Chemosphere 289 (2022) 132867

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Chemosphere
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/chemosphere

A critical review of advanced nanotechnology and hybrid membrane based

water recycling, reuse, and wastewater treatment processes
Sivasubramanian Manikandan a, Ramasamy Subbaiya b, Muthupandian Saravanan c, **,
Mohanadoss Ponraj b, Masilamani Selvam d, Arivalagan Pugazhendhi e, f, *
a
Department of Biotechnology, Saveetha School of Engineering, Saveetha Institute of Medical and Technical Sciences (SIMATS), Saveetha Nagar, Thandalam, Chennai,
602 105, Tamil Nadu, India
b
Department of Biological Sciences, School of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, The Copperbelt University, Riverside, Jambo Drive, P O Box, 21692, Kitwe, Zambia
c
Department of Pharmacology, Saveetha Dental College, Saveetha Institute of Medical and Technical Sciences (SIMATS), Chennai, 60007, Chennai, India
d
Department of Biotechnology, Sathyabama Institute of Science and Technology, Jeppiaar Nagar, Chennai, 600 095, Tamil Nadu, India
e
School of Renewable Energy, Maejo University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
f
College of Medical and Health Science, Asia University, Taichung, Taiwan

H I G H L I G H T S G R A P H I C A L A B S T R A C T

• Water pollution was a growing problem

for all over the country.
• Nanotechnology was the promising
method for water treatment.
• Various metal oxide nanoparticles were
applied to treat polluted water.
• Ag, Fe, Zn, Ti metal nanoparticles and
carbon nanotubes were mainly applied.

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Handling editor: Derek Muir One of the modern challenges is to provide clean and affordable drinking water. Water scarcity is caused by the
growing population in the world and pollutants contaminate all remaining water sources. Innovative water
Keywords: treatment solutions have been provided by nanotechnology. Microorganisms, organic suspensions, and inorganic
Nanomemebrane heavy metal ions, among other things, are common water contaminants. Since antiquity, a wide range of water
Nanotechnology
clean-up methods have been employed to address this issue. Breakthroughs in water purification procedures have
Pollutants
occurred during the previous four decades, with the most significant one being the use of nanomaterials and
Metal oxides
Nanocomposites nanomembranes. Nanoparticles and nanomembranes (polymeric membranes) have recently been used in engi­
neered materials (TiO2, ZnO, CuO, Ag, CNT’s and mixed oxide nanoparticles, for example). Engineered nano­
membranes, nanocomposites and nanoparticles have been used in this review article’s discussion of water
purification technologies. The review also discusses the risk and solutions of using nanoparticles and nano­
composites in the future.

* Corresponding author.
** Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (M. Saravanan), [email protected] (A. Pugazhendhi).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.132867
Received 26 July 2021; Received in revised form 20 October 2021; Accepted 8 November 2021
Available online 11 November 2021
0045-6535/© 2021 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
S. Manikandan et al. Chemosphere 289 (2022) 132867

1. Introduction potential for fabricating new hybrid membranes for water treatment
applications is also addressed by recent achievements in the synthesis of
As the world’s population and economy have grown, so has the de­ novel nanostructure materials such as nanocomposites, carbon nano­
mand for water. Aquifer overdraws and changes in precipitation pat­ tubes, etc.
terns in some areas have kept water resources consistent or even
decreasing because of contamination and pollution (Yan et al., 2022). 2. Implementation of advanced wastewater management
This has increased the need for various water treatment and recycling process
methods. Technologies for water reclamation can be divided into pri­
mary and secondary stages, depending on how they treat water. When it Water encircles the globe and is an essential component of life. Very
comes to treating wastewater, secondary processes include things like little might survive without water. Water helps every living thing in its
aerobic and anaerobic processes, and third- and fourth-stage processes natural environment to develop and survive. The water is constantly
include things like membrane filtration and other forms of solvent used, from serving in a restaurant a pitcher of water and watering crops
extraction as well as the removal of dissolved solids. Over the last two on a massive farm. However, clean water is not abundant in all regions
decades, energy and water based applications have made extensive use of the world. There are even some places facing droughts. In order to
of membrane technology. Embedded hybrid membranes in these sys­ survive everybody needs access to clean water. Dirty water could kill
tems are subjected to a variety of applications, including chemical plants, animals and sick people (Shen et al., 2020). The best water
cleaning, as mechanical filters, and the diverse composition of materials treatments for safe water are determined by people in this area. They
that come into contact with them after extensive bacterial activity (Tang also set up best waste water processes. Without that role, it would be
and Hadibarata, 2021). difficult for people to extract and use water as they do today. While there
Polymers and inorganic materials such as metals and ceramics are are many people with a variety of backgrounds, many have a mechanical
used in the manufacture of membranes. In microfiltration, reverse and environmental engineering basis. Two important topics for water
osmosis, ultrafiltration, and nanofiltration, polymers make up the vast treatment applications include mathematics and science. Environmental
majority of the membranes used to filter the water. There are several engineers help directly to study current processes, to identify flaws and
common polymers used in the manufacture of membranes, including to improve the entire system. The homogeneous and heterogeneous
polyesters, polyethersulfones, polyvinylidene fluoride, poly (acryloni­ wastewater treatment methods have been listed out in detail in Table 1.
trile)-poly (vinyl chloride), polyacrylonitrile, and polypropylene co­ Filtration with a membrane is a simplified method that helps to
polymers (PES) (Wu et al., 2021). Microfiltration and ultrafiltration produce safe potable water. This method is usually used to enhance
membranes can also be made from ceramics like silica and alumina. quality of food because it makes it easier for beer, milk and juice to be
Among the most important factors affecting membrane performance separate from water. The membrane filtration is of four different forms
were found to be the water permeability, antifouling property, solute including ultrafiltration, nanofiltration, microfiltration and reverse
rejection efficiency, and robustness For better separation efficiency, osmosis. For various particle sizes, a different method of filtration pro­
various strategies have been proposed. These include: using a nonporous cess is used. The smallest of the particles present in saltwater are reverse
membrane to combine high permeability and selectivity with high sta­ osmosis (Ren et al., 2021). The particles in the water can therefore be
bility; using porous membranes to combine a narrow pore size distri­ larger, while using microfiltration. While water filtration is used for
bution with high porosity; and using additional functions for selective many purposes, it is important to contribute to the production of drinks
interactions in combination with nonporous and/or porous membranes and dairy products in the food industry. This method contributes to the
Nanotechnology and material science advancements have recently led concentration and purification of a range of foods from drinks, vegeta­
to the introduction of nanohybrid membranes for water treatment with bles and dairy products such as yogurt and cheese (Rosa et al., 2021).
improved high water permeability, high solute rejection efficiency, and The method is used in many phases of the development of food and
fouling resistance are examples of new features and improvements in beverages so that these items can be marketed and used safely. The
performance and improved robustness as well as contaminant degra­ oxidation of water is used to separate water into two elements: hydrogen
dation and self-cleaning properties (Pandi et al., 2021; Qamar et al., and oxygen (Zhou et al., 2021). The method divides the water into its
2021). original components so that it can be used in other respects. Individuals
Polymeric or inorganic membranes functionalized with discrete as well as other living organisms have to have oxygen in place, so that
nanomaterials are referred to as nanohybrid membranes. Inorganic oxygen can be easily filled anywhere it is needed. Because climate
materials such as silicate and zeolites are embedded within the polymer change and air pollution damage the atmosphere, people have been
membrane matrix in a mixed-matrix membrane to improve selectivity searching for other fuels, including hydrogen. This method helps pro­
and other functional properties, as well. Due to the development of vide hydrogen and water to boost the atmosphere as a whole.
nano-sized inorganic fillers, these membranes are now known as
polymer-nanocomposites, which are a subset of nanohybrids (Mohamed 2.1. Hybrid membrane processes for the purification and recycling of
Khalith et al., 2022). It’s no secret that water treatment has been a hot waste water
topic in recent decades due to the global shortage of clean, safe water for
an ever-increasing human population. Novel nanohybrid membranes In essence, a membrane constitutes a barrier that separates two
have been developed to overcome the limitations of currently available phases from each other by selectively restricting component movement.
water treatment membranes, and they represent a promising first step Since then, many developments to make membranes more suitable for
towards addressing global water scarcity while using less energy. Water many applications have been implemented. Membranes may typically
treatment nanohybrid membranes can be divided into three broad cat­ be categorized as isotropic or anisotropic (Chen et al., 2019; Eggimann
egories: ceramic nanohybrid membranes, polymeric nanohybrid mem­ et al., 2016; Yang et al., 2021). In composition and physical structure,
branes, and novel nanostructure materials such as vertically aligned isotropical membranes are consistent. They are microporous; in this
carbon nanotubes, metal and metal oxide nanoparticles, as well as a case, the fluxes of the permeation are relatively high compared to
combination of these. This paper provides a comprehensive overview of nonporous fluxes which have very low penetration. Microporous
various fabrication approaches for nanoparticles and nanohybrid isotropic membranes are commonly used in microfiltration membranes.
membranes, as well as polymeric membranes with novel functions On the other hand, anisotropic membranes are uniform over the mem­
introduced by various nanomaterials and their potential water treat­ brane domain, consisting of various layers with different structures and
ment applications. Nanohybrid membrane scalability issues are also composition. These membranes are protected by a thin selective layer
discussed, as well as the research needed to overcome these issues. The with a thicker, highly-durable layer. They are especially used in

