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 Preface

Inspiration and Motivation

The inspiration to write the book came from my two idols, Prof. (Late) Amitabha Bhattacharyya and Prof.
(Late) Gopal Chandra Sen, who with great devotion contributed remarkably through their teaching and
research in the field of machining and machine tools. Their work was the driving force behind me urging
me to contribute for the benefit of those who are willing to learn about machining and machine tools.
I was immensely motivated by many of my students, presently colleagues of profession, and friends who
have been encouraging me since long to write a book for students and budding engineers. This book is
a result of knowledge gained from 40 years of teaching and research.

Need for This Book

Mechanical Engineering comprises three distinct sections:
• Mechanics and Machine Design
• Thermal Science and Technology
• Manufacturing
Like the first two sections, Manufacturing is also taught under two categories: professional core sub-
jects and professional elective subjects. Due to rapid and vast advancement in science and technology as
well as the socio-economic progress in last few decades, a large number of modern and new subjects had
to be accommodated within the same four years of UG engineering programs. As a result, some classical
subjects have been compressed and combined into a few subjects. For instance, machining, grinding,
machine tools and cutting tools, which were earlier taught separately as different subjects, are now
covered under only one subject or course (the course name varies across universities: “Machining and
Machine Tools”, “Manufacturing Technology-I or II”, “Manufacturing Processes-I or II”, “Technology
of Machining System”, etc.).
This subject is now-a-days taught as a compulsory professional core subject in almost all the insti-
tutions running and offering UG (degree) program in Mechanical Engineering. Incidentally, though
the number of students has recently increased enormously, adequate faculties are not available. Several
books of national and international repute are available covering partly or fully the learning require-
ments of machining, grinding, cutting tools and machine tools. However, there is no single book
covering all topics comprehensively. The science and technology of machining, machine tools, etc.
also have advanced spectacularly in last few decades. Therefore, for the convenience and benefit of all
concerned, I have written this comprehensive book covering all topics and touching upon the recent
advancement made.

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 viii Preface

Audience for This Book

This book has been designed targeting mainly the basic need of UG students of all institutions having
four-year UG program in Mechanical Engineering. This book will also fulfill the requirement of UG
students of allied disciplines like Manufacturing Engineering, Production Engineering, Industrial
Engineering, etc. where machining and machine tools is taught as compulsory or elective subject. It
will also satisfy the requirement, partly and fully, respectively, of the PG and Dual Degree (UG and PG
combined) students having this or similar subject.
The book will essentially be useful to the huge number of students and young professionals trying
for AMIE certificate from the Institution of Engineers where also machining and machine tools is a
compulsory subject for the Mechanical Engineering stream. The candidates preparing for competitive
examinations like IES, IRSE, IFS, etc. will also be benefited by this book.

Coverage of This Book

The book has been planned, designed and structured keeping with the requirements and syllabi of various
universities across the nation. The syllabi of the IE(I) and various competitive examinations have also been
considered while writing this book. It also covers the syllabus of PG-ME (partly) and that of Dual Degree
programs (fully) having machining and machine tools or similar courses.

Structure of This Book

The book is divided into two parts:

Part – A: Machining
This part essentially consists of Chapters 1–10. The chapters cover the following:
• Mechanism, mechanics and thermodynamics of machining and grinding.
• Geometry, materials and application of cutting tools.
• Machinability, economy and environment-friendliness and their improvement.
• Advanced and special techniques in machining and grinding.

Part – B: Machine Tools

The remaining chapters (Chapters 11–26) constitute this part. The chapters cover the following:
• Basic principles, constructional features and functional characteristics of different conventional
machine tools.
• Classification, specification and application of various machine tools.
• Power drives, kinematic structures, speed gear boxes and automation of machine tools.
• Foundation, inspection and testing of machine tools.
• Design and use of jigs and fixtures.
• Principles, construction, application and programming of computer numerical controlled
(CNC) machine tools.

