Practical Manual

UNIT 3 DERMATOGLYPHICS*
Contents
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Fundamental Principles of Fingerprints
3.2 Classification of Fingerprints
3.2.1 Arch
3.2.1.1 Plain Arch (A)
3.2.1.2 Tented Arch (T)

3.2.2 Loop
3.2.2.1 Radial Loop (RL)
3.2.2.2 Ulnar Loop (UL)
3.2.3 Whorl (W)
3.2.3.1 Plain/ True Whorl
3.2.4 Composite Pattern
3.2.4.1 Central Pocket Loop
3.2.4.2 Lateral Pocket Loop
3.2.4.3 Twin Loop
3.2.4.4 Accidentals

3.3 Palmar Dermatoglyphics

3.3.1 Numbering the Palmar Area and the Main Lines
3.4 Collection of Finger and Palm Prints
3.5 Fingerprints and Personal Identification
3.6 Development of Latent Prints
3.7 References
Learning Objectives
After reading this Unit, you will be able to:
 Understand the principles and characteristics of Fingerprints;
 Demonstrate the Finger and Palmar Dermatoglyphics;
 Explain the recording of Finger and Palm prints; and
 Elucidate the importance of Fingerprints in Personal identification.

3.0 INTRODUCTION
Dermatoglyphics is the study of the epidermal ridge patterns of the skin of the
fingers, palms, toes and soles. Dermatoglyphics is derived from two Greek words
(‘Derma’ means skin and ‘Glyphe’ means carve). The term Dermatoglyphics
was first coined by Cummins and Midlo in the year 1926. Dermatoglyphics is
considered to be one of the important as well as interesting branches of highly
developed science and technology. Every individual possesses distinct features
of ridges and their pattern in fingers, palms and soles.
The ridge patterns are stable throughout life and are not modified by
environmental factors. The patterns are unique to each individual. Because
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*Contributed by Dr. Palla Venkatramana, Discipline of Anthropology, SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi.
of these qualities it plays a very important role in the personal identification, Dermatoglyphics
crime detection, twin diagnosis, racial variation and have applied values in
various diseases and syndromes. Further these features are not affected by any
kind of diet or infection and thus free from any external influences because
their formation is determined not only by genetics but also by environmental
factors. They are of considerable interest as a means of identification. The ridge
configuration present on the palm is called Palmar Dermatoglyphics and the
ridge configuration present on the fingers is called Finger Dermatoglyphics.
The epidermal ridges form definite local design on the terminal segment
(phalanges) of digits and also on the palm and toes.

3.1 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF

FINGERPRINTS
Primarily, it involves the study of patterns present on different region of the
fingers, palms, soles and toes but it has traditionally been the most important
aspect of dermatoglyphics analyses. The primary features of classification system
are worked out during late 19th century but were integrated into unified systems by
Cummins and Midol from different pioneering work done in the field which has
come to know the following fundamental biological principles of finger prints.
1) Epidermal ridges are very highly variable in all the individuals that this
characteristic even in small region of palm, finger or sole are not duplicated
either in another region or in different persons.
2) The detailed configurations of individual ridges are permanent and
unchanging throughout the life.
3) The several configuration types among the individuals are within limits,
which follows for systematic characters.
4) Fingerprints are impression of frictional ridge present and the actual phalanges
of finger and thumb. A fingerprint impression thus obtain is a reverse of actual
pattern on the skin surface. It is very true that each fingerprint is different
from the other. Yet it is true that all finger print having common characteristics
among themselves, which make classification possible. The common character
that makes up the pattern is pattern type, type line, delta and core.
The characteristics of Fingerprints is given below.
A) Pattern Area
It is the part of loop or whorl which appear in the core, deltas and ridges that we
are concerned in classifying. It is present in all patterns of course but in most
arches it is indefinable. Type lines enclose the pattern area of loops and whorls.
B) Type Lines
Type lines are ridge that determine the pattern area of loop and whorls.
The arch lack presence of type line. These lines may be defined as two
inner most ridges, which start parallel, diverge and surround the pattern
area. Type lines are not always two continuous ridges in fact, they are more
often found to be broken. It is important to know that distinction between
a divergence and bifurcation. A bifurcation is the dividing or working of a 195
Practical Manual single ridge into two or more branches while a divergence is the spreading
partly of two ridges in different direction which had been running parallel
or nearly with in the pattern areas of loops and whorls are enclosed the focal
points which are important for identification and classification of pattern.
These points are learned as Delta (Triradius) and core.
C) Delta/Triradius
The word Delta is the fourth letter of Greek alphabet and corresponds to
English letter D. As this Greek Letter is triangular in shape hence it is applied
to fingerprint pattern. There is a great resemblance between the delta in
Geography and delta in fingerprint pattern. In fingerprint studies, Delta or
Triradius is formed when a ridge bifurcates and the two arms of bifurcating
ridge diverge or when two adjacent ridges running side by side diverged
causing interspace within which the pattern lies. The triangular plot formed
by two diverging ridges. The first ridge formed by two diverging ridges and
ridge in front of them with in the interspaces as the base is called Delta or
triradius. The delta is the point from which ridge counting is to be started
in the loop pattern, the ridges intervening between the delta and core and
carved the loop pattern possess a single delta while whorl pattern possesses
two. Arches do not have delta formation.
D) Core
Core is the central point of the pattern. The type of core varies according to
the type of pattern. In loop pattern they may consist of stable or an even or
uneven number of ridges not joined together which we are called as ‘rods’.
The core is placed upon the inner most sufficient recurve core which is
absent in arches. In core of whorl pattern, the centre of first ring, elliptical
or circular is taken as core point. In case of spiral, the point from which the
spiral begins to revolve is taken as core point. The core is considered very
important because it is the landmark for ridge counting by connection of
triradius in a straight line.

