RESEARCH 300

1ST QUARTER LESSONS

LESSON 1 - The results of the data are observable and

I. Qualities of Quantitative measurable using structured instruments.
Research
Replicability
- The research study should be replicable
Quantitative Research
by other teams of researchers that will
- deals with numerical values and how they
eventually come up with similar outcomes.
can describe a phenomenon or infer a
relationship.
B. Strengths of Quantitative
- It is the go-to approach for scientific inquiry Research
because of its ability to test hypotheses.
- Analysis of data is assisted with statistical
- The basis of formulating and testing methods.
hypotheses are variables, which are traits - Large-scale research can be undertaken.
that numerically describe or give meaning to - Data can be presented in graphical or
an object, phenomenon, or group of people. tabular form.

Variables C. Weaknesses of Quantitative

- the ones that are usually identified, Research
examined, described, or correlated to
answer a scientific inquiry. - A large sample size requires a lot of time
and effort.
Independent Variable - Statistical analysis of data requires an
- the variable that is manipulated, especially expert to perform.
in experiments. - Quantifying and reducing observations to
numerical values makes it too simplistic.
Dependent Variable
- depends on the independent variable. D. Types of Quantitative Research

A. Characteristics of Quantitative The experimental and nonexperimental

Research types of quantitative research depend on
the topic and the nature of the problem
Controllability being investigated.
- Quantitative research should be in an
environment where all variables are Experimental
identified and can be controlled. - True experimental research
- The primary objective of a true
Generalizability experimental research design is to identify
- Generalizability is from larger sample sizes a cause-effect relationship between the
that the results are based on as a variables where the samples are
representative of the population. randomized.

Objectivity

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Example: This kind of research usually involves two

To find out if sunlight affects the growth of or more groups and one independent
plants, we have three setups: variable.
- Set A is to grow a seed that will
receive ample amount of sunlight. Example:
- Set B is a seed that will be placed You want to know if attendance to the
where sunlight is limited. school’s summer program is the cause of
- Set C is a seed that will be placed students’ increased class participation.
completely in the dark. - You identified two groups of students
who enrolled in the summer program
All of them will be planted in the same type and those who did not.
of soil and will be given equal amounts of - You collected data on their individual
water, and the results will be recorded after class participation.
days of observation. - After analyzing the data, you
concluded that the summer program
Nonexperimental helped the students in participating
- Descriptive research more in class.
A nonexperimental research design focuses
on the description of factors, variables, - Correlational research
or phenomena that occur in nature. Its primary objective is to compare two
variables then identify the relationship
Example: between them.
To identify the factors that contribute to the
spoilage of food, a survey is conducted to Example:
know about food spoilage. You want to know if there is a significant
- You can use descriptive statistics relationship between the length of sleep and
(mean, median, or mode) in the student productivity.
survey. - Data on length of sleep is based on
- From the result of that survey the bedtime and waking up time of
conducted, for example, you the students.
observed that the frequency for - Data on student productivity is
temperature as a factor is the based on the number of activities
highest. This means that being finished everyday.
temperature contributes to food - Data analysis shows that the closer
spoilage the most. the length of sleep to eight hours,
the higher the number of activities
- Comparative research done.
Also called causal-comparative research, - You concluded that there exists a
its primary objective is to compare two direct relationship between the
variables in order to identify whether there length of sleep and student
exists a causative relationship between productivity.
them.