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The text is supplemented with numerous illustrations for clarity of topics. Photographs of various
machine tools are provided wherever possible. Each chapter consists of numerous solved and unsolved
problems, multiple-choice questions, and review questions. The companion CD consists of answers to
all Multiple-Choice Questions, References, Bibliography and two Model Question Papers.

Acknowledgements
First and foremost, I humbly recall the contributions and blessings of my two great teachers and guides,
Prof. (Late) Amitabha Bhattacharyya and Prof. (Late) Gopal Chandra Sen who all along inspired,
guided and trained me for success in teaching and research in machining and machine tools.
I am grateful to my contemporary eminent colleagues – Prof. Amitabha Ghosh, Prof. S. R. Deb,
Prof. Amitava S. Choudhury, Prof. V. Radhakrishnan, Prof. M. Ramaswami, Prof. P. K. Misra,
Prof. Jyotirmay Saha, Prof. S. R. Pal, Prof. Siddhartha Roy, Prof. Subir Kumar Saha, Prof. R. K. Murthy
and Dr. B. K. Basak – for their encouragement throughout my professional life. I am extremely
indebted to my senior students (now colleagues of profession) Prof. A. K. Chattopadhyay, Prof. (Late)
S. K. Mukherjee, Prof. (Late) S. K. Sorkhel, Prof. S. Das, Prof. Soumitra Paul, Prof. P. P. Bandyopad-
hyay, Prof. Asimava Roy Chowdhury, Prof. Shimul Banerjee and Prof. Partha Saha – who glorified
me by doing research with me. I gratefully acknowledge the immense help I received from my col-
leagues Prof. Ajit Kr. Chakraborty and Prof. K. K. Roy who taught me lot of things required for my
teaching and research.
I proudly acknowledge the untiring help and continuous support rendered by my beloved research
scholars Dr. Sudarsan Ghosh, Dr. Amitava Ghosh and Mr. Barun Haldar while writing and preparing
this book. I shall remain ever grateful to Prof. Suman Chakraborty who almost forced me to write such
a book. I am deeply indebted and thankful to my colleagues Mr. Sudhir Dutta and Mr. Dinesh Sutra-
dhar for all along helping in my research work, Mr. Arindam Dutta for typing and Mr. Sanjib Haldar
for preparing the diagrams for this book. I also thank the thousands of my students spread all over the
globe, who glorified and enriched me by their love, respect and achievements.
My sincere thanks to the remarkably professional young team led by Meenakshi Sehrawat at Wiley
India Pvt. Ltd. For their valuable support, I shall remain ever grateful to them.
Last but not the least, I must thank my son Mr. Angshuman for his continuous encouragement,
support and sacrifice.
I will be happy and the entire endeavour will be successful if this book becomes useful to the students,
teachers and the practicing engineers.

A. B. Chattopadhyay
July 2011

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Preface vii

Part A – Machining
1 Introduction to Machining 3
Learning Objectives 3
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Engineering Manufacturing 4
1.2.1 Need of Manufacturing and Its Definition 4
1.2.2 Broad Classification of Manufacturing Processes 5
1.3 Machining 6
1.3.1 Purpose, Principle, Definition and Requirements of Machining 6
1.3.2 Machinability 8
1.4 Need or Benefits of Learning ‘Theory of Machining’ 9
1.4.1 Aims and Objectives in Machining 9
1.4.2 Constraints in Fulfilling the Machining Objectives 10
1.4.3 Control Over the Machining Constraints 15
1.5 Major Aspects and Topics to be Studied under Machining 20
1.6 Solved Problems 20
Summary 22
Multiple Choice Questions 22
Review Questions 24
Problems 24

2 Geometry of Cutting Tools 27

Learning Objectives 27
2.1 Introduction 27
2.2 Geometry of Single-Point Turning Tools 28
2.2.1 General Configuration of Cutting Edges of Tools Used for Machining 28
2.2.2 Systems of Description of Tool Geometry 29
2.3 Geometry of Multiple-Point Cutting Tools 35
2.3.1 Geometry of Milling Cutters 35
2.3.2 Geometry of Drills 37

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2.4 Conversion of Tool Angles 47

