energy in the stream tube. The energy in the stream tube
depends on the swept area of the blades and the wind speed. For the purpose of
this project, mathematical modelling and analysis is utilised to determine the
rotor sizing, however some assumptions have to be made in order to obtain a
realistic geometry. The design of the blades used in this project is based on
blade element theory and the Betz equation and will investigate the blade shape
for ideal rotors with and without wake rotation. For experimental purposes a set
of scaled blades will be created for testing and employment in a small wind
turbine to be constructed during the duration of the project, time permitting.
The blades will be based on the ideal blade shape for a rotor without wake
rotation. The blades will be created using a fibreglass mould which will then be
filled with two part expanding foam. The cured foam will take up the shape of
the blade and once cured will be glassed to give increased strength and rigidity.
Due to the nature of the blade crafting technique it will be very difficult to
achieve symmetry in all of the blades and this will ultimately attribute to some
dynamic instability. Post shaping blade balancing techniques are employed to
ensure that dynamic stability and safety of the rotor. Blade geometry The
geometry and shape of the wind turbine rotor depends on the size of the turbine
and its rated energy output. Typical wind turbines used in energy production
such as those on wind farms tend to have rotor diameters between 30 and 80
metres. These turbines include automatic rotor pitching mechanisms which
allow the turbine to run safely even in extreme weather conditions and turn out
of the wind if running conditions threaten the structural integrity of the turbine.
These turbines typically produce around 2 MW of electrical energy. The turbine
being designed in this project aims at achieving a power output of 1-5 kW. The
rotor diameter for this type of turbine will be around one to two meters based
on the relationship between the power output of the turbine and the swept area
of the rotor. This value however does also depend upon the efficiency of the
gearbox and the type of induction generator used. Assuming no wake and drag,
the maximum achievable power coefficient of a wind turbine was determined to
occur with an axial induction factor of 1/3. Under the same assumptions, an
ideal blade shape can be determined by using the blade element and momentum
equations. This blade shape would approximate a design that would provide
maximum power at the design tip speed ratio of a real wind turbine.
Assumptions made for ideal blade design with no wake rotation
- No wake rotation : a’ = 0
- No drag : Cd = 0
- No losses from finite number of blades
- For the Betz optimum rotor, a = 1/3 in each annular stream tube

The blade rotor cross section is in the shape of an aerofoil and uses
aerodynamic lift to induce rotation in the drive shaft. The forces on the blades
of a wind turbine can be expressed as a function of lift and drag coefficients
and angle of attack. In analysing the cross sections of a turbine blade it must be
noted that drag and lift act parallel and perpendicular, respectively, to the
effective or relative wind. Table 1.1 contains design guidelines for an ideal
blade without wake rotation. The initial turbine blade will be designed using
these figures as reference.

Twist and chord distribution for a Betz optimum blade

r/R Chord, m Twist angle Angle of Rel. Section pitch
(deg.) Wind (deg.) (deg.)
0.1 1.375 38.2 43.6 36.6
0.2 0.858 20 25.5 18.5
0.3 0.604 12.2 17.6 10.6
0.4 0.462 8 13.4 6.4
0.5 0.373 5.3 10.8 3.8
0.6 0.313 3.6 9 2
0.7 0.269 2.3 7.7 0.7
0.8 0.236 1.3 6.8 -0.2
0.9 0.21 0.6 6 -1
1 0.189 0 5.4 -1.6

Table 1.1 Twist and chord distribution for a Betz optimum blade ( McGowan,
Rodgers, 2003) The data contained in Table 1.1 are used as guidelines during
the preliminary stages of the blade design. The relationship between twist angle
and r/R ratio will be employed whilst the corresponding chord lengths will be
adjusted to suit the length of the blade where seen fit ( R is the total length of
the blade. r is the relative length from the blade root). As this is only for the
initial stages of design, a simple blade shape will be achieved and then tested to
determine where it can be improved and what changes need to be made.

Initial design and shaping of blades Introduction: The initial design of the
turbine rotors was based upon the Betz equation and the design guidelines for a
rotor without any wake rotation. This data was sourced from the text Wind
Energy Explained and was used to create a computer model for testing and
reference during shaping. The initial aim was to create the blade shape using a
light weight foam, also commonly used for making surf boards, however due to
problems encountered with the foam’s structural properties a different material
was used.