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- Quasi-experimental research LESSON 2

Quasi-experimental research mirrors II. TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE
experimental research but it is not true RESEARCH
experimental research where a causal
relationship can be determined with the use
of dependent and independent variables.
A. QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

Quasi-experiments do not use random Quantitative research

samples but assigned samples. - define as a “means for testing objective
theories by examining the relationship
Example: among variables” (cresswell,2019)
You wish to know the effect of height on milk
brand preference. - Quantitative research may either be
- True experiments would have to CORRELATIONAL OR CAUSAL.
randomly assign respondents to
groups where they would be In general, quantitative research focuses on
subjected to taste tests in order to the following:
know which brand they prefer. ● Collection of observable and
- Because height is an innate measurable data
characteristic of a person, ● Stranded data collection instruments
respondents cannot be randomly ● Statistical techniques in data
assigned to groups. analysis.
- Instead, group respondents are
assigned groups based on their CORRELATIONAL CAUSAL
heights.
Involves identifying Look at causes and
relationships between effects
Quantitative research may be either
two variables.
experimental or nonexperimental.
Statistical measure of A causation refers to
[The word effect is indicative that the association between the “ The claim that
research study aims to understand a cause two variables change in one
and effect relationship attributed to (Vanderstoep and variable creates a
comparative, experimental, or Johnston,2009) change in another
variable (Vandestoep
quasi-experimental research.
and Johnston,2009)

The word relationship or correlation is a

clue that the research study is either a
comparative or a correlational study.]

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B. WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE - In economics, correlational

BETWEEN CORRELATION AND research may also be used to
CAUSATION? determine what affects, or is
affected, by certain economic
Correlational Research looks at the variables.
following:
- Whether an association exists - An example is looking at the
between variables relationship between the foreign
- The magnitude of the existing exchange rates and the credit rating
association between two variables of a particular country.
- The direction of the association
between two variables. - In political science, correlational
research may also be used to study
EXAMPLE: whether an association exists
An example of correlational research is the between different political variables.
relationship between hours of sleep and test - An example is looking at the
scores among students. Based on the main relationship between crime rate and
focus points of correlational research, the the number of votes a politician
following results are possible: garnered during an election.
- There is no significant relationship
between hours of sleep and test [While correlational quantitative research
scores among students. can determine whether a relationship
- Higher test scores are related to exists between two variables, it does not
more hours of sleep among say that one variable causes the other.]
students.
Causal research deals with cause and
APPLICATION OF CORRELATIONAL effect.
RESEARCH
- Is often used in quantitative research Example:
in the SOCIAL SCIENCES (e.g., Examining the cause and effect relationship
quantitative research in psychology, between a food ingredient and the rate of
political science, economics, etc.) decay of a food sample.

- In psychology, correlational A possible research study based on this

research is used to look at patterns example can examine how an additional
and associations of human behavior. unit of the food ingredient (cause) leads
- An example is looking at whether to faster decay of the food sample
there is an association between the (effect).
number of hours a student spends
on social media and his/her APPLICATION OF CAUSAL
academic performance. RESEARCH
- Causal research is often used in
studying the natural sciences (e.g.,

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biology, chemistry, physics, etc.), but to compare, contrast, and assess

it is not exclusive to this field. changes in responses.

- In chemistry, causal research is Population and sample

applied in the conduct of chemical ● A population is a general group of
experiments to see whether a people with similar characteristics.
change in the quantity of one ● A sample is a subgroup of the
population that is chosen, either
substance affects the characteristics randomly or purposively, to
of another substance. participate in the survey research.

SURVEY RESEARCH EXPERIMENTAL Survey instrument

RESEARCH ● It is also called the questionnaire.
● It contains closed-ended questions
with fixed answers that will be given
Survey research is a - Experimental
to the selected sample.
correlational type of research is aimed at
quantitative research. causation. With the ● Survey questions may ask about
use of the behavior,
This design makes use cause-and-effect logic, attitudes/beliefs/opinions,
of a questionnaire as its it looks at whether the characteristics, expectations,
main data collection application of a self-classification, or knowledge.
tool. treatment, known as
an intervention,
causes an effect on
the sample being
experimented on
(Creswell, 2009;
Leavy, 2017).

SURVEY RESEARCH:

Data analysis and interpretation

● The analysis is both descriptive
and inferential.

