TOPIC 2.

Introduction to Problem Solving

INTRODUCTION
The following is a brief discussion of problem solving, the source of the problem solving in the field of
crime mapping and SARA definitions as well as the location of extensive literature on problem solving. This topic
also discusses the definition of terms used in this topic, the data integrity issues, data management, spatial analysis
technique, and general crime analysis.

TOPIC OBJECTIVE
This topic aims to inform the student about the discussion of problem solving in the field of crime mapping,
the source of the problem solving and SARA definitions as well as the location of extensive literature on problem
solving. This topic also discusses the definition of terms used in this topic, the data integrity issues, data
management, spatial analysis technique, and general crime analysis.

LEARNING OUTCOME
At the end of this topic the student will:
1. Learn problem solving, the source of the problem solving in the field of crime mapping and SARA
definitions as well as the location of extensive literature on problem solving.
2. Learn the definition of terms used in this topic, the data integrity issues, data management.
3. Learn the the data integrity issues, data management, spatial analysis technique, and general crime analysis.

Lesson1. Definition of Terms

Problem Solving Approach

Refers to a methodical process for reducing the impact of crime and disorder problems in a community.
The problem solving approach is an integral component of the philosophy of community policing.

SARA Approach to Problem Solving

The SARA approach to problem solving is described as Scanning (S), Analysis (A), Response (R), and
Assessment (A). That is, once a problem is identified and its characteristics are analyzed, a response is developed
and deployed to combat the problem, and after a determined time period, the response is evaluated. The following is
a brief discussion of each aspect of the SARA process.
Scanning
Scanning is the first step to problem solving and is the identification of a cluster of similar, related,
or recurring incidents through a preliminary review of information, and the selection of this crime/disorder problem
among competing priorities for future examination. (One example of using crime analysis information to scan for
crime problems is comparison of crime on a monthly basis. Comparison of specific areas over time may indicate a
problem area or type of crime. Another example is examining housebreaks over a six-month period to identify small
patterns of activity, which could represent a larger housebreak problem.)
Analysis
Analysis is the use of several sources of information to determine why a problem is occurring,
who is responsible, who is affected, where the problem is located, when it occurs, and what form the problem takes.
Response
Response is the execution of a tailored set of actions that address the most important findings of
the analysis phase. Some examples of responses that have been used are working with city engineers to redesign a
park that had a high number of assaults, vandalism, and drug dealing incidents (Mankato, MN); convening an
advisory board composed of law enforcement, residents, business owners, and charities to address traffic and safety
concerns at day-laborer gathering points (Glendale, CA); and establishing a juvenile diversion program whereby
police bring together adolescent taggers and the owners of the property they deface to agree on terms for restitution
and community service (Santa Ana, CA) (Sampson and Scott, 2000).
Assessment
Assessment is the measurement of the impact(s) of the responses on the targeted crime/disorder
problem using information collected from multiple sources, both before and after the responses have been
implemented. For law enforcement agencies, assessment is probably the most challenging part of the SARA process,
not only because measures of effectiveness are often difficult to determine and capture, but also because assessment
takes time and effort to complete at a time when the problem solving process is winding down. For example,
measuring a response such as a crime prevention education campaign is difficult because there may be substantial
lag time between intervention and measurable effects of the response.

Crime Analysis and Problem Solving

Crime analysis and mapping play a major role in all phases of the problem solving process. It is important
to measure the problem accurately during the scanning, analysis and the assessment phases. Analysts can also assist
in the response phase of the SARA process by informing the effective allocation of resources by determining the
times when, and areas where the offenses are most frequently or disproportionately occurring. The role of crime
analysis in problem solving lies in the fact that members of a law enforcement agency have different experiences
and understandings of a problem, and it is necessary for the crime analyst to either support or refute these
assumptions by providing a comprehensive analysis of a problem and an evaluation of process and response impact.