Figure 1.1: Blade profile The blade shown in Figure 1.1 is a modified version
of the optimum design data specified in table1.1. This was done to
accommodate for the difficulty in shaping the blade by hand from either foam
or wood. The chord lengths varying with distance from the blade root were
increased to make shaping easier and to increase the strength of the blade. Note
that this is only an initial blade design for testing and modelling purposes and
further development was conducted for the final design. The blade incorporates
an overall blade twist of 38.2° from root to tip. The majority of the blade twist,
around 26 degrees, occurs in the first 400mm of blade from the root and then
turns into a gradual twist over the remaining 600mm of the blade.

Initial shaping of the blades The first stages of blade shaping took place
during the mid semester study break between the 4th and 11th of April 2009.
Shaping took place in a wood working workshop in Millaa Millaa, Far North
Queensland. At first the aim was to shape the blades out of a large piece of high
density foam due to the ease of which the material can be shaped and formed.
Initially an aerosol propelled foam in a can type substance was used. The foam
was injected into a mould, 1200 x 200 x 100 in dimension, to create a blank for
shaping. However once fully cured the foam did not poses the right structural
and mechanical properties for further shaping. The foam was spongy and did
not sand very easily instead crumbling and breaking off in chunks and the
decision was made to discontinue with the material. Due to time constraints the
decision was made to continue using timber as a material for creating an initial
blade shape. The blade profile was then shaped using Caribbean pine as a base
material. The physical blade model was formed predominantly to act as a blank
for the future moulding of blades as the blades need to be identical and
balanced for the turbine to operate safely and efficiently. Unless CNC profile
cutting equipment is available and a uniform lightweight material is used, the
precision and accuracy of the blade dimensions is compromised. During the
first shaping process a total of three identical timber blades were created all
slightly varying in dimension. The blade twist in all three was maintained at 38
degrees of their lengths conforming to the ideal blade guidelines for a blade
with no wake rotation. The three blades will be used for modelling of the rotor
assembly and for testing of the aerofoils drag and lift forces.

1.7 Risk assessment

The design and construction of a wind turbine incorporates various risks and
hazards that need to be brought to the attention to anyone who is involved in
the processing of parts, assembly and operation of the machine. The majority of
risks and hazards are common in industry and there is professional training
available to prepare individuals for safe operation within a hazardous
environment. The majority of hazards associated with the project are in the
construction stage and are identified in the following table:
Table 1.2 Hazard / Risk Description / significance/
likelihood/ exposure
Consequences/ counter measures
Fumes During the fabrication of fibre glass
blades/ carbon fibre blades there is
a hazard associated with the fumes
produced by combining the resin
with the catalyst. The fumes can
cause nausea and extreme
headaches and if exposed to them
for extended periods can cause
brain damage. If proper breathing
masks and eye protection are used
during the handling of the
chemicals the risk is minimized.
Protective clothing and gloves
should also be applied to avoid
contact with skin.
Machining Fabrication The machining and fabrication of
parts is a hazardous procedure
mainly due to the exposure to
moving parts and cutting
equipment. Interference with the
equipment can result in serious
injury; abrasions, cuts, bruising. To
avoid contact and minimize the risk
of these occurring, no loose fitting
 clothing should be worn during
operation of the equipment. Steel
toed boots, ear muffs and
appropriate eye protection should
be worn during the operation of
equipment. If possible the work
should be carried out under the
supervision of professionals.
Electrical As the turbine is used to produce
electrical energy there is an
apparent electrical hazard.
Interference with electricity can
cause significant damage to a
person or even death. The amount
of energy being produced by the
turbine poses a significant risk to
anyone who comes into contact
with it. This being said only
professional electrical technicians
should conduct any work on the
generator, the transmission and the
storage unit. All wiring and
connections must be effectively
insulated and tested on a periodic
basis to avoid short circuiting
which could cause damage to the
 electrical network.
Construction The construction of the turbine will
involve the use of a crane lifting the
nacelle and rotor in position some
6-10m above the ground. Objects
falling from such heights can cause
significant damage to anything they
come into contact with. Hard hats
and steel toed boots should be worn
during the assembly and erection of
the turbine.
Operational Once in operation the rotors of the
turbine are in constant motion.
There is a slight contact risk for
personnel conducting maintenance
on the turbine. The rotors must be
stalled before any maintenance is
conducted on the turbine to avoid
contact. Contact can result in cuts,
bruises, breaking of limbs and may
cause a fall from a height that could
be fatal.