Survey design
● It may be cross-sectional or
longitudinal.
● A cross-sectional survey acquires
information at one point in time.
● A longitudinal survey acquires
information at multiple points in time

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● A descriptive analysis provides a ● While the control group does not

general report of the results of the receive an intervention, it is still a
survey which may include part of the experimental research to
frequencies or average scores. assess similarities or differences
● An inferential analysis makes with the results drawn from the
comparisons among the survey experimental group.
results to establish and explain
relationships. Variables
● The independent variable is the
treatment variable. It causes and
explains the effect.
● The dependent variable is the
outcome variable. It is the effect. It is
the response to the application of or
changes in the independent variable.

The main components of a survey research

are the survey design, population and
sample, survey instrument, and data
analysis and interpretation.

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

Experimental research is a type of Instrumentation and materials

quantitative research aimed at causation. ● Different research instruments and
materials are used in the pretest,
posttest, or actual intervention
stages.
● An instrument in an experimental
research is used to record the
observations at any stage of the
experiment.

Respondents
● The respondents in an experimental
research are selected and
differentiated into groups.
● The experimental group receives
the experimental treatment or
intervention.

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Data analysis and interpretation What other fields of study can quantitative
● Similar to survey research, results in research be applied to?
experimental research are analyzed - Think of a relationship between two
in both a descriptive and an objects and/or phenomena. Identify
inferential manner. whether the relationship can be
● What sets experimental research analyzed through correlation or
apart from survey research is the causation.
overall goal of causation and not
correlation. Correlational research looks at the
relationship between variables. It examines
the association, magnitude, or direction of
the relationship between variables.

Causal research examines the changes in

variables following the cause and effect
logic. It specifically looks at how one
variable is either the cause or the effect of
the conditions of another variable.

LESSON 3
III. Variables in Quantitative
Research

Variables
- anything that can be observed by the
researchers. A variable may be a person,
thing, place, situation, or phenomenon.

Different Types of Variables

- Variables can be categorized depending
on the level of measurement and role.

A. Roles of Variables

- The independent variable, also called

causal variable, is presumed to cause the
change towards another variable, which is
known as the dependent variable or the
outcome variable.

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The independent variable may influence Mediating variable: Job satisfaction

another variable to change. In experimental [A mediating variable may act as a
research, independent variables may also dependent variable and independent
be manipulated to examine the specific variable at the same time.]
effect they may have toward the dependent ----------------------------------------------------------
variable. Moderating Variables
- Moderating variables are variables that
The dependent variables are the variables have a strong conditioned effect, which may
that are influenced by the independent modify the relationship between the
variables. independent and dependent variables.

Example: Example:
- A researcher is determining the effects of A researcher wants to know the effects of
self-motivation on the productivity of exercising regularly on one’s weight loss.
employees. Independent variable: Regular exercise
Independent variable: Self-motivation Dependent variable: Weight loss
Dependent variable: Productivity of Moderating variable: Gender
employees
How do you think self-motivation can have [A mediating variable should act as a
an effect on employee productivity? dependent variable with respect to the
independent variable and may also cause
- A researcher is trying to determine the change to the dependent variable, while a
effectiveness of different coaching styles on moderating variable must not be directly
volleyball teams. affected by the independent variable and
Independent Variable: Coaching styles should not result to it in any way.]
Dependent Variable: Win streak ----------------------------------------------------------
How do you think the different coaching Extraneous Variables
styles affect the win streak of volleyball - Extraneous variables are variables that
teams? should be mainly excluded from the
---------------------------------------------------------- research study as they may interfere and
Mediating Variables compromise with the experiment and
- Mediating variables are also known as research results.
intervening variables since they intervene
between the independent and dependent Example:
variables to show their connection. A researcher wants to know the effect of
how poor garbage disposal can have an
Example: impact on pollution.
A researcher wants to know the effects of Independent variable: Poor garbage
working seven days a week on the disposal
employee’s productivity level. Dependent variable: Pollution
Independent variable: Seven-day work Extraneous variables: Environmental
week factors; people
Dependent variable: Productivity level