Lesson2. General Data Integrity Issues

There is various data integrity issues associated with tabular and geographic law enforcement data. This
section is not meant to serve as a comprehensive description of the data integrity issues in law enforcement but
instead gives a general overview of the major issues.

Data Entry
In a law enforcement setting, oftentimes the individuals, officers, dispatchers and records clerks, who are
conducting data entry, do not realize that others are using the data they produce. This lack of awareness can lead to
carelessness and result in unreliable data. Data entry errors can be improved by technology (address cleaning
software), proper training, and making individuals aware of the uses and importance of the data.

Timeliness
A primary concern in crime analysis, especially in tactical crime analysis, is that data obtained are current
and available in a timely manner. Unfortunately, because of human error and technological difficulties, this is not
always possible. One method to remedy this problem is to stress the need for and the value of current data for crime
analysis. This need should be communicated throughout the department in order to come up with solutions for
improving data timeliness.

Data Validity
Validity refers to whether data accurately reflect the concept that they are intended to measure. Although
true validity is difficult to measure, law enforcement data, like any other data, are prone to validity issues. For
example, many police departments use calls for service information as a proxy for crime. This is problematic,
because not all calls that are originally dispatched as a crime are in fact crimes. The best example is a robbery call
for service, since there is a common confusion about the difference between a robbery and theft. If the dispatcher
enters what the citizen reports and the title of the call is not changed when the actual crime is determined (a common
problem), the call for service would not accurately represent the crime that occurred. Even if the call title and crime
match, using calls as a proxy for crime is problematic as the date and time variable would indicate when the call was
received by the police department, not when the crime actually occurred.

Reliability
Refers to the whether data are measured the same in repeated observations. An example of a reliability
issue related to law enforcement data is when there is a policy or law change (e.g., mandatory arrest for domestic
violence offenses). Frequently, there will be a sharp increase or decrease that indicates that the data no longer
represent the same phenomenon and thus, the numbers are not reliable. Obviously, reliability issues can significantly
affect crime analysis results.

Data Transfer Process

The data transfer process can affect data quality and integrity in that data can be inadvertently or
unavoidably lost or reformatted. An issue associated with the data transfer process is data compatibility. Police
departments are notorious for having data in many different formats and converting and combining these data is
often a time-consuming and frustrating process.

Data Confidentiality/Privacy
Crime analysts are managers of law enforcement data; therefore, crime analysts are responsible for
protecting the information and individuals represented within the data. Normally, the data used and created in crime
analysis adheres to a jurisdiction’s policies on privacy and confidentiality. New situations of providing information
have surfaced which require additional and more detailed policies such as the invention of the Internet and the use of
mapping. Thus, police departments should include specific crime analysis concerns into their data-protection plan.
On a related issue, the crime analysis unit, itself, should have a written data and analysis request policy that
addresses common issues surrounding requests for crime analysis information. A policy, supported by the agency’s
administration, can provide guidelines for requesting information and expectations of what will and will not be
provided.

Lesson3. Data Management

Metadata
Metadata refers to the data that describes the analyst’s work. Metadata are the data that describe data. Every
police department has its own set of procedures that outlines how crime analysis is conducted. Frequently, these
procedures are kept only in the analysts’ memories, and it is important to have them written down for a variety of
reasons. They include consistent data handling and cleaning procedures, guidelines for sharing work with others,
keeping track of products and files created, and reducing duplication of effort. These written procedures are also
invaluable training tools for new analysts. Categories of metadata include:
 eports and studies (e.g., monthly crime report, annual staffing analysis)

Geocoding
Is the process of bringing tabular and geographic data together based on a common geographic unit of
analysis.

Image 1. Geocoding

Image 2. Geocoding

A geographic unit of analysis

Refers to a spatial characteristic within the data that is necessary to locate it on a map (such as address, zip
code, beat, or grid).