2.4.1 Conversion of Tool Geometry of Single-Point Tools 47
2.4.2 Conversion of Geometry and Sharpening of Twist Drills 70
2.4.3 Sharpening and Re-Sharpening of Milling Cutters 75
2.5 Solved Problems 75
Summary 79
Multiple Choice Questions 79
Review Questions 80
Problems 82

3 Mechanism of Machining 83
Learning Objectives 83
3.1 Introduction 83
3.2 Purpose of Studying Mechanism of Chip Formation in Machining 84
3.3 Mechanism of Chip Formation in Machining 84
3.3.1 Chip Formation in Machining Ductile Materials 84
3.3.2 Mechanism of Chip Formation in Machining Brittle Materials 89
3.4 Geometry and Characteristics of Continuous Chip Formation 91
3.4.1 Chip Reduction Coefficient and Cutting Ratio 91
3.4.2 Shear Angle 94
3.4.3 Cutting Strain 95
3.4.4 Built-Up-Edge (BUE) Formation 96
3.4.5 Broad Classification of Machining Chips 98
3.4.6 Shear Plane and Shear Zone Theories 100
3.4.7 Orthogonal and Oblique Cutting 100
3.4.8 Chip–Tool Contact Length 106
3.5 Chip Formation in Drilling 108
3.5.1 Drilling Chip Configuration 108
3.5.2 Chip Reduction Coefficient in Drilling 108
3.5.3 Geometry and Mechanism of Material Removal at the Chisel Edge 110
3.6 Chip Formation Mechanism in Milling 111
3.7 Solved Problems 114
Summary 117
Multiple Choice Questions 118
Review Questions 119
Problems 121

4 Mechanics of Machining 123

Learning Objectives 123
4.1 Introduction 123
4.2 Generation of Cutting Forces and the Effects of the Cutting Forces in Machining 124

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4.2.1 Development and Action of Cutting Forces 124

4.2.2 Purposes of Determination of Cutting Forces 128
4.3 Cutting Force Analysis and Estimation 128
4.3.1 Cutting Force Analysis for Machining by Single-Point Tools 128
4.3.2 Analysis of Forces under Orthogonal Cutting and Use of Merchant’s
Circle Diagram (MCD) 129
4.4 Analysis and Estimation of Forces under Oblique Cutting 137
4.5 Mechanics and Estimation of Drilling and Milling Forces 140
4.5.1 Estimation of Drilling Torque 140
4.5.2 Estimation of Drilling Thrust 141
4.5.3 Mechanics of Milling and Estimation of Milling Forces 142
4.6 Measurement of Cutting Forces 152
4.6.1 Necessity of Measuring Cutting Forces 152
4.6.2 General Processes of Measuring Cutting Forces 153
4.6.3 Basic Principle of Measurement of Cutting Forces by
Dynamometers 153
4.6.4 Working Principles of Tool Force Dynamometers (Transducers) 154
4.7 Design Considerations for Tool–Force Dynamometers 160
4.8 Construction of Typical Tool–Force Dynamometers and Their Functioning 161
4.8.1 Turning Dynamometers 161
4.8.2 Basic Working Principle and Construction of Piezoelectric Type
3-D Dynamometer (Turning) 163
4.8.3 Drilling Dynamometer 164
4.8.4 Milling Dynamometer 165
4.8.5 Grinding Dynamometer 168
4.9 Solved Problems 170
Summary 177
Multiple Choice Questions 177
Review Questions 179
Problems 181

5 Heat Generation and Cutting Temperature in Machining 183

Learning Objectives 183
5.1 Introduction 183
5.2 Location and Causes of Heat Generation in Machining 184
5.3 Effects of Cutting Temperature on Job and Tool 185
5.3.1 Effects of High Cutting Temperature on Product Quality 185
5.3.2 Effects of High Cutting Temperature on Cutting Tools 185
5.3.3 Possible Favourable Effects of High Cutting Temperature 185
5.4 Determination of Cutting Temperature 186
5.4.1 Purpose of Determination of Cutting Temperature 186
5.4.2 Analytical Methods of Evaluation of Cutting Temperature 186
5.4.3 Measurement of Cutting Temperature 190