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B. Level of Measurement differences between the ranked categories

are meaningful. There is no true zero
The measurement level, also called scales point.
of measure, gives you an idea of the type
of data you have. For example, you know that the difference
or interval between 25°C and 35°C is the
- Level of measurement can be classified same between 10°C and 20°C.
into two: categorical and continuous
measures of variables. Just like in the example, if you say, -6°C,
then that means below freezing point.
- A categorical variable is further
categorized into nominal and ordinal levels, Ratio Variable
while a continuous variable is categorized - is an interval value, but unlike the interval
into interval and ratio levels. variable, it has a true zero. It has numerical
value and meaning which can also be
C. Categorical Variables counted, ranked, and has a meaningful
difference between values. There is a true
Nominal Variable zero point, which means that nothing exists
- is any variable that represents different
types of data, which may be divided into for that variable and that zero simply means
groups or categories. There is no intrinsic none.
order; hence, its frequencies can only be
counted. For example, A person’s weight can be
counted, ranked, or you can determine the
The examples are race, ethnicity, and hair equivalent distance between a person’s
color. weight with another.

Ordinal Variable If you say that there is 0 kg, then there is no

- is any variable that may also be divided weight measured at all or there is no
into groups or categories, but it has intrinsic difference in their weight.
order or rank. Its frequencies can be both
counted and ranked in which the distance ● Variables are anything that can be
between categories is not equivalent. subjects for observation done by the
researcher.
Some examples are year of graduation,
brands of bags, and food preference. ● Variables vary in terms of their role
and level of measurement in the
research.
D. Continuous Variables
● The level of measurement can be
Interval Variable
classified as categorical or
- is a variable that has a numerical value. It
continuous variable measures.
can be counted and ranked, and the

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● In terms of the role of variables, A. Steps in Writing a Research

there are independent, dependent, Background
mediating, moderating, and
Conduct preliminary research
- Preliminary research helps in grounding
extraneous variables typically the current research study within the
encountered in research writing. parameters of previously conducted
research.

Identify a writing style.

Deductive approach - general to specific
Inductive approach - specific to general

Emphasize the field of your research

topic.
It should reflect an emphasis on the nature
and the field of the current study to make
readers know its focus.

Read and use related literature.

The research background should include
historical and theoretical contexts of the
Lesson 4 current topic by reading different sources.
IV. Writing the Research
Background Focus on the relevance and contribution
of the study.
Research Background It should highlight the relevance and
- is a brief and general discussion of the potential contributions of the current study
study based on existing literature and to its field.
should introduce its purpose and its
relevance to the field. It also highlights the Summarize the research background.
research problem. There must be a balance between
discussing very little information or
The research background is more in-depth elaborating too many details that might
while the introduction only provides a brief make future sections of the paper
explanation about what the readers can redundant.
expect from the study.
[Outlines are helpful in writing the research
background. Initial contents of the outline
can come from preliminary research on the
topic.]

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B. Characteristics of a Research Lesson 5

Background V. Writing a Research Statement for
Quantitative Research
1. The research background should
be written in formal and academic Statement of the Problem
language. It observes proper - is an integrative but brief discussion of the
grammar spelling, and it should be research problem, its context, and the
clear and understandable. questions of the study.

2. It is concise. It should be written in - It is written as part of the introduction and

a brief, organized, and coherent provides a concise overview of the topic in
manner. relation to the research questions.