1.8 Resource Requirements

Design As the project deals mainly with the design and implementation of a wind
turbine and actual construction is only a secondary project objective that will only
be conducted if time permits, the majority of resources will be in the form of
software and literature. The design of the wind turbine will be based on existing
technology which will be investigated in the literature review. This will provide the
background knowledge and aid in optimising the technical design parameters of
the project; materials, geometry, structure, electrical generator selection etc... The
University Library will be the primary source of information aiding the design
procedure along with private publications from industry. The geometric and
physical design and modelling will require a CAD package such as PRO Engineer
or SOLID Works. The software is available for use at the university along with
ANSYS for finite element analysis of the design and testing of individual
components. Construction, fabrication If construction of the turbine is to take
place a wide variety of machinery, tooling and additional tooling is required. These
are listed below:
- Milling centres ( tooling )
- Metal lathe (tooling)
- Welding equipment (TIG, MIG)
- Workshop equipment ( general tooling)
- Fibre glassing equipment
- Testing facilities (Tensile, impact, fatigue, wind tunnel)

Material
- The blades will be optimally constructed using either carbon fibre or fibre glass
coated timber.
- The mechanical parts within the Hub and gear box will be machined from high
tensile steel (4140, 4340) to ensure wear resistance.
- The base and housing of the nacelle will be machined and fabricated from
aluminium stock.
- The tower will optimally be fabricated from appropriately sized steel tubing.

1.9 Project timeline

The project time line is a time management too that acts as a guide to ensure tasks
are planned and completed on schedule. Figure 1.2

CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

Review of available literature

The content of this chapter is an overview of the available literature and
information on wind turbine design that will ultimately be used as a foundation
throughout the design project. The chapter aims at:
- Providing an overview of the history and development of wind turbines
- Identifying the need for wind turbines
- Identifying the most effective type of wind turbine for the proposed application

This project aims to include and further develop the methodologies previously
employed in wind turbine design to produce a 1-5kW turbine for electrical energy
production in isolated areas. A wind turbine utilises naturally occurring wind flow
to turn wind power into electrical energy via a mechanical medium.

2.1 Brief history of wind mills

Wind energy converters are not a new technology and have been utilised for
mainly mechanical applications such as grain crushing since 644 A.D. (first
reliable information from historical sources; as cited ‘Hau, 2000’) Windmills were
first utilised in the ancient area of Seistan ( Persia, Afghanistan ) and primitive
machines are still being used today in the region for grain processing. The first
wind mills were vertical axis turbines which used sails around a pivot to create
mechanical power. Centuries after the Persian wind mill technology was
documented news of the Chinese utilising wind mills to drain their rice paddies of
water reached Europe. Whether or not the Chinese had already been utilising the
windmill or a run-off of a wind mill before the Persians can no longer be
determined with certainty today.(‘Hau, 2000’) Interestingly, the Chinese wind mill
was also a vertical axis bamboo structure with sails, similar to the Persian system.
The classical or horizontal axis wind turbine can be confidently attributed to
European designers independent of the oriental vertical axis systems. The first
documented historical evidence of horizontal axis wind mills dates back to 1180
which tells of a wind mill called a post or trestle mill present in the Dutch
Normandy. From there on the post mill quickly spread throughout Europe and was
then further developed into the tower mill two centuries later. In the 16th century
the Dutch wind mill was developed in Holland which composed of a mill house
with a rotating tower cap and rotor blades. This design is still in practical use today
throughout the Netherlands and other European countries for traditional milling
processes.
Figure 2.1 Dutch Tower mill Figure 2.2 Pillar Mill
2.2 The American wind turbine ( Halladay design )
When windmill technology was reaching its peak in Europe in the Early 19th
century, windmill design and construction had also spread to what we now refer to
as the United States of America, particularly on the British and Dutch inhabited
East coast. In the mid west of America there was a need for the extraction of
artesian water to provide the settlers with a source to sustain their crops and
livestock. The first suitable solution to the water extraction problem came in 1850
when a mechanic from Connecticut called Daniel Halladay invented a self
regulating wind turbine that was safe from destruction even in violent wind storms.
Halladay developed a blade system that was not directly connected to the shaft but
suspended on a ring collar which allowed for the free movement of the blades and
self adjustment to the pitch angle of the blades to operate safely in the prevailing
wind conditions. The movement of the ring was triggered by centrifugal forces and
the pitch angle of the blades increased with the wind speed and rotational speed.