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5.4.4 Role of Variation of Different Machining Parameters on Cutting

Temperature 197
5.5 Control of Cutting Temperature and Application of Cutting Fluid 199
5.5.1 General Methods of Reduction of Cutting Temperature 199
5.5.2 Application of Cutting Fluids in Machining 200
5.6 Solved Problems 204
Summary 212
Multiple Choice Questions 212
Review Questions 214
Problems 215

6 Failure, Life and Materials of Cutting Tools 217

Learning Objectives 217
6.1 Introduction 217
6.2 Major Causes and Modes of Failure of Cutting Tools 218
6.3 Wear of Cutting Tools 219
6.3.1 Mechanisms of Cutting Tool Wear 219
6.3.2 General Pattern and Index of Tool Wear 220
6.3.3 Measurement of Tool Wear 222
6.4 Tool Life 223
6.4.1 Definition and Evaluation of Tool Life 223
6.4.2 Taylor’s Tool Life Equation 224
6.4.3 Role of Different Machining Parameters on Tool Life 226
6.5 Cutting Tool Materials 228
6.5.1 Essential Properties 228
6.5.2 Conventional Cutting Tool Materials and Their Characteristics 229
6.5.3 Advanced Cutting Tool Materials 234
6.6 Solved Problems 248
Summary 252
Multiple Choice Questions 253
Review Questions 254
Problems 256

7 Estimation of Machining Time 259

Learning Objectives 259
7.1 Introduction 259
7.2 Significance of Machining Time and Purposes of Its Evaluation 259
7.3 Major Factors that Govern Machining Time 260
7.4 Methods of Estimation of Machining Time 263
7.4.1 Machining Time for Turning in Lathes 263
7.4.2 Machining Time for Drilling and Boring 263
7.4.3 Machining Time in Shaping and Planing 264

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7.4.4 Machining Time in Milling Operations 265

7.4.5 Gear Teeth Generation in Hobbing Machine and Gear Shaping Machine 266
7.5 Solved Problems 269
Summary 275
Multiple Choice Questions 275
Review Questions 276
Problems 277

8 Machinability, Some Critical Problems and Remedial Measures 279

Learning Objectives 279
8.1 Introduction 279
8.2 Machinability 280
8.2.1 Definition and Assessment of Machinability 280
8.2.2 Role of Various Factors on Machinability 282
8.2.3 Possible Ways of Improving Machinability 287
8.3 Machining Problems of Some Critical Materials and
Remedial Approaches 288
8.3.1 Machinability of Aluminium and Its Alloys 288
8.3.2 Machinability of Stainless Steels 290
8.3.3 Machinability of Nickel and Its Alloys 291
8.3.4 Machinability of Titanium and Ti-Based Alloys 293
8.3.5 Machining Characteristics of Plastics and FRPs 295
8.4 Control of Chips and Chip-Breaking 297
8.4.1 Purpose of Chip Control by Chip-Breaking 297
8.4.2 Methods of Chip-Breaking 297
8.4.3 Design Principle of Simple Step Type Chip-Breaker 300
8.4.4 Configuration and Working Principle of Some Chip-Breakers in
Practice 303
8.4.5 Overall Effects of Chip-Breaking 306
8.5 Some Special Techniques of Improving Machinability 307
8.5.1 Geometrical Modifications of Cutting Tools 307
8.5.2 Special Techniques in Machining Processes 311
8.6 Surface Quality of Machined Components 314
8.6.1 Definition of Surface Quality (of a Machined Job) 314
8.6.2 Geometrical Characteristics of Machined Surface Profiles 315
8.6.3 Factors that Cause and Affect Surface Integrity of Machined Products 316
8.6.4 Measurement of Surface Roughness 321
8.6.5 Evaluation and Presentation of the Value of the Surface Roughness 322
8.6.6 Reduction or Control of Surface Roughness and Improvement
of Surface Integrity 323
Summary 324
Multiple Choice Questions 324
Review Questions 326