3. It is evidence-based. The research Research Questions

background should be based on - A research question identifies the specific
facts and evidence gathered from aspects of the topic that the current study
existing studies, and personal seeks to investigate and may vary
opinions of the researchers should depending on the extent of their focus.
not be included.
[A statement of the problem usually begins
4. It is focused on the research with introducing your general problem
problem. A well-written research statement followed by the specific research
background highlights important questions that aim to address the research
aspects of the research problem, problem.]
and unnecessary and unrelated
information should not be included. A. Categories of Research
Questions
5. It explains the goals of the study.
The research background should Descriptive research questions
provide justification for its possible - Descriptive research questions are used to
contributions to the field. describe certain patterns and focus on
single and non complex variables.
6. It introduces the variables of the
study. For quantitative research - It may also be used to quantify or
papers, the research background categorize variables in the study.
should clearly introduce and discuss
the variables of the study. Examples:
● How frequent is the production of
7. It cites related literature in the essential oils for herbal medicines?
discussion. A research background ● What criteria are considered by
should provide context to the current customers in choosing a store?
study based on existing literature.

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Comparative research questions

- are mainly used for comparing and
contrasting similarities and differences
between groups and variables.

Examples:
● What is the difference between the
quality of natural and synthetic ink?
● How do Gen Z and millennials differ
in terms of dating attitudes?

Evaluative research questions

- Evaluative research questions are formed
to assess a particular observation or
phenomenon based on an established
model or theory. B. Characteristics of Good
Research Questions
- They are usually observed in
organizations, workplace, programs, and 1. Relevant
effectivity of projects. All research questions must be
relevant to the research problem.
Examples: 2. Specific
● How satisfied are you with the It must not be too broad or too
implementation of the K-12 detailed.
curriculum? 3. Clear
● Did the art therapy program work for Research questions should use
the patients with post-traumatic simple language to be
stress disorder? comprehensible.
4. Analytical
Explanatory research questions It does not simply ask “yes or no”
- are formed to explain, predict change or questions but needs complex
outcomes on observed relationships analysis.
between variables, and determine how one 5. Measurable
variable may have an effect on another. The measurability of research
questions indicates their feasibility
and is measured through
Examples: standardized tests or experiments.
● How does nurse intervention affect a
patient’s presurgery stress level?

● How does employment tenure

contribute to productivity of workers?

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C. Writing the Research Statement objective of the study, and the

variables.
The following guidelines may be observed Example:
in creating a well-structured research This study aims to find out the effect
statement. of Facebook photo ‘likes’ on the
level of self-esteem of female senior
1. Finalize the research topic. high school students in XYZ School.
This will allow you to draft a
coherent statement of the problem 4. Refine the statement of the
and give you a guided starting point problem.
and inquiry. A refined statement of the problem
includes the research questions and
Example: the potential benefits of the current
Topic: Effects of Facebook photo study.
“likes” on the self-esteem of The research questions should be
teenagers written in declarative sentences.
Independent variable
Facebook photo ‘likes’ Example:
Dependent variable This study aims to find out the effect
Self-esteem of teenagers of Facebook photo ‘likes’ on the
level of self-esteem of female senior
2. Draft the research questions. high school students in XYZ School.
Based on the finalized research Specifically, this study looks into the
topics, the draft of the research factors that influence the number of
questions will reflect the aspects that Facebook photo ‘likes’ and its
the research is focused on. respective impact on the self-esteem
of teenagers, especially female
Examples: adolescents. An explanatory study
Explanatory on the relationship between
How do Facebook photo ‘likes’ affect Facebook photo ‘likes’ and the
the self-esteem of female self-esteem of teenagers can
adolescents? potentially inform the public about
Descriptive the possible gains and dangers of
What are the factors that affect the social media activities on
number of Facebook photo ‘likes’? self-perceptions of adolescents.

3. Write the general problem [Keep the statement of the problem short
statement. and simple. Make sure that the statement of
The general problem statement the problem reflects the research problem,
establishes the overall goal and research questions, and the aims of the
direction of the research. It should study.]
contain the research topic, the main

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LESSON 6
VI. CREATING A CONCEPTUAL
FRAMEWORK AND DEFINING TERMS

Conceptual framework offers an

illustration of how the entire research
process will be explored, and explains the
relationships of the concepts in the study.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE CONCEPTUAL

FRAMEWORK
*

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