Figure 2.3
2.3 Initial stages of electrical power production from wind
In 1882 the world’s first power plant was built in New York and produced around 500kW of
electrical power for utilisation in the cities developing electrical distribution network. In 1891 three-
phase current was introduced and power plant technology developed rapidly and yielded a
progressively increasing output capacity. By the Early twenties most large cities in industrialised
countries had been supplied with electricity. Supplying rural regions with electricity however
proved to be a very slow process due to the large distances between the power plants and
receptive areas. Whilst waiting for the arrival of electricity to the mid western region, farmers of the
area began to make attempts at driving electrical generators with their windmills which were
actually designed for water pumping. The first systematic development of a wind mill for purely
electricity generation took place in Denmark by the Dane Poul La Cour. La Cour built an
experimental wind turbine driving a dynamo in 1891 under the encouragement of the Danish
government in the hope of supplying electricity to the rural regions of Denmark. At the same time
La Cour tackled the issue of storing the electricity produced as he used the direct current produced
for electrolysis and stored the hydrogen gas produced during the process. La Cour’s wind turbines
were the beginning of a new era of electricity production and his success was highlighted when the
Lykkegard Company started to industrially evaluate his developments. Lykkegard began the
production of electricity generating wind turbines modelled after the developments made by La
Cour at his testing station at Askov. The rising fuel prices encountered during World War 1 brought
about an acceleration in the production of the wind turbines and by 1918 about 120 electricity
producing wind turbines were in operation around Europe. The La Cour Lykkegard turbines were
produced in a range of sizes with power production ranging from 10-35 kW . The design
incorporated fan blades with shutters which made it possible to remain below a certain critical
rotational speed limit and operate at a safe level and yawing was managed by two fan tails. The
electrical generator was positioned at the base of the tower and was connected to the rotor shaft
by a vertical drive shaft and intermediate gearbox.
Figure 2.4 La Cour Lykkegard Turbine positioned on building.

The La Cour Lykkegard electricity producing wind turbine achieved an overall efficiency of around
22% and at a highly productive site the annual energy yield amounted to around 50 000 kWh.
2.4 The need for development of renewable energy sources
A study on the environmental impacts of wind energy projects, Environmental Impacts of Wind-
Energy Projects (2007, National research council(US)), highlights some important positive factors
that support the development of wind energy farms. Wind turbines are a viable medium of energy
production in that they can produce our energy requirements in place of other methods and do not
have the same harmful effects on the environment. Wind turbines do not pollute our air or water
with polluted or toxic bi-products of energy production. Directly, their operation only affects the
wind speed directly behind the rotor blades. Other organisations have however drawn attention to
some adverse environmental affects. These include the visual effect they have on humans, the
interference on the ecosystem; birds and bats – rotor blades, and the increase in transport
infrastructure and power lines to the wind farm site. Renewable Electricity and the Grid : The
Challenge of Variability(Godfrey, 2007) states that, “It is shown that modest amounts of input from
sources such as wind pose no operational difficulties because they do not add significantly to the
uncertainties in the prediction of the supply-demand balance.” It also predicts that the integration of
wind energy into the grid on a global scale would be around £2 per MWh with 10% wind energy,
rising to £3 for 20% wind energy. Weighing up the benefits of wind energy against the incurred cost,
it is evident that wind energy would be not only a sustainable alternative but also economically
viable. Australia is one of the world’s highest per-capita consumers of fossil fuels. This primarily can
be attributed to the vast distances between our major centres and community hubs. Along with this
Australia has been identified as the developed country most vulnerable to climate change and its
adverse effects on our environment and ecosystem. Energy Revolution- A sustainable Australia
energy outlook (Teske, Vincent(2008), an article published by Greenpeace International draws
attention to the current crossroads faced by humanity in terms of our changing climate. Since the
industrial revolution our planet has warmed by 0.74° C primarily due to the burning of carbon-
intensive fossil fuels. The challenge faced today is the avoidance of “runaway” climatic change.
According to climate experts, if a global increase of 2° is reached it would trigger the release of even
more emissions inevitably taking global warming out of our control.
Figure 2.5 is a representation of the world’s naturally occurring energy resources. All natural energy
sources combined provide 3078 times the current global energy needs.

Solar energy (2850 times)

Biomass ( 20 times )

Wind energy ( 200 times ) Wave-Tidal

energy (2 times) Geothermal (5 times)
Hydropower (1 times)