2
S. Manikandan et al. Chemosphere 289 (2022) 132867

Table 1 unit. In a combined experiment, nanofiltration and reverse osmosis were

Homogeneous and Heterogeneous wastewater treatment processes. performed to treat the distillery wastewater by successfully removing
HOMOGENEOUS – HETEROGENEOUS – REFERENCES 97% of the average pollutants, such as colour, chemical oxygen demand,
WASTE WATER WASTE WATER total dissolved solids and potassium. Ultrafiltration and reverse osmosis
TREATMENT PROCESS TREATMENT PROCESS have been combined to treat waste water from reactive tinting on a pilot
Hydrogen peroxide Ozone (O3) along with (Cao et al., 2021; El scale plant in another application (Viet et al., 2019). The permeate was
(H2O2) with Ultraviolet Solid catalyst [Calcium Brahmi and Abderafi, still short of the release limits after ultrafiltration, but the reverse
radiation Oxide (CaO& Calcium 2021) osmosis permeate was suitable for discharge and reuse (McLaughlin
peroxide (CaO2)] and in the
presence of Ultraviolet
et al., 2020b, 2020a; W. Wang et al., 2021). The membranes can be used
radiation for the successful removal of contaminants such as sodium alginate,
Ozone (O3) with Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) (Abe and Tanaka, 1997; urea, reactive dye and oxidants. The treatment and concentration of
Ultraviolet radiation along with Solid catalyst Alonso et al., 2004) various waste water sources was requested for forward osmosis. For­
[Calcium Oxide (CaO&
ward osmosis in concentrated anaerobe digester centrate used to
Calcium peroxide (CaO2)]
and in the presence of retrieve and reproduce a drawing solution through the reverse osmosis
Ultraviolet radiation technique. In addition, forward osmosis uses NaCl to recycle and
Hydrogen peroxide Titanium dioxide (Damiri et al., 2020; reconstitute the drain solution in a landfill leachate management (Renita
(H2O2) with Ultraviolet nanoparticles (TiO2) along Saravanan and et al., 2021). Electrodialysis and reversal are procedures which combine
radiation and with Solid catalyst Sasikumar, 2020)
Sonication (bath [Calcium Oxide (CaO&
electricity with ion permeable membranes to separate ion dissolution
sonication) Calcium peroxide (CaO2)] from water. These processes use an ion permeable membrane’s electrical
and in the presence of potential. One is anion-driven and denies anions, the other is
Ultraviolet radiation cations-driven and opposes anions. Two streams of solutions are avail­
Ozone (O3) with Ozone (O3) along with (Xu et al., 2020; Znad
able; the electric current which transmitted through the device, ion
Ultraviolet radiation Solid catalyst [Calcium et al., 2021)
and Sonication (bath Oxide (CaO& Calcium diluted into the concentrate migrates to the cation, through re-charged
sonication) peroxide (CaO2)] and in the membranes, while anions migrate to the cathode. The combination of
absence of radiation one and more membrane techniques with other uniting processes such
Hydrogen peroxide Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) (Khandaker et al., as ion exchange, coagulation, adsorption or other membrane processes
(H2O2) with Catalyst along with Solid catalyst 2020; Cao et al., 2021;
refers to the combination of hybrid membrane processes to provide
(enzymes and bio- [Calcium Oxide (CaO& Svetozarević et al.,
enzymes) and with Calcium peroxide (CaO2)] 2021) improved efficiency than any of the technologies. In the hybrid method,
Ultraviolet radiation and in the absence of each portion tends to supplement the other’s drawbacks, thus improving
radiation the production of treated water in good quality (Kim et al., 2022). More
Ozone (O3) with Catalyst Ozone (O3) along with wet (He et al., 2020; Ryu
hybrid membrane processes are being explored with an improvement in
(enzymes and bio- peroxidation catalytic et al., 2020)
enzymes) and with process strict release requirements and the radical quest for alternative water
Ultraviolet radiation sources. In addition, given the high risk of membrane foules, the
Hydrogen peroxide Ozone (O3) along with (Kothai et al., 2020; pre-treatment steps to minimize the fouling of the membranes are other
(H2O2) with Sonication Electro-Fenton process Martínez-Pachón et al., unit processes such as flocculation, coagulation, sedimentation and
(bath sonication), with 2021; Wood et al.,
other membrane processes (see Fig. 1).
Catalyst (enzymes and 2021)
bio-enzymes) the whole
process carried out
without radiation 2.2. Decontamination and subsequent disposal of waste water in the
Ozone (O3) with Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) (Yu et al., 2020; Kothai region polluted with radioactive material
Sonication (bath along with Electro-Fenton et al., 2020)
sonication), with process
Catalyst (enzymes and Different physical, chemical, biological and combined methods for
bio-enzymes) the whole radioactive wastewater decontainment, summarized in have been
process carried out established. The section analyses critically the cutting-edge of these
without radiation
decontamination technologies and the respective advantages and dis­
advantages of the comparisons between the technologies. The decon­
processes of reverse osmosis. Membranes are categorized as organic or tamination of radioactive waste water with various synthetic and
inorganic in terms of membrane composition. Chemical membranes are natural materials as adsorbents has been conceived as an adsorption and
made of organic polymers and synthetic polymers. Multi-pressure ion exchange. The exchange and adsorption of different types of radio­
membranes are made of synthetic, organic polymers for active nuclides was exhibited in a large number of natural materials
pressure-driven separation by nanofiltration, microfiltration, ultrafil­ (Fig. 2). A cesium adsorption with cation exchange was investigated for
tration, and reverse osmosis (Bandehali et al., 2020; Van der Bruggen, zeolite made from fly ash (Minh Trang et al., 2021). Although mont­
2018). The membrane based polymers are polytetrafluorethylene, morillonite and bentonites were also applied for the radioactive
polyethylene, cellulose acetate and polypropylene. Inorganic mem­
branes are produced from materials such as metal, pottery, zeolite etc.
They were thermally and chemically stable and are commonly used for
industrial applications such as hydrogen separation, microfiltration and
ultrafiltration (Kallem et al., 2022). Media movement via membranes is
dependent on various driving forces. The non-equilibrium membrane
processes, balance-based membrane processes, non-pressure and pres­
sure driven processes were available in waste water separation process.
(Aji et al., 2020; López et al., 2021; Norouzi and Park, 2020).
In different settings for wastewater treatment, different combina­
tions of these pressurized membrane processes have been implemented.
They act in some cases as a pretreatment to other processes within the
Fig. 1. Treatment and disposal of Xenobiotic compounds from waste water.