Tabular data
This are contained in a table and are a list of records that, along with information about the record, contain
addresses or some other type of geographic variable. Examples of law enforcement tabular data are calls for service,
crime, accidents, citations, sex offenders, and arrests. Along with information about nature of the incident (e.g., type
of call or crime, date, time), these data contain the location of the incident (e.g., address, grid, and/or beat), which
will allow it to be geocoded.

Image 1 for Tabular Data

 Image 2 for tabular data
Geographic data
This is data that can be displayed on a map such as streets, census tracts, parcels, and buildings.
(Examples of geographic data specific to law enforcement are police districts, beats, or grid boundaries).
The purpose of geocoding is to assign tabular data to a location on the earth’s surface to visualize the
spatial characteristics of the data. It is analogous to placing a pin on a map in the appropriate location. Unlike the
paper map, when geocoding in a geographic information system, data associated with the pin, or data point, are
available. In order to geocode either electronically or manually, there must be a common geographic unit of
analysis. In law enforcement, address is primarily used as the geographic unit of analysis to which tabular data are
geocoded. However, other types of geographic units are also used such as parcels, zip codes, census tracts, census
blocks, or beats. In the case of geocoding, geographic data used for geocoding are called “reference data” since the
geographic data are used to reference the tabular data.
The following is a discussion of the geocoding process, regardless of the geographic information system (GIS)
software used, and some common problems faced when geocoding law enforcement data.

Image for geographic data

The geocoding process
In general, there are five basic steps in the geocoding process. They are:
1. Prepare the geographic and tabular files for geocoding.
2. Specify the geocoding parameters.
3. Geocode.
4. Review results.
5. If necessary, re-specify parameters and geocode again.

Lesson5. Spatial Analysis Techniques

Single Symbol Mapping
Single symbol mapping refers to the use of individual symbols to represent point, line, and polygon
features. The utility of single symbol maps is that they allow for a detailed analysis of small amounts of data. Single
symbol mapping is also helpful in representing geographic data such as schools or churches in that it is known that
they are discrete addresses and the risk of two points on top of one another is low. The following is an example of
schools in a single symbol map. The user should be aware of the readability of the map in order to determine what is
“too much” data.
Graduated Mapping
Graduated mapping consists of aggregating data into groupings that are displayed on the map. These
groupings can be graduated by size or by color and can be classified statistically in various ways. This next section
describes the size and color graduations as well as the classifications that are available in most GIS software
packages.
1. Graduation By Size
Graduated size mapping is the process by which data are summarized so that symbols (point or line
features) are altered in size to reflect the frequencies in the data.
In other words, in this type of map, more than one incident at a given point or line is represented with a larger
symbol or a thicker line. One drawback is that oftentimes, the size of the symbol or line is difficult to distinguish and
the actual value associated with that symbol is not clearly displayed. In addition, similar to single symbol mapping,
this type of map is most helpful with smaller amounts of data, since too many incidents make the map unclear and
difficult to read.

2. Graduation By Color
In graduated color mapping, symbols (point, line, or polygon features) are altered in color to reflect a
particular value of the feature. Features can be graduated by any variable. Law enforcement variables include
shading by date/time, by priority, by crime type, by number of crimes at a location or in an area, or by crime rate of
an area. Each category or unique value is a different color.

Lesson6: Crime Analysis Product Format and Dissemination

The effectiveness of any crime analysis or mapping endeavor has as much to do with the presentation of the
results as it do the analysis. If the resulting document of analysis is not legible and understandable to its audience, it
is worthless.
*factors to consider when developing a final product;
1. Methods of dissemination
2. Components of a crime analysis product
3. Types of crime analysis products.
4. Included also the recommendations for elements of a crime analysis product and elements of a map.
These are distinguished from one another since maps include additional elements such as a legend, North
arrow, and scale.

