Scope of Logic?

The scope of logic is very wide. It covers always all types of knowledge weather it is
related to science or arts: based or practice or theory, logic provides bases for them.

The nature of logic is simply like a tree and all the fields of knowledge are its
branches Meaning that it is the minim main spring of all the learning. Net a single
field of knowledge can be a parted from logic, because logic provides the reasoning
for the existence of that knowledge. The wide range of branch of knowledge or
learnings evolve from a single knowledge called the logic.

The laws of logic

The laws of logic are fundamental principles that govern reasoning and rational
thinking. There are three primary laws of classical logic:

1. Law of Identity: This law states that every thing is identical to itself. In
symbolic terms, it can be expressed as: A = A This means that if you have a
statement or an object (represented by 'A'), it is always equal to itself.
2. Law of Non-Contradiction: This law asserts that contradictory statements
cannot both be true in the same sense and at the same time. In symbolic
terms: ~(A ∧ ~A) This means that a statement 'A' and its negation '~A' cannot
both be true simultaneously.
3. Law of the Excluded Middle: This law states that for any statement 'A,' either
'A' is true, or its negation '~A' is true. Symbolically: A ∨ ~A In other words,
there are no middle-ground possibilities between true and false for a given
statement.

These three laws serve as the foundation of classical logic and are essential for
constructing valid arguments and evaluating the truth or falsehood of statements.
They are often used in various fields, including mathematics, philosophy, computer
science, and everyday reasoning.

What is induction?

Induction is a method of reasoning that involves making generalizations or predictions

based on specific observations or instances. It's a common way we form beliefs and draw
conclusions about the world around us.

Essential characteristics of induction

 1. Based on Observation: Induction relies on specific observations or examples
as its starting point. It begins by looking at real instances or cases.
2. Pattern Recognition: Through these observations, induction involves
recognizing patterns or trends within the data. This step involves identifying
similarities or commonalities among the examples.
3. Generalization: Once a pattern is identified, induction leads to making a
general statement or hypothesis that extends beyond the observed cases. It
involves drawing a broader conclusion based on the observed patterns.
4. Probabilistic Reasoning: Inductive conclusions are not absolute certainties.
Instead, they are probabilistic in nature. This means that the general statement
or hypothesis is likely to be true, but there could be exceptions.
5. Limited Scope: Inductive reasoning has limitations because it's based on a
limited set of observations. The conclusions are only valid within the scope of
the observed data and may not apply to all possible cases.

Immediate inference

An inference that is drawn directly from one premise without the mediation of any other premise.
Various kinds of immediate inferences may be distinguished, traditionally including conversion,
obversion, and contraposition.

Mediate inference

Any inference drawn from more than one premise

Further Immediate Inferences

There are three other important kinds of immediate inference: conversion, obversion, and
contraposition.

1. Conversion

A valid form of immediate inference for some but not all types of propositions. To form the converse
of a proposition the subject and predicate terms are simply interchanged. Thus, applied to the
proposition “No circles are squares,” conversion yields “No squares are circles,” which is called the
“converse” of the original proposition. The original proposition is called the “convertend.”

2. Obversion

A valid form of immediate inference for every standard-form categorical proposition. To obvert a
proposition we change its quality (from affirmative to negative, or from negative to affirmative) and
replace the predicate term with its complement. Thus, applied to the proposition “All dogs are
mammals,” obversion yields “No dogs are nonmammals,” which is called the “obverse” of the
original proposition. The original proposition is called the “obvertend.”

Obvertend Obverse

A: All S is P. E: No S is non-P.

E: No S is P. A: All S is non-P.
I: Some S is P. O: Some S is not non-P.

O: Some S is not P. I: Some S is non-P.

3. Contraposition

A valid form of immediate inference for some, but not for all types of propositions. To form the
contrapositive of a given proposition, its subject term is replaced by the complement of its predicate
term, and its predicate term is replaced by the complement of its subject term. Thus the
contrapositive of the proposition “All humans are mammals” is the proposition “All nonmammals
are nonhumans.”

Existential import

An attribute of those propositions that normally assert the existence of objects of some specified
kind. Particular propositions (I and O propositions) always have existential import; thus the
proposition “Some dogs are obedient” asserts that there are dogs. Whether universal propositions
(A and E propositions) have existential import is an issue on which the Aristotelian and Boolean
interpretations of propositions differ.