3
S. Manikandan et al. Chemosphere 289 (2022) 132867

2.3. Nanomatreials-based recycling process for industrial and domestic

wastewater

Water treatment and environmental protection science and nano­

material technology is the subject of huge challenges. Human culture
and technological efforts are being immensely rejuvenated and visual­
ised. In addition to the removal of pollutants and the disposal of soil
toxins, industrial wastewater treatment, drinking water treatment and
nanostructured materials have to also be re-examined and emphasized.
In this section the author outlines the broad application of nanotech­
nology, the electronic, structural and morphological water treatment
aspects of nanomaterials. Multifunctional nanocomposites for environ­
mental remediation explored with deep and cogent insights. Nano­
composites are intelligent materials consisting of more than two
nanoscale (1–100 nm) components with at least one. The main subject of
composites is the integration of nanomaterials into one entity with
others, thereby producing so-called synergistic properties. Polymer
nano-composites are nanostructured composites used as fillers. Various
Fig. 2. Different types of radioactive waste, the sources, and disposal methods. properties for Polymer Nanocomposites can be achieved, depending on
the form of filler material. The Fig. 3 flowchart represents various
wastewater adsorption of soluble cesium. The cesium oxide synthesized nanoadsorption processes in the treatment of waste water and disposal.
was also found to adsorb europium so that cesium oxide can be used as a Fast industrialisation has really increased the environmental release
permeable barrier; it is utilized for the purification of radioactive of waste and has seriously damaged society. These include heavy metal
wastewater. The latest investigation on improved oxidation techniques species found in subterranean and surface water and solid plastic waste
in the field of Fenton and photocatalytic oxidation for high efficiencies which accumulates in landfills and other sites. Chromium (IV) is a
radiation removal from wastewater (Park et al., 2019; Wang et al., widely known contaminant for these heavy metal species because of its
2020). In the absence of sunlight around 25–30 percent of the removal toxicity and enormous mobility (Hossain et al., 2016; Khan et al., 2020).
could be observed in maghemite alcohol – alginate beads, generated by The toxicity and carcinogenicity of arsenic for people is also known. In
Fe2+/Fe3+ chemical co-prompt, included in polyvinyl alcohol and developing and industrialized countries around the world, drinking
nanoparticles of maghemite, could extract cesium under the sunlight. In water and the groundwater polluted with arsenic are of great concern. In
turn, these indicate that cesium was extracted mainly by particular for application in environmental remediation for heavy metal
photo-adsorption. removal (Nilavazhagi and Felixkala, 2021), both polymer and
Evaporation is an established method for substantial reductions of carbon-specific multifunctional nanocomposites have been deeply
radioactive waste water volume, e.g. at a capacity of one lakh gallon per explored for trace-level concentration as well as quick-kinetics and
month an evaporation plant has been installed. Recently in the nuclear extensive application of nanocomposite polymers. A range of waste­
plant where feed water has been fed into a heat exchanger and steam water treatment and remediation technology has already been devel­
from an evaporator has already been injected, and its condensation oped, including cyanide treatment, reverse osmosis, electrochemical
flowed out at ground level, a new generation of the forced-circulation precipitation, adsorption and ion exchange. Nanomaterials based on
evaporator. At approximate 30 min the maximum override in the unit environmental chelating agents, metal complexes and organometallics.
phase reaction curve was reduced to 30%. The radioactive wastewater Chelating agents are central to modern coordination chemistry and the
decontamination factor may be as large by evaporation. A significant metal complexes. The original non-nano molecules were used to protect
alternative to waste water treatments that can be used under moderate the atmosphere, increase the solubility and thus phytoextraction of
conditions is the electrochemical process. In order to decontaminate heavy metals in soil. The authors discussed in this chapter available
radioactive wastewater electrodialysis, electro adsorption and electrode nanomaterials and nanocomposites containing metal complexes and
ionisation have so far been investigated. The electrodialysis separated a some organometallic compounds which are used for environmental
considerable quantity of Uranium from synthetic radioactive waste­ improvement. Further promising experimental experiments on the
water with a deposition of 1000 mg/L. In order to selectively remove pathways in these well-observed treatises are groundwater and indus­
cesium from wastewater in the maximum adsorption potential of around trial wastewater remediation’s. For human health and the advancement
300 mg/g with 50 μm cesium, the new electrochemically separated of human society, sauber water is important. Human society faces
device has been built with hexactian ferrate and multi walled carbon drastic and daunting obstacles when it comes to supplying water needs.
nanotubes (Venkatesan and Balachandran, 2020). This is a serious area of study in the current field. The vexing domains of
A biological process is considered an environmental and economic scientific effort are increasingly caused by water problems and global
solution for nuclear wastewater decontamination, with different types of water challenges. The author describes ideal technology networks as a
microorganisms such as biomedia. Radionuclides can be eliminated by
different pathways, including biotransformation, biological aggrega­
tion, biosolubilization and biomedical precipitation. The mixed culture
of sulfate-reducing bacteria was used to remove the cerium and the
cellular surface electrostatic interactions were allowed for the removal
of the observable cerium with weak ionic connections. Moreover, in the
presence of chemical ligands, only about 5% of cerium was found to be
depleted by precipitation. In reality, uranium biosorption, cerium, etc.
also had been found to be reducing by biological cells in various types of
biosorbents. Probably biological exploitation of the entire radio-element
family and some precious metals, but it is worth noting that high-level
radioactivity can be destroyed and reduced. Fig. 3. Various nanoadsorption process in the treatment of waste water
and disposal.