Factors to Consider When Developing a Crime Analysis Product,

1. The purpose of the product.
Crime analysis products can serve many purposes, from informing citizens about recent activity, to
assisting the agency in planning, to apprehending a suspected criminal. For example, monthly maps of a town that
depict reported crime are useful for providing general information to the public about changes in hotspots of
reported crime; however, a detailed map of each hotspot location may be necessary for patrol officers and
investigators who need specific information in order to focus their problem solving efforts. In either case, it is
important to prepare maps that are appropriate to the purpose. In addition,
2. The audience of the product
 There are also many audiences for crime analysis products. They can include police department personnel,
the general public, community groups, business groups, school officials, or city council members. By gauging the
needs, expectations, and skill level of these individuals, products that are appropriate for each group can be
developed. For example, a map of the residences of all known gang members that includes names and case numbers
may be useful to gang enforcement officers compiling intelligence information. However, a map with this level of
detail would not be disseminated to the public as it may violate an individual’s privacy rights or compromise an
investigation. It may be appropriate to include a brief notation on the map, such as “law enforcement use only” or
“external use” to indicate the intended audience.
*In general, when producing a crime analysis product, the needs of users of the information need to be
balanced with political, legal, and ethical concerns.

Methods of Dissemination
Methods of dissemination of a product inherently rely on the intended purpose and audience. They also rely
on the means available, such as the Internet and Intranet capabilities, or the newspaper.
For example, a crime analyst may want to let officers know that there is a sexual assault pattern happening
in a certain part of the city and provide them with detailed information about the pattern. The analyst, of course,
would not provide this information on the Internet for the public to see, but instead may include selected information
on fliers to hand out at a briefing, send a department-wide (internal) e-mail, or attend the briefings of the officers in
the affected areas. Thus, the purpose, informing the patrol officers in an area, dictates how that information should
be disseminated.
The analyst must also consider what is the most efficient and effective method of dissemination, because
frequently, the easiest method is not the most effective. For example, it may be simple to publish a crime pattern
bulletin and e-mail it to the department or place fliers on a table in the briefing room for officers to read. But if the
officers do not regularly check their e-mail or the table is full of other similar fliers, these methods of dissemination
may be ineffective and a more time-consuming method, such as attending briefings, may be warranted.
The most effective way to disseminate information depends on the current specific circumstances of the
department, and the analyst should continually pay attention to what is appropriate and effective.

Components of Crime Analysis Products

A crime analysis product can include one or more of several types of analytical output, which can include
tables, charts, graphs, maps, images, and narratives. In a law enforcement setting, a balance of one or more of these
components should be used in any one product, and including all or just one component should be avoided.
For example, a two-page essay on the recent burglary activity in Beat will not be as effective as a simple
description of the pattern, a table of the relevant information, a chart depicting the time of day and day of week of
the activity, and a map that indicates where the activity is occurring. Conversely, a crime analysis product should not
contain only a map or a chart. Even though a map or chart should be produced to stand on its own, the crime analyst
should also include additional information such as interesting findings, interpretation of the results, and
recommendations for future analysis.

Types of Crime Analysis Products

The following are some general types of crime analysis products.
Crime bulletins
Short one to two-page documents that describe a tactical short-term trend or pattern.
Memos
A document in letter form that summarizes a request, explains the analysis, highlights the
interesting findings, and, in some cases, makes recommendations for response or further analysis. These should be
included as cover letters for research and special reports.
Weekly/monthly/quarterly reports and maps
Documents and maps that convey the same information in regular intervals to inform about
activity and allow for identifying problems. These products should be consistently formatted to ensure
recognisability by customers and allow comparison.
Annual reports
Reports that provide information aggregated by year and are published on a yearly basis. They
would include breakdowns by geography, months, and types of activity (e.g., types of crime, types of calls, and
accidents) and comparisons among years. They might also include comparisons to other similar jurisdictions as well
as to state and national figures.
Research reports
Reports that provide a description of the data, methodology, and analysis of a research project
(i.e., problem solving project or evaluation of a program) as well as the results of the analysis, interpretations of the
findings, and recommendations for response or future research.
Special reports
These are reports that are requested on an ad hoc basis and address a particular issue such as traffic
accidents around schools or efficient allocation of a new squad of officers. The analysis that makes up these reports
is less rigorous than the research reports and subsequently takes less time.
These special reports make up much of the daily work of the crime analyst. These general
categories can include information about crime, calls for service, arrests, and accidents.
 They also can be specific to a particular area such as street segment, neighborhood, beat, district,
and the entire city. Other more specific types may include lists of incidents, “attempt to locate” bulletins, gang
information bulletins, missing person’s fliers, and FI card summaries.