3.2 CLASSIFICATION OF FINGERPRINTS

Various researchers have proposed scheme of pattern type in different methods.
Some of the considerable method of classification work done by Sir Galton
and Henry. Francis Galton (1892) for the first time distinguished and classified
three main pattern types on the ball for fingers. They are whorl, loop and arch.
However, Henry (1900) proposed a four fold classification. He classified the
type as arch, loop, whorl and composite. The Henry system is more widely used
than any other and it is moreover the foundation of the modified system.

Fig. 3.1: Fingertip patterns representing (A) arch pattern with neither a core nor a delta
point, (B) ‘loop’ pattern containing one core and one delta point (C) ‘whorl’ pattern
with one core and two delta points
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(Source: Holt SB. Br Med Bull 1961;17:247-50).
These three basic types are subdivided into nine subtypes for the purpose of Dermatoglyphics
classification:
Arch
Plain Arch
Tented Arch
Loop
Radial Loop
Ulnar Loop
Whorl
Plain/True Whorl
Composite
Central Pocket Loop
Lateral Pocket Loop
Twin Loop
Accidentals
3.2.1 Arch
An arch is the simplest pattern referred to as pattern of less configuration. They
are characterized by slight rise (elevation) in the ridges, which enter on one
side of finger print pattern and exit on the opposite side. The Arch is of two
subtypes:
3.2.1.1 Plain Arch (A)
It is the simple of all the fingerprint patterns. The plain arch ridges enter on one
side of impression and flow or tend to flow out on the other side with a slight
rise or wave in centre. It has no Triradius and core.
3.2.1.2 Tented Arch (T)
It is the one in which most of ridges enter on one side and flow upon the other
side making the sufficient recurve. Tented arch appears to have triradius near the
mid axis of the finger towards the proximal end. The erect radiant is associated
with abrupt elevation of transversely coursing ridges forming the “tent” which
give the name to pattern.
Plain Arch Tented Arch

Fig. 3.2: Fingerprint - Plain Arch & Tented Arch

(Source: https://www.crime-scene- investigator.net/fbiscienceoffingerprints.html) 197
Practical Manual 3.2.2 Loop
It is one of the most common patterns found in fingerprint. A Loop is the type
of fingerprint pattern in which one or more ridge enter on either side of the
impression, recurve, touch or pass on imaginary lines drawn from delta to core
terminate or lend to terminate towards the same side where such ridge entered.
It has only one delta. Loops are subdivided into two main types:
3.2.2.1 Radial Loop (RL)
It is so called because ridges flow or terminate in the direction of radius bone
of forearm. In case of right hand finger, ridges slant toward left and in left hand
finger, the slant is toward right side.
3.2.2.2 Ulnar Loop (UL)
It is so called because the ridges flow or terminate in the direction of ulna bone
of the forearm. In case of right hand finger, the ridges slant toward right side
and for left hand finger, ridges slant towards left side.

3.2.3 Whorl (W)

A whorl is characterized by a circular pattern having one or more ridges revolve
around the core making a complete circle, at least two deltas are present with
in a recurve in front of each whorl type. It is the most complex of all the three
types. According to Henry there are two kinds of whorl i.e. true whorl &
composite whorl.
3.2.3.1 Plain/True Whorl
True whorl possesses two triradius and at least one ridge making a complete
circuit which may be spiral, oval, circular or any variant of the circle. A
frequent configuration is a succession of rings or eclipse. If this ring happens to
be concentric then such a whorl is called as whorl concentric circle. Another
common arrangement is spiral course around the core which is either clockwise
or anticlockwise directions. This pattern is called spiral whorl when the ridges
form one spiral around the core, it is called single spiral. If there are two spirals
distinct in nature with two different cores, it is called as whorl double spiral.