4
S. Manikandan et al. Chemosphere 289 (2022) 132867

definite alternative to the “greatly centralized” water processing facility understanding and robustness as those of alternative processes through
by using carbon nanotubes which has been schematically explained in statistical modelling and modelling are necessary.
Fig. 4.
2.5. Advanced integrated wastewater recycling methods in the
conventional irrigation system to respond to drought
2.4. Advanced method of care for the recycling and reuse of waste water
from laundry A hydrological drought occurs when river levels fall below long-term
averages due to atmospheric drought. In the absence of rainfall, there is
Household and commercial laundries are the main sources of a substantial decrease in surface and groundwater supplies supplying
wastewater for washing. Depending on the source and the volume of rivers in the case of extended drought. Human activities can also
waste water collected the design of the wastewater system and its sub­ intensify drought. Fertigation is a technique for utilizing nutrients,
sequent treatment processes. A grey water household can be divided into especially nitrogen and phosphorus biogenic compounds. The presence
a centralized and decentralized structure. A centralized grey water of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium in the secondary effluent acts as
processing system is favored in an urban region with high population a fertilizer that is high in major macronutrients including nitrogen,
density and economic activity. Grey water is collected and pumped into phosphorus, and potassium, all of which are needed for plant develop­
a focused treatment system for wastewater. For a dispersed residential ment (Cooper et al., 2020). The secondary effluent irrigation of agri­
area a decentralized treatment method is favored. The water drained cultural fields decreases the amount of nutrients released into surface
from each household washing machine could be transformed for culti­ water, which reduces the environmental burden. Disposal of nutrients
vating plants into the mulch bed. Grey water is supported without the into surface water is minimized by wastewater reuse. The application
use of a pump or a surgical tank by the gravity delivery system. In and biogenic compounds to soil on the other hand could lead to
addition to the kinds of surfactants in washing waste water, adsorption increased groundwater contamination. It must be supervised. However,
also regulates treatment efficiency by the properties of embedded the decreased doses of nitrogen and phosphorus in the form of chemical
adsorption materials. Different types of adsorbents have active molec­ fertilizers in cultivated crops are compensated for this. Retention res­
ular functional groups which, through electrostatic interaction or ervoirs should be used during the non-irrigation phase, or wastewater
coordinating mechanisms, provide selective affinity towards different treatment should meet pollutant load requirements in treated residual
surfactants. Comparing adsorption of different solutes into selected water (Cano-Ruiz et al., 2021).
forms of absorbents, the adsorption effects were determined by the Tomato and other vegetables cultivation was fertilized with oil press
surface charge and pores size of adsorbents. A cationic resin adsorbent waste. Potting the seeds into pots and washing it in a couple of days with
would promote anionic surfactant because of an ionic interaction, pre-treated raw sewage. It was shown to be beneficial on sprout growth
whereas adsorbents would promote relatively fast surfactant molecule in contrast to raw waste water fertilization with pre-treated sewage. In
penetration. addition, the plant growth parameters were close to the control group
As electricity charges from electric electrons (cathode and anode) when they were watered with pre-treated sewage. A rise in soil pH
come into contact with the effluent, electrocoagulation is used for caused by the processing of ammonium and the mineralization of
treating wastewater: ions or colloids such as inorganic or organic in an organic acid was observed during the research. The soil pH stabilized
effluent moving through the cell of an electrocoagulation are induced to more after a few days of the operation (Ngo et al., 2021). The treatment
coagulate. Some remarkable works on the efficiency of electric coagu­ of the olive mill wastewater was also used in the processing of maize.
lation in laundry wastewater treatment, comparing the output of various The soil and food grain analysis showed that the use of processed
combinations of materials suggested as cathodes or anodes. A compar­ wastewater in fertilization had a beneficial effect upon the availability of
ative study using different electrode combinations with a higher con­ nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium in the soil, and that yield is close to
centration of chemical oxygen with an iron-electrode pair than iron- that of mineral fertilizer within the control group. Fertigation has an
aluminum electrodes with acidic conditions was found. The superior effect on the growth and production of beans verities. The crop was
efficiency in iron dissolving into divalent Fe (II) and trivalent Fe (III) irrigated with sewage, clean water and biological wastewater. Due to the
ions when electrolyzed, whereas aluminum dissolved only stably in first two fertilizations, the nitrogen and phosphate content in plants
trivalent Al (III). Finally, oxidant agents, such as Hydrogen peroxide, have increased significantly.
have been reported in electrocoagulation to promote radical hydroxyl
and Fe2+ ions which facilitate the pollutants’ degradation, such as so­ 3. Innovations in the reuse of waste water
dium dodecyl sulfate. Because of its various advantages, electro­
coagulation continues to be subject to intensive research: cheap, simple, The world is visible the moon’s blue is what people say, which means
greening, efficient versatile and unspecific. However, the sacrificial that they have plenty of water but what part of it people could use.
anode in electrocoagulation should be replaced regularly, as this anode Statistics show that only a small percentage of the total water available
dissolves into the solution and cathode passivation may occur, which is fresh and the rest are based on salt or sea resources. Water scarcity and
will reduce electrocoagulation efficiency. Moreover, further efforts to water pollution threaten the sustainability of life, and an alternative to
achieve the same degree of computational fluid-dynamics modelling address the crisis must be formulated. Wastewater recycling and puri­
fication by means of equipment such as clarifiers, RO systems and oil
separators simplifies the treatment procedure every day for thousands of
gallons of water. Major effluents from industrial wastes are metal im­
purities found in wastewater. Lead, chromium, nickel, cadmium, and tin
are the most common metal impurities found in wastewater (Lal et al.,
2020; Rengaraj et al., 2003; Sharma et al., 2021). Inorganic solids such
as bicarbonates, potassium, and magnesium, as well as chlorides and
sodium sulphates, make up the dissolved solid impurities (Xiu et al.,
2020).