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9 Grinding: Fast Machining and Finishing by Bonded Abrasives 329

Learning Objectives 329
9.1 Introduction 329
9.2 Basic Principles, Methods and Applications of Grinding 330
9.2.1 Basic Principle and Various Methods of Grinding 330
9.2.2 Difference Between Machining and Grinding 337
9.2.3 Applications of Grinding 338
9.3 Grinding Requirements 338
9.4 Grinding Wheels 339
9.4.1 Construction of Grinding Wheels 339
9.4.2 Classification and Selection of Grinding Wheels 341
9.4.3 Specification of Grinding Wheel 344
9.4.4 Wheel Conditioning Before Use 344
9.5 Mechanism and Mechanics of Grinding 345
9.5.1 Similarity of Grinding with Plain Milling 345
9.5.2 Mechanism of Material Removal in Grinding 347
9.5.3 Mechanics of Grinding 350
9.6 Grindability and Its Improvement 355
9.6.1 Grinding Forces: Causes, Effects and Control 355
9.6.2 Grinding Temperature: Sources, Effects and Control 356
9.6.3 Wear of Grinding Wheel and Grinding Ratio 360
9.6.4 Surface Quality of the Ground Products 361
9.7 Advanced Technology of Grinding 362
9.7.1 Trend and Directions of Advancement in Grinding 362
9.7.2 Advancements in Grinding Processes 364
9.7.3 Advancements in Grinding Wheel: Development of Monolayered
Super-Abrasive Wheels 366
9.8 Some Special Techniques for Improving Grinding Performance 373
9.8.1 Need for Special Techniques in Grinding 373
9.8.2 Some Special Techniques for Reducing Grinding Problems 373
9.9 Super-Finishing Processes 377
9.9.1 Purpose and Order of Super-Finishing 377
9.9.2 Micro- and Super-Finishing Methods: Characteristics and Applications 377
9.10 Solved Problems 387
Summary 389
Objective Type Questions 389
Review Questions 392
Problems 394

10 Economy and Eco-Friendliness in Machining 397

Learning Objectives 397

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10.1 Introduction 397

10.2 Economy and Optimization of Machining 398
10.3 Optimization of Process Schedule and Machining Parameters for
Machining Economy 398
10.4 Environmental Problems in Machining and Grinding and Remedial Measures 401
10.4.1 Problems in Machining and Grinding due to Cutting Temperature 401
10.4.2 Control of Machining and Grinding Temperature and Its
Effects by Cryogenic Cooling 404
10.5 Solved Problems 411
Summary 413
Multiple Choice Questions 413
Review Questions 414
Problems 415

Part B – Machine Tools

11 Introduction to Machine Tools 419
Learning Objectives 419
11.1 Introduction 419
11.2 Definition and Role of Machine Tool 419
11.3 Major Components of Machine Tools and Their Functions 420
11.4 General Configuration of Common Machine Tools and Their Uses 420
11.4.1 Centre Lathes 420
11.4.2 Shaping Machine 421
11.4.3 Planing Machine 422
11.4.4 Drilling Machine 423
11.4.5 Milling Machine 423
11.5 Major Aspects of Machine Tools 425
Summary 426
Multiple Choice Questions 426
Review Questions 427

12 Functional Principles of Machine Tools 429

Learning Objectives 429
12.1 Introduction 429
12.2 Basic Functions of Machine Tools 430
12.2.1 Concept of Generatrix and Directrix 430
12.2.2 Tool–Work Motions in Machine Tools 431
12.2.3 Sources of Generatrix and Directrix 432
12.3 Generatrix, Directrix and Tool–Work Motions for Various Machining Work 434

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Summary 444
Multiple Choice Questions 444
Review Questions 445

13 Machine Tool Power Drives 447

Learning Objectives 447
13.1 Introduction 447
13.2 Power Sources Used in Machine Tools 447
13.3 Estimation of Power Requirement for Machine Tool Drives 449
13.4 Hydraulic Drives in Machine Tools 449
13.5 Solved Problems 450
Summary 451
Multiple Choice Questions 451
Review Questions 452