3.2.4 Composite Pattern

Composite patterns are compound pattern in which two or more designs each
conforming to general aspect of one of the simpler types combined in pattern
area. Two or more triradius are present. There are four main type of composite
recognized:
3.2.4.1 Central Pocket Loop
Central pocket loop is a composite pattern in which most of the ridges take the
form of a loop. It is essentially a whorl of reduced size lying in the interior of
pattern area, which is constructed mainly as a loop, the central pocket loop has
two deltas. It is a pattern intermediate between a whorl and pure loop.
3.2.4.2 Lateral Pocket Loop
198 In lateral pocket loop, one loop serves as a side pocket to other pocket to other
loop. The pocket is formed by downward bending on one side of ridge of other Dermatoglyphics
loop before they recurve. The ridges about the centre, the lines containing the
point of core of loops have their exit on same side of delta.
3.2.4.3 Twin Loop
In twin loop there are two distinct loops, one resting upon or encircling the
other and the ridges containing the point of core have their exit toward different
deltas. According to United States Federal Bureau of Investigation expert, the
lateral pocket loop and twinned loop should be consolidated under double loop
pattern because of the complexity involved in locating and tracing the loops.
3.2.4.4 Accidentals
Accidentals are certain composite patterns within the whorl group that occur
rarely and formulated purely by chance. Accidental whorl is a pattern consisting
of combination of two different types of patterns excepting plain arch possessing
two or more delta formation like whorl and loop, tented arch and loop triple,
loops and other bizarre configuration not original to the standard type.

Fig 3.3: Different types of Finger Dermatoglyphics

(Source: www.viewzone.com)

3.3 PALMAR DERMATOGLYPHICS

In palm, there are six elevated areas of varying prominence. These are thenar,
hypothenar and four interdigital areas namely I, II, III and IV (Figure 3.4).
The thenar eminence occupies a large area of the base of the thumb and the
hypothenar eminence lies opposite to thenar area and is present in the ulnar
portion of the palm. Generally speaking, there are four triradii normally located
at the base of digits II, III, IV and V and called a,b,c, and d. A triradius is a
meeting point of three opposing systems. Ideally, it subtends three angles of
120˚. In practice, the angles may range from 90˚ to 180˚ as limiting values.

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Practical Manual

Fig. 3.4: Palmar Dermatoglyphics

(Source: medind.nic.in)

3.3.1 Numbering the Palmar Area and the Main Lines

The margin of the palmar area is divided into 14 points and intervals. The
number sequence begins with the proximal part of the thenar eminence. On
the radial side of the axial triradius and at the base of the thumb, number 1 is
given; this area continues around the proximal, ulnar, distal and radial borders
of the palm. Number 2 position is allotted to axial triradius which is a point. The
approximate midpoint of the ulnar margin is designated as 4; the digital areas
are represented by 6,8,10 and 12. The interval between the points 4 and 6 is
numbered 5, which is further divided into 5' which is the proximal half, and 5"
which is the distal half. Here the rule is that, each of the marginal areas of the
palm are numbered following the principle that points are given even numbers,
2,4,6,8,10 and 12 beginning as mentioned above from the base of the palm
behind the thumb (No.1), moving from ulnar to radial side, and odd numbers
1,3,5,7,9,11 and 13 are given to intermediate areas as shown in Figure 3.5. It is
the radiants of the triradius that traces the lines in the form of loops and whorls
which are called as the Type line. One can identify the pattern on the basis of
these lines. The longest radiant of digital triradius is the main line, hence the
designation of main lines as D, C, B, A and T lines (Figure 3.5).
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 Dermatoglyphics

Fig. 3.5: Formulation of the Main Lines

(Source: atlasgeneticsoncology.org)

Pattern Intensity Index: The Pattern Intensity Index on fingers or toes is an

estimation of triradii per finger or toe. It is to be noted that a whorl consists of
two triradii, a loop has one, and arch has none. “The value of pattern intensity
may be stated either as the number triradii per individual or as the average
number of triradii per finger”. The number of triradii is approximated by adding
the frequency of loops to twice the frequency of whorls, the total being divided
by the number of individuals when the frequencies are in absolute numbers, or
by ten for percent frequencies.” (Cummins and Midlo, 1962).