Fig. 4. Greatly centralized water processing facility by using carbon nanotubes.

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S. Manikandan et al. Chemosphere 289 (2022) 132867

3.1. Evaluating public expectations of treated wastewater reuse: prospects produce nitrogen. There are two selective separation applications: se­
and consequences in developed countries lective and electrical process material. This outline the next 50 years of
modular, selective, resource-efficient separation that is crucial to the
It is a matter of controversy among experts and politicians to use development and redefinition of waste water as a resource of element-
treating wastewater for crop or agricultural irrigation. To offer a route specific circular economies.
forward, it is necessary to not only sketch but also examine the benefits The phosphorus rehabilitation processes are based in full, pilot and
and drawbacks of such a practice. The increasing water scarcity, the laboratory scale methods and a concise examination of the impacts and
history of agricultural waste water reuse, and the limitations of current environmental benefits of phosphorus rehabilitation strategies. Finally,
studies have been highlighted. After the introduction there is a short the main challenges in implementing strategies for the recovery of re­
overview of the approach used in the write-up. It then looks into three sources were identified and discussed, especially for phosphorus. The
broad areas in detail: impacts on the environment, impacts on public results indicate the limited availability of phosphorus, the increased
health, and economic implications. The impact on soil quality, water costs of phosphate fertilizers and the decrease of maintenance costs are
resources, plant growth and soil microbial communities is analysed in some of the main drivers for phosphorus recovery. Most operational
terms of the environmental impact (Kushniarou et al., 2019). The pos­ processes are currently based on the supernatant digester precipitation
itive impacts are explained before the negative effects for each sub-area. or crystallization. Struvite is the most common product that has been
The same approach is also adopted for public health effects focusing on recovered. In the liquid phase the recovery rate for phosphorus from
human exposures to heavy metals and pathogens and on economic im­ sludge and sludge ashes is lower. Recovery of the phosphorus remains
pacts, assessing investment costs, financial benefits for wastewater challenging and the integration of actors and institutions, government
treatment plants, agricultural income and expenditure. Once the bene­ policies and regulations and the acceptance by the public and economic
fits and disadvantages in each field have been measured, innovative feasibility have been identified. The implementation of recovery systems
actions are proposed to optimize the benefits and mitigate the draw­ for nutrients is a challenge in developing countries because the main
backs of using treated wastewater to irrigate crops. Contaminants and concern is to expand the coverage for sanitary use. Approaches for
the environmental and health risks associated with these contaminants resource recovery can bring benefits outside of the wastewater sector
have been specially considered (Wanner, 2021). and not only improve the sustainability of wastewater treatment oper­
Increase the agricultural activity, which is currently using most of ations, but generate revenue for the utilities operator.
the world’s freshwater withdrawals, stressing not only the water in­
dustry but the energy sector as a result of increasing energy intensive 3.3. Sustainable innovation in the treatment of waste water: lessons for
commercial fertilizer demands. As well as declining worldwide phos­ recovery and reuse of nutrients
phorus stocks, global fertilizer production may find it hard to sustain this
increasing demand at current capacity. Farmers will need to use alter­ The growth of population growth, change in climate, depletion of
native resources that balance environment, economics and society as natural resources and urbanization are urging the society to prepare
part of sustainable development. Reuse of waste water is an opportunity, stressful position for some natural resources. The wastewater sector has
as it can ease stresses on scarce water resources and contribute to cir­ been among the active players to identify barriers and to come with new
cular economies. It also contains relative amounts of nutrients that can creative strategies for copping the challenges that are expected in future.
replace some of the fertilization needs. Reuse of waste water for farming The implementation of European Council Urban Wastewater Treatment
purposes was obtained in the literature relatively high levels among Directive has triggered fundamental changes in the sector of wastewater
people, especially with regard to cultivated forages. The research di­ treatment (Marcal et al., 2021). The limitations for dumping sludge onto
rections that are of interest include the need to investigate the consumer the sea and due limits set for the discharge of nitrogen and phosphorus
concerns of farmers that appear to hinder the introduction, in spite of the has demanded for more efficient treatment methods and development of
increased harvests, of new technologies. Furthermore, the overall new infrastructures in order to address the increased amount of sludge
environmental benefits of waste water production for water-soil and the being discharged (Kończak et al., 2021). In recent years the population
energy-related nexus should be investigated in terms of the global explosion has led to increase in demand and put enormous pressure in
warming potential as reported savings in the literature are undervalued supply of resources and the environment, whereas on other hand eco­
in terms of the carbon footprint (Choong et al., 2020). In the end, the nomic and environmental drivers legally have urged in transforming and
practice in the field of industrial symbiosis has strong economic poten­ recovery of value-added products from the waste water.
tial which requires further investigation. The sustainable decentralized sanitation mostly focuses for the
treatment occurring at on-site and at the same time focusing on recy­
3.2. Reuse-oriented innovation in wastewater treatment, resource cling the resources which are obtained from the domestic wastewater.
recovery The other form of resources that can be recycled includes the energy
obtained during the transformation of organic material and nutrients in
Energy and resource recovery are being addressed holistically in new the form of phosphorous and nitrogen. The decentralization system can
wastewater treatment trends. These procedures address energy be the best option for contributing the continuing progress, also for the
neutrality, or at the very least economic profitability, and include both building of millennium development goals, reverting loss of environ­
upstream and downstream procedures. For these purposes, purple mental resources and for the promotion of environment sustainability.
phototrophic bacteria are emerging as a key component of photo- This tendency will suit for the next generation and many thanks for the
assisted biological processes. These fascinating microorganisms have new emerging pressures arising globally which in reverted back to the
become one of the most promising alternatives in wastewater bio- change in water management paradigm for waste-oriented approach
refinery platforms due to the high metabolic versatility and potential towards water reuse and resource recovery. This has motivated for the
applications. Water is a natural resource and should be treated and decentralization of water management in developed countries among
transported to maximize the efficiency of resource. Wastewater is being the urban areas, which is to be considered essential for improving effi­
mined for its valuable product precursor, and highly selective processes ciency, system resiliency, and resource recovery and lost environmental
of separation will be needed to capture specific target compounds from functions.
complicated solutions. The nitrogen cycle as a case study because it The direction towards adopting the technology relies on cost, time-
plays a central role in both natural and engineered systems. A number of consumption, repetitive cycles of validation and testing of products.
species, including ammonia, fertilizer and the precursor to numerous The facilities required for developing new technologies are available
nitrogen products and nitrate, fertilizer and explosive components, globally. In countries like U.S, it is being managed as an individual entity