Figure 2.5 Naturally occurring Energy

resources of the world ( Source : Dr.
Joachim Nitsch (Greenpeace)) Taking Figure
2.5 into account, it is a wonder that we are
still burning fossil fuels at all. With the
current available technology we can access
5.9 times the global demand of energy, all
from natural sources. Wind energy is the 2nd largest available form of accessible renewable energy
and with current technology can provide half the world’s energy requirements.
2.5 Basic concepts
Wind turbines come in a variety of different designs with varying outputs and efficiencies but all
convert the kinetic energy contained in an airstream into mechanical work. The most common type
of wind turbine is the Horizontal axis wind turbine with blade numbers generally ranging from one
to three. (Hau(2000) ; Gipe(2004) and McGowan & Rogers(2003) all state that the three bladed
horizontal axis wind turbine is the most suitable to standard wind conditions and is also the most
aesthetically pleasing of the wind energy converters.
There are also a wide variety of vertical axis wind turbines being utilised for the purpose of
electricity production however none can achieve as high a power coefficient as the horizontal
designs. Vertical axis wind turbines were initially designed to be used as purely drag type rotors
however later on engineers redesigned the systems to also incorporate aerodynamic lift as a source
of rotation. The most common type of vertical axis wind turbine is the Darrieus rotor which can be
best 34 | P a g e
described as a turbine resembling the “spinning rope” principle. The specific advantages associated
with the vertical axis wind turbine are generally related to the simplicity of the design. The gearbox
and generator can be placed at ground level which also prevents the need for a yawing system to
be incorporated in the design. However the advantages of the vertical axis turbine are also
accompanied by some major disadvantages such as the low tip-speed ratio produced, the inability
to self-start and also the inability to control the power output by self pitching of the blades. Another
variation of the Darrieus rotor is the H-rotor which utilises straight blades connected to the vertical
axis by struts as opposed to curved blades. Yet another design and perhaps the most basic is the
Savonius rotor which uses 2 or more wind cup like blades. The Savonius rotor was most commonly
used for mechanical applications such as to pump water or as a ventilation mechanism for train
carriages. As this type of rotor does not utilise any type of aerodynamic lift, the maximum
achievable power coefficient is a value of 0.25. In general due to their simplicity there are a large
variety of different vertical axis rotors but due to their low power coefficients the economy of this
type of mechanism is questionable. (McGowen & Rogers (2003). At present vertical axis rotor
concepts are generally not competitive with horizontal axis wind turbines.

Figure 2.6 Darrieus rotor (courtesy Photobucket Inc 2009)

The most effective and common type of wind turbine found today is the horizontal axis wind
turbine which can be most easily identified by its propeller like rotor design.(Hau(2000) ; McGowan
& Roberts(2003) ; Gipe(2004) ; Heier(1998) ) This concept developed from the European wind mill
now dominates the wind energy industry in terms of design, efficiency and achievable power
factors. The main characteristics which lead to the superiority in design over their vertical axis
counterparts are:
- The ability to control the rotor speed and power output of the turbine by self pitching the blades
around their longitudinal axis which ensures their safe operation and also survival in high winds and
extreme weather conditions.
- The aerodynamic design of the rotor blades play a major role in achieving a higher power factor
and based on this aspect alone can achieve twice the efficiency of most vertical axis turbines at
similar wind speeds.
- The turbine incorporates a yawing system in its design which allows it to judge and adapt to the
wind direction to ensure maximum energy absorption from the wind.

Figure 2.7: 3 bladed wind turbine. (courtesy Photobucket Inc2009)

The three bladed vertical axis wind turbine is the most common type of energy producing wind
turbine in use. Vertical axis wind turbines however need only one slender blade to capture the
energy in the wind (Gipe,2004). To effectively sweep the rotor disk, single bladed turbines need to
rotate at a higher velocity than their 2 and 3 bladed counterparts. This reduces the gearing ratio
required for transmission and subsequently the mass and cost of the gearbox. Proponents argue
that since one blade costs less than 2 or three, single bladed rotors will deliver optimal engineering
economy.
Cost effectiveness however is not the only factor to consider. Two bladed turbines are often used
for reasons of static balance (Gipe,2004). Three bladed turbines are preffered over single or two
bladed turbines as they give greater dynamic stability. Rotors using three blades are also more
efficient than single or two bladed turbines due to the aerodynamic losses at the tip of the blades
(Gipe, 2004 ; Hau, 2000). Below is a comparison of the overall efficiencies of differnet types of
turbine designs. At too high a tip speed ratio the operation of the 2 bladed turbine and Darrieus
rotor becomes uncontrolable and dangerous. It can be seen that the three bladed wind turbine
gives the highest efficiency at controllable wind speeds.
Figure 2.8 Comparison of various wind turbines maximum efficiencies ( source : Loop wing)

It is evident that for achieving maximum attainable efficiency, the three bladed rotor system is the
most effective option. Taking this into account, the design of the 1-5 kW wind turbine will be based
upon the technology used to develop the three bladed system. Preliminary design will incorporate a
rotor system comprising of three aerofoil shaped rotors driving a suitable electric generator using a
gearing system to effectively generate the required torque and rotational speed.