3.4 COLLECTION OF FINGER AND PALM

PRINTS
Material used: Magnifying Glass; Inking Plate (Metal or ¼” Glass) 6" wide x
14" long; Card Holder; Hardwood stand 2' length x 1' height and width; Cleaning
Fluid or CreamPaper Towels; RollerInking Plate Cleanser; Printer Ink/Stamp
Pad Ink (heavy black paste), Note: Printing ink or ordinary ink or any other
coloured inks are not advisedfor fingerprinting work. The reason being they are
too light, thin and do not dry quickly.
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Practical Manual Finger Print Method
a) Clean the hand of the participant and dry with clean towel.
b) Smear the ink over the fingers.
c) Hold the terminal knuckle of the finger and roll it from radial to ulnar side.
The thumb should be rolled from opposite side.
d) The ideal finger prints should be square in shape. The triradii should be
visible in the print. One triradius for loop, two triradius for whorl and three
triradius on a super whorl.
Palmar Print Method
a) Hold the wrist of the participant and place the hand on the inked slab
uniformly.
b) Lift it up slowly from the ulnar end of the palm.
c) Place the palm on the paper.
d) Press the interdigital areas and hollow in the centre of the palm.
e) Remove the palm from the paper slowly without any jerk pressing the centre
of the palm.
f) Roll the palm on the ulnar end.
g) Take care that there is uniformity in the print including that of the hollow in
the centre and ulnar end of the palm

Fig. 3.6: Collection of Finger Prints

202 https://www.alignable.com/corona-ca/rivera-income-tax-notary/ink-card-fingerprinting
 Dermatoglyphics
3.5 FINGERPRINTS AND PERSONAL
IDENTIFICATION
One of the major goals of the criminal and civil investigation processes is to
able to identify people, especially victims and suspects. One of the best known
and accepted methods of personal identification is by matching fingerprints and
other friction ridges.
Chance Prints
Chance fingerprints are those prints which are found at the scene of crime.
Scene of crime prints are of three types:
Visible prints
Plastic Prints
Latent Prints
Visible Prints
Fingerprints which are visible to the naked eye are called as visible prints.
They may be produced when colored contaminates are present on the finger
of a person and he touches any surface. For example, a blood print, ink print
or a paint or dirt print. Finger images of this kind do not require any kind of
processing for making them visible. They are simply photographed and sent
for comparison with the prints of the suspects. Visible prints do not require any
kind of treatment with the fingerprinting powders or chemicals but they are
simply photographed with the help of direct light or side lighting and sent for
comparison with the prints of the suspects.
Plastic Prints
Plastic prints are formed when the fingers or palm come in contact with a plastic
body or a surface such as soap, butter, wax, soft putty, tar, grease, freshly
painted surface and other similar material that form a mould of the fingerprint
when touched. Plastic impressions do not require any kind of treatment with
the fingerprinting powders or chemicals but they are simply photographed with
the help of direct light or side lighting and sent for comparison with the prints
of the suspects.
Latent Prints
Latent prints are such impressions that are not readily visible to the naked
eye. They are hidden or concealed impressions left on various objects by the
perpetrator. The papillary ridges of the friction skin isdotted with numerous
sweat pores. The function of the pores is to secrete sweat, oily matter and other
secretions in order to keep the skin of the hand smooth and soft. Whenever fingers
of palm come in contact with any surface, they leave an invisible impression on
the surface of contact due to sweat. This invisible image of fingers and palm is
known as latent print. In order to make such images visible they are required to
be treated physically or chemically

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Practical Manual
3.6 DEVELOPMENT OF LATENT PRINTS
Latent prints found at a scene of crime are developed for rendering visibility to
them.
Powder method
This method works on the premise that the surface possessing a latent impression
has some moisture due to the presence of water content in the sweat. The
fingerprint powders, which are available in different colors, like black, grey
white, red, yellow etc. stick to the moist surface rendering visibility to the ridges
on the surface. The color of the powder is selected according to the color of the
surface to bet the best contrast. The prints thus developed are photographed for
the purpose of comparison.
Chemical methods
The use of chemical reagents that react with the organic and inorganic compounds
present in the sweat constitutes a simple and effective means of developing latent
prints. Perspiration consists of about 99 percent water with traces of inorganic
and organic material like sodium chlorides, sulphates, phosphates, carbonates,
potassium calcium zinc, glucose, urea, fatty acids, amino acids, lactic acids and
many more. All these constitutes about 1 percent of the perspiration.
In order to render visibility, the following chemical are used to develop latent
prints:
Iodine fuming method, Silver nitrate method, Ninhydrine method, The
cyanoacrylate fuming method, Osmium tetraoxide method, Hydrofluoric acid
method, Tannic acid method and Mercuric iodide method.

3.7 REFERENCES
Cummins, H & Midlo, C. (1962). Finger Prints, Palms and soles: An Introduction
to Dermatoglyphics, New York: Dover Publications Incorp.
Mukherji, D, Mukherjee, D.P. & Bharathi, P. (2009). Laboratory Manual for
Biological Anthropology, New Delhi: Asian Books Pvt Ltd.
Nath, S (1996). Forensic Anthropology, Delhi: Ashtam Prakashan.

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