6
S. Manikandan et al. Chemosphere 289 (2022) 132867

and underutilized, which needs to be linked with other activities for Table 2
establishing innovation network and as an individual not able to expand Various types of waste accumulates in water and progressive waste water
the technology adoption (Ruecker et al., 2017). Therefore, technology treatment processes.
adoption can accelerate with national test bed network consisting of Various types of Progressive waste water References
entity, which connects the physical testing facilities such as pilot, bench waste accumulates in treatment processes
and commercial scale demonstrations with other activities of innovation water

network. This includes investors, technology providers, researchers, Radioactive waste Ion exchange process (Lee et al., 2018; Watanabe
regulators, educators, utilities, regulators, stakeholders and educators accumulates in Reuse of radioactive et al., 2019; Hepler et al.,
water/water compounds 2021)
those who are involved in water resource recovery sector in order to
resources Geological disposal of
accelerate adoption of new processes and innovative technologies. A radioactive waste
successful network of innovation would thus reduce the risks inherent to Synroc/synthetic rock
innovation with effectively supporting the development of new tech­ waste management process
nologies and spreading the risk among different stakeholders. etc.
Heavy metals Cementation process (Landin-Sandoval et al.,
accumulation in Coagulation process 2020; Wadhawan et al.,
3.4. Innovative wastewater uses and reuse as explored by the World Bank water/water Precipitation process 2020; Vishwakarma, 2021)
initiative resources Adsorption process etc.
Human and animal Deep burial process Adithya et al. (2021)
waste Incineration process
Water is considered to have precious value and every drop of it is
Autoclaving and
accountable, especially in the water scarce regions like North Africa and Microwaving ect.
Middle East. So, wastewater needs to be reclassified as renewable water Microbial waste Sedimentation in primary (Akansha et al., 2021;
resource instead of considering it as waste. This will certainly help in accumulation in treatment tanks Cremonez et al., 2021)
augmenting with the available water and also in preventing environ­ water/water Inactivation or killing of
resources microbes using disinfectant
mental pollution. The utilization of resource requires proper collection, (eg. Chlorine)
treatment and using of generated wastewater. Although reuse of Aerobic and anaerobic
wastewater is recognized in most water-scarce countries, the reuse of process using secondary
wastewater is still considered to be very low in spite of the recognition of treatment plants
Crystallization/
wastewater reuse in water scarce countries. The World Bank-Ground
Precipitation/Adsorption/
water Management Advisory Team (GW-MATe) has collected evidence Solvent extraction through
of fast increasing dependence on groundwater for public and private tertiary treatment process
water supply with benefits and hazards to the broader community and
water users in order to provide data analysis and investment advice to
water resource projects and World Bank unded urban water supply water purification.
(Goksu, 2019). Biological methods are widely used in wastewater nitrogen removal,
The launch of work carried out by World Bank’s initiative “Waste­ and in drinking water treatment use is increasing. Standard biological
water: From Waste to Resource,” has created awareness among the de­ treatment processes by activated sludge have now understood reason­
cision makers to know the potential of wastewater to act as a resource. ably and can work effectively to fulfil a range of waste water re­
The recovery of different resources can convert sanitation from being a quirements. However, a substantial increase in basin volume will be
costly service into a self-sustaining one, thus adding value to the econ­ needed to compliance with more stringent nitrogen effluent discharge
omy. On the other hand, if the financial returns can cover maintenance requirements. There is insufficient space for such an expansion in
and operation costs either fully or partially it can result in an improved densely urbanized areas. A revolutionary technology for plant upgrade
wastewater management process in turn will offer a double value-added is therefore now used in biological aerated filters. The biological aerated
proposition. filters integrate aerobic pollutant degradation and physical preservation
in one reactor of suspended solids. The packaged bed is able to maintain
4. Progressive methods of water treatment a high concentration of active biomass, nitrifiating bacteria can be
connected to the filter media (Saravanan et al., 2021). The removal ef­
Advanced methods for treatment with wastewater, such as catalytic ficiency becomes therefore independent from explanation, and it can be
precipitation and photo-catalytic oxidation and adsorption (Ancy et al., accomplished without requirements of sludge age settlement and
2021; Zyoud et al., 2021) are required to prevent contaminants and may ammonia oxidation. Fixed film processes in drinking water have become
also lead to increased pollutant destruction and separation processes. widespread due to the resemblance to the traditional filters for removal
Leachate from waste disposal hazards is harmful and has a high level of of nitrate and ammonia. These biological processes enable us to benefit
organic waste refractant, heavy metals, ammonia-nitrogen and from nutrient removal natural phenomena, cost reduction and quality
organo-chlorine compounds in inorganic salts (Rahman et al., 2018). improvement.
Several advanced oxidation processes for the efficient treatment of
landfill leachate have been developed in recent decades and many of 4.1. Accelerated oxidation methods for water treatment
were remain in progress. Researchers examined the results of traditional
advanced oxidation processes for leachate treatment from urban waste As the precursor to highly reactive species to remove water con­
sites but, as leachate is very different from hazardous waste sites, it does taminants due to the benefits of ample sources, low cost and low eco-
not work so well in terms of waste sites management. Due to the efficient toxicity, sulfite has attracted increasing interest. The systems can be
removal of refractory organic contaminants, advanced oxidation pro­ classified according to redox characteristics of reactive species formed
cesses are being given increasing attention with constantly increasing by sulphite activation, in advanced oxidation processes and reducing
water contamination challenges. The various types of accumulation of processes, thereby broadening the range of use. In this crucial analysis,
waste in water resources and its treatment processes has been detail in the key aspect is advanced sulfite-based oxidation and advanced pro­
Table 2. The heterogeneous catalysts are of great interest in metal cesses of reduction and the state-of-the-art water purification advances.
transition sulfides with an excellent optical, electrical and catalytic ef­ Sulfite activation can be used to produce oxidative species using ho­
ficiency. These heterogeneous Transitional Metal sulfide Catalysts were mogenous or heterogeneous metals such as oxide, metals, zerovalent
shown to work with advanced oxidation processes and to be adaptable in metals (Selvan et al., 2022), assisted metals and related mechanisms of