Lesson6. General Crime Analysis Product Elements

The following are the general elements of a crime analysis product.
Title
It includes the nature of the data and geography included as well as the time span included. For
example, “Citizen Generated Calls for Service in
Precinct 9: January 1, 2001 through June 30, 2001.”
File path
This is where the document is located. This is important, so that future requests for the report, an
update, or similar report can be easily filled. This assists the analyst in finding the product versus redoing it.
Credits/date
This includes the name or divisions of the individual(s) who created the report and the date it was
created. This allows for the analysts to get credit, for others to direct questions about the product to the appropriate
people, and for everyone to know when the product was disseminated.
(For example, “Prepared by Crime Analysis Unit, December, 2001” or “Prepared by Jane Doe, 01/06/02.”)
Text, tables, graphics, and/or maps
This is the substantive content of the product and what is included varies from product to product.
Analysis summary
This is an interpretation of the data and interesting findings and is important to ensure appropriate
interpretations of the data and results by others. This section is often omitted from crime analysis products.
Disclaimers
This information details what the data and analysis results do not say. For example, conclusions
drawn from any report containing crime information can only be made about crimes known to the police, not all
crime. Another example is the use of calls for service in lieu of crime data. The difference between the two data
sources should be noted as should the limitations of using calls for service.
(e.g., time and date of call may not be time and date of the criminal incident).
Recommendations
This section would contain suggestions for future analysis or actions based on the results. It is
considered optional and may not always be included in a crime analysis product. Because these elements can be
included and combined in an infinite number of ways, a specific example of a crime analysis product is not included
here. See below for an example of the map design elements.
Map Design Elements
Maps differ substantively from other components of a crime analysis product, and they contain
specific features unique to maps. The following are guidelines for map design elements.
Title- Similar to the title of a general crime analysis product, the title of a map should contain the nature of
the data and geography included as well as the time span included.
Legend - This element lists the tabular and geographic data sources displayed in the map and indicates the
symbols that are used to represent each data source. In addition, in the case of a map that includes graduation by
color or size, the classification used should also be listed. This will allow the reader to understand the divisions of
the categories and the analysis that has been conducted. For example, “Classification = Natural Breaks” or “Quantile
Classification.”
Geocoding rate - As with statistics and tables that are presented in social science, data that are missing from the
map should be noted. In the case of a map, this would be displayed as a percentage of the data that have been
successfully geocoded. For example, “Geocoding Rate = 99%.”
Labels - Should be used in moderation and where appropriate within the map. Labels should orient users to the map
as well as highlight analytical results.
Scale Bar - Describes the distance units used in the map.
North Directional - Indicates the geographic orientation of the map.
Credits/date - As in the general crime analysis product, this contains the name or division of the individual who
produced the map as well as the date it was created. Remember, these elements are specific to maps and even though
maps should basically stand on their own, supplemental description and interpretation of the analysis should be
included.

Evaluating the Utility of Crime Analysis and Mapping Products

Finally, a feedback mechanism for crime analysis products is important to determine both their relevance
and effectiveness. Customer surveys, informal discussions, and/or focus groups can be used to learn whether a
product is serving its intended purpose and is useful to its audience. In addition, it is necessary for the analysts
themselves to review and re-evaluate current crime analysis products. As noted in the following figure, this process
is ongoing. Changes in focus of the department, capabilities of customers, the nature of criminal activity, and
information technology are only a few of the factors that could influence needs and purposes of crime analysis
products.