7
S. Manikandan et al. Chemosphere 289 (2022) 132867

activation. More specifically, sulfides can be activated by Ultraviolet system (Fujioka et al., 2021; Sillanpää et al., 2018). With well-protected
irradiation, with the focus on the mechanisms for reagents, chemical or relatively safe drinking water sources, traditional drinking water
properties and better strategies, to create reductive plants, including treatment can easily meet the drinking water quality standards. This
hydro-electron, hydrogen radicals or sulfite radicals. Furthermore, treatment method, on the other hand, is ineffective in dealing with water
major factors influencing sulfite-based removal of advanced oxidation containing high levels of organics, which can result in the formation of
processes, including pH, sulphite concentration, dissolved oxygen and carcinogenic trihalomethanes during post-chlorination. Advanced
water constituents, are highlighted. The reactive organisms are quanti­ drinking water treatment systems may eliminate organic pollutants such
tatively and qualitatively defined and the functions are evaluated in the as trace organic chemicals and disinfection by-products (Adithya et al.,
destruction of contaminants. 2021).
Advanced oxidation processes based on persulfate are intensively Membrane treatment nanofiltration is an alternative treatment
studied for water treating in the context of visible, ultraviolet and solar technique for water that can effectively extract the majority of organic
irradiation. There has been tremendous progress in the performance matter and multivalent ions. Nanofiltration membranes are extremely
improvement of target pollutant destruction, but a deeper understand­ selective and have a high removal of total organic carbon and other
ing of the role of light in various pro-activated, advanced oxidation molecular high weight molecules. Nanofiltration technology has been
processes based on persulfate remains necessary as a basis for efficiency used in full-scale drinking water treatment plants for alleviating dis­
improvement. These processes are dependent upon the mechanism of solved organics, colours, sulfur and hardness concentrations. Nano­
reaction, including direct ultraviolet radiation activation, ligand-to- filtration membranes are normally polymeric and are supplies in
metal charging transmission activation processes, dye- membrane elements with spiral wounds. Application of the nano­
photosensitisation processes and photo-catalysis. In view of the filtration membrane elements in the spiral-wound system normally in­
stricter regulations deriving from increased environmental conscious­ volves colloidal particle removal until the spacers are obstructed.
ness worldwide, technological developments in wastewater treatment Because of the high concentration of such particulates in surface water,
are critical. This is done by investigating the greater differences between pre-processing using sand filtration and low-pressure membranes such
current technologies such as nanofiltration and microwave disinfection as ultrafiltration or microfiltration is needed before nanofiltration.
as well as newer technologies such as peracetic acid disinfection and However, the use of these additional processes raises total costs; thus,
salsne filter. Cerium oxide and its solid solutions are used extensively in full-scale nanofiltration systems for the treatment of surface water are
many areas, including catalysts, sensors, and solid oxide fuel cells and so uncommon. The direct nanofiltration without pre-treatment will
on. In different water treatment processes it has also been widely used. potentially lead to a reduction in surface water treatment capital and
operating costs. The feasibility of capillary membranes for nanofiltration
for direct surface water treatment. Membrane failure control strategies
4.2. Submerged nanofiltration for direct advanced drinking water
include the use of a low permeate fluid that requires a low trans­
treatment without pre-treatment
membrane pressure for the specified surrounding membrane.
Membrane fouling is an important problem for direct treatment of
surface waters by nanofiltration. This study aimed at evaluating a po­ 4.3. Efficiency in microbial removal and population changes during
tential for low fouling propensity, high separation efficiency, while advanced water treatment
directly filtering water, in the new submerged flat filtration nano-
filtration membrane module has been schematically explained in Unrestrictive entry of waste water into the atmosphere and trans­
Fig. 5. The elimination from potable drinking water supplies of micro­ portation to humans and species of microbial pollutants requires the use
bial and chemical pollutants is of crucial importance to public health of adequate purification systems for microbial agents with a high effi­
security. The successful treatment of water and compliance with ciency of disposal. In the current water management strategy of coun­
drinking water quality requirements will ensure safe drinking water. tries facing severe shortcomings of water supplies, such as the Middle
Flocculation, coagulation, sedimentation, rapid sand filtration and post East countries, re-use treated sewage to irrigate is considered a signifi­
chlorination are all steps in a traditional drinking water treatment cant alternative source of water (Hiller et al., 2019; B. Wang et al.,

Fig. 5. Nanofibrous matrices in Ultrafiltration/separation and treatment of waste accumulates in water.

8
S. Manikandan et al. Chemosphere 289 (2022) 132867

2021). Biosolids contain organic material and fertilizing elements removing the remaining organic matter, viruses and parasites and nu­
necessary for the preservation of soil fertility. Nevertheless, both treated trients, secondary treatment (also known as biological treatment)
sewage and biosolids have a wide variety of pathogenic substances that removes some of the viruses, bacteria and parasites. Extra care must be
are spread to the atmosphere and infect people directly or indirectly. taken when dumping pollutants into fresh water to remove all nutrients.
These pathogens can also be minimized until they are used again in Disinfection, for example, can be used to remove any remaining bacte­
agriculture by the treated sewage and biosolids. The methods of treat­ ria, viruses, or parasites that are hazardous to public health, as well as
ment used in these waste have been tested to eliminate pathogens. It was any chemicals or hazardous substances.
found that the ability to reclaim the treated waste and biosolids was the Bacterial consumption of organic pollution creates sewage sludge,
key concern associated with reducing pathogenic bacteria. Therefore, which is a by-product of the treatment of waste water. Treatment op­
the successful treatment technique is that it is capable with destroying tions make sludge disposal simple and convenient. When lime is added
cells of pathogens and removing nutrients so that the surrounding to the sludge, it is stabilized, which reduces odour and pathogenic or­
ecosystem cannot re-grow or recover. Due to its high nutrient content, ganisms. Dewatering and anaerobic digestion both reduce sludge and
the removal of nutrients may be applicable for sewage but not for bio­ produce biogas, while dewatering also reduces the overall weight of the
solids. The health risk in biosolids may however be reduced if the use of waste, which saves money on transportation. Various methods of sludge
biosolids and the plants are regulated. disposal are available depending on a variety of factors, primarily the
national regulatory framework and the quality of the sludge itself.
4.4. Ozonation and UV-based oxidation for water pre-treatment process Climate change will increase the frequency of heavy rainfall in some
areas. Rain enters the combined sewer network faster than intended in
Chance of wastewater reuse and membrane fouling represent two urban areas where it drains into sewers carrying domestic sewage and
issues in wastewater reuse ultrafiltration. In this work some wastewater industrial wastewater. This can lead to an overburdening of the sewer
risk re-use problems were thoroughly studied as ozonation, ultraviolet/ network, resulting in surface water flooding and overflows at urban
hydrogen peroxide, and Ultraviolet/Persulfate pretreatment, for waste water treatment plants, resulting in untreated sewage flowing into
example, were dissolved effluent organic matter, organic micro­ rivers, lakes, and coastal areas. Because they are created to manage
pollutants and biotoxicities of secondary effluent and membrane fouling runoff sustainably, sustainable urban drainage systems may be the
(Arriaga et al., 2016; Daoud et al., 2020; Liao et al., 2020). Limited answer. Climate change will reduce rainfall in other areas as well. As a
elimination of organic micro-contaminants showed ultrafiltration and first step, increasing water efficiency can save water and energy by
ozonation, however, all organic micro-pollutants have been significantly reducing wasteful consumption. However, wastewater treatment has the
decomposed with Ultraviolet/Hydrogen Peroxide and Ultra­ potential to have a significant impact on the availability of freshwater.
violet/Persulphate. After oxidation therapy, genotoxicity was not found. High-level treatment can eliminate pollutants, allowing the treated
The collaboration of organic components such as humid and protein-like water to be re-used after cleaning and disinfecting it.
substances can result in a diaphragm fouling.
The infrared fourier transformation of the fouled membrane spectra 5. Conclusions
showed that, after oxidation pre-treatment and the improved supporting
membrane flux, the aromatic CC Group and the polysaccharides group The potentially one-of-a-kind nanotechnology is an ideal candidate
in the dissolved wastewater organic materials are substantially reduced. for rapid technological development. Nanoparticles have enormous
An improvement in the roughness of the membranes in the combination potential in waste water treatment. It is possible to use its high surface
process has been shown to help increase the efficiency of the ultrafil­ area to efficiently remove toxic ions from metals, water, and diseases
tration process with the less organic material after pre-training oxida­ from microbial, organic, and inorganic solutes. Water is water-
tion. The membrane fouling of subsequent ultrafiltration process processing efficiency has also been demonstrated by various classes of
demonstrated optimum mitigation for the excellent biological degra­ nanomaterials, including metal nanoparticles, carbons, zeolites, and
dation of ultraviolet/persulphate pre-treatment process. dendrimers. Membrane technology is increasingly revolutionizing water
and waste water treatment. A lot of work has been done in this sector
4.5. Technologies for wastewater treatment in urban and rural areas over the years. However, there is room for improvement in a number of
areas. Because fouling and high energy requirements remain significant
The sewage flows down pipes instead of polluting lakes and rivers, issues in processes that drive non-equilibrium strain, ongoing research is
disease-causing organisms and nutrients aren’t present. As a result, required to find a long-term solution, either by introducing stringent but
pollution and algae growth are minimized. Because of the high con­ inexpensive pre-treatment processes or by developing fault-resistant
centrations of organic matter and nutrients in household and industrial membranes. Fresh water supplies and environmental issues caused by
wastewater, the aquatic environment is under a lot of stress. For fish and the oil and gas industry, as well as water processing and reuse, are given
invertebrates the river becomes uninhabitable if ammonia and natural immediate attention. According to the extensive literature review, water
processes that break down organic matter in the water are released. characteristics vary significantly from place to place. As a result, in the
Likewise, too much nitrogen or phosphorus can cause algae and plants to treatment technique, a specific source of produced water should be
grow too fast, blocking light and depleting the water’s available oxygen evaluated. Treatment costs and reuse objectives can also have an impact
through respiration or decay. Human health and the environment have on treatment technology selection. In the literature, numerous tech­
greatly improved since effective waste water treatment became wide­ niques and combinations of various methods for created water treatment
spread in the twentieth century. To get sewage to a waste water treat­ were discovered. However, there is scant evidence that the generated
ment facility, you’ll need sewers. There are various levels of treatment waters are reused for purposes such as irrigation or microalgae growth,
that can be used, with the following being the most common: A process among others. It is now critical to encourage the reuse of generated
known as pre-treatment involves physically removing large items such water in order to meet rising water demands while reducing the envi­
as rags and plastic bottles from the waste water and smaller items such ronmental impact of the oil and gas industries. Its reuse will not only
as grit. The equipment will not be damaged as the treatment progresses reduce the effects of industry on the environment, but will also relieve
because of this. The first step in the treatment process is a step that pressure on fresh water resources. This is especially important in water-
removes very small particles. Heavy solids settle to the bottom of the stressed countries, where population growth and economic development
waste water tank, while fat and other lighter solids float to the top. continue to strain the region’s limited water supplies.
Following separation, the liquid is either sent to a secondary treatment
facility or discharged into the environment. As part of the process of

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S. Manikandan et al. Chemosphere 289 (2022) 132867

Author’s contributions Cooper, J., Kavanagh, J., Razmjou, A., Chen, V., Leslie, G., 2020. Treatment and resource
recovery options for first and second generation bioethanol spentwash – a review.
Chemosphere 241, 124975. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.124975.
Manikandan Sivasubramanian: Resources, Software, Data cura­ Cremonez, P.A., Teleken, J.G., Meier, T.R.W., Alves, H.J., 2021. Two-Stage anaerobic
tion, Validation, Writing-Review and Editing. Ramasamy Subbaiya: digestion in agroindustrial waste treatment: a review. J. Environ. Manag. 281,
Data curation, Software, Validation. Muthupandian Saravanan: 111854. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.111854.
Damiri, F., Dobaradaran, S., Hashemi, S., Foroutan, R., Vosoughi, M., Sahebi, S.,
Writing-Reviewing and Editing. Mohanadoss Ponraj: Investigation, Ramavandi, B., Camilla Boffito, D., 2020. Waste sludge from shipping docks as a
Formal analysis, Resources, Validation. Masilamani Selvam: Supervi­ catalyst to remove amoxicillin in water with hydrogen peroxide and ultrasound.
sion and Formal analysis. Arivalagan Pugazhendhi: Supervision, Ultrason. Sonochem. 68, 105187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ultsonch.2020.105187.
Daoud, F., Zuehlke, S., Spiteller, M., Kayser, O., 2020. Ozonation of rivaroxaban
Project administration. production waste water and comparison of generated transformation products with
known in vivo and in vitro metabolites. Sci. Total Environ. 714, 136825. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.136825.
Declaration of competing interest Eggimann, S., Truffer, B., Maurer, M., 2016. The cost of hybrid waste water systems: a
systematic framework for specifying minimum cost-connection rates. Water Res.
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial 103, 472–484. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2016.07.062.
El Brahmi, A., Abderafi, S., 2021. Hydrogen sulfide removal from wastewater using
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence hydrogen peroxide in-situ treatment: case study of Moroccan urban sewers. Mater.
the work reported in this paper. Today: Proc. 45, 7424–7427.
Fujioka, T., Ngo, M.T.T., Makabe, R., Ueyama, T., Takeuchi, H., Nga, T.T.V., Bui, X.-T.,
Tanaka, H., 2021. Submerged nanofiltration without pre-treatment for direct
Acknowledgement advanced drinking water treatment. Chemosphere 265, 129056. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.129056.
The authors are thankful to The Management of Saveetha School of Goksu, A., 2019. World Bank, Washington. Reform Financ (© World Bank). Urban Water
Supply Sanit. Sect. World Bank, Washington, DC.
Engineering (SIMATS), Chennai, India and The Management, Vice- He, C., Wang, J., Wang, C., Zhang, C., Hou, P., Xu, X., 2020. Catalytic ozonation of bio-
Chancellor, Dean of SMNS and Head of Biological Sciences, The Cop­ treated coking wastewater in continuous pilot-and full-scale system: efficiency,
perbelt University, Kitwe, Zambia for the constant support to complete catalyst deactivation and in-situ regeneration. Water Res. 183, 116090. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.watres.2020.116090.
the review article. Hepler, K., Kaminski, M.D., Jolin, W.C., Magnuson, M., 2021. Decontamination of urban
surfaces contaminated with radioactive materials and consequent onsite recycling of
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