14 Role and Forms of Kinematic Structure in Machine Tools 453

Learning Objectives 453
14.1 Introduction 453
14.2 Role and General Constituents of the Kinematic Structure of Machine Tools 454
14.3 Different Forms of Machine Tool Kinematic Structures 455
14.3.1 Elementary Structures (Eii ) 455
14.3.2 Complex Structures (C1j ) 456
14.3.3 Compound Structure (Kij ) 457
14.4 Mechanisms Commonly Used in Machine Tool Kinematic Systems 458
14.4.1 Mechanisms for Transforming Rotation to Rotation 458
14.4.2 Other Mechanisms Used in Machine Tools 463
14.5 Solved Problems 464
Summary 466
Multiple Choice Questions 466
Review Questions 468
Problems 469

15 Methods of Changing Speed and Feed in Machine Tools 471

Learning Objectives 471
15.1 Introduction 471
15.2 Need of Large Number of Speeds and Feeds in Machine Tools 472
15.3 Methods of Changing Speed and Feed in Machine Tools 473
15.3.1 Change of Speed 473
15.3.2 Change of Feed 475
Summary 476

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Multiple Choice Questions 477

Review Questions 478

16 Design of Speed Gear Box of Machine Tools 479

Learning Objectives 479
16.1 Introduction 479
16.2 Procedural Steps in Design of SGB 480
16.3 Layout of Spindle Speeds in Machine Tools 480
16.3.1 Speeds in AP 482
16.3.2 Speeds in GP 484
16.3.3 Standard Values of Common Ratio for Speed Layout in GP 485
16.3.4 Standard Spindle Speeds Used in Conventional Machine Tools 486
16.3.5 Method of Determination and Fixation of Spindle Speeds for a
Given Machine Tool Under Stipulated Conditions 487
16.4 Selection of Gear Layout and Ray Diagram for SGB 487
16.4.1 Types of Ray Diagrams 489
16.5 Determination of Dimensions of the Gears and Shafts of SGB 492
16.5.1 Dimensions of Gears 492
16.5.2 Dimensions of Shafts of SGB 496
16.6 Solved Problems 497
Summary 503
Multiple Choice Questions 504
Review Questions 505
Problems 505

17 Automation in Machine Tools 507

Learning Objectives 507
17.1 Introduction 507
17.2 Role of Automation in Machine Tools 507
17.3 Advent of Automation in Manufacturing Industries 509
17.4 Type of Automation in Machine Tools 510
Summary 511
Multiple Choice Questions 512
Review Questions 512

18 Classification of Machine Tools 515

Learning Objectives 515
18.1 Introduction 515
18.2 Advent of Various Machine Tools: History and Reasons 516
18.3 Classification of Machine Tools 517

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18.3.1 Classification Criteria 517

18.3.2 Families of Conventional Machine Tools 518
18.3.3 Combined or Extended Machine Tools 521
18.3.4 Modern Computer Numerical Control Machine Tools 521
18.3.5 Special-Purpose Machine Tools 521
Summary 522
Multiple Choice Questions 522
Review Questions 523

19 Specification of Machine Tools 525

Learning Objectives 525
19.1 Introduction 525
19.2 Purpose of Machine Tool Specification 525
19.3 Methods of Specification of Conventional Machine Tools 526
19.3.1 Specification of Lathes 526
19.3.2 Specification of Drilling and Boring Machines 528
19.3.3 Specification of Shaping, Planing and Slotting Machines 529
19.3.4 Specification of Milling Machine 529
19.3.5 Specification of Broaching Machines 530
19.3.6 Specifications of Gear Teeth Generating Machines 530
19.3.7 Specification of Grinding Machines 531
Summary 532
Multiple Choice Questions 532
Review Questions 533

20 Conventional Machine Tools and Their Features and

Characteristics 535
Learning Objectives 535
20.1 Introduction 535
20.2 General Classification of Machine Tools 536
20.3 Features and Characteristics of Different Machine Tools 537
20.3.1 Lathes: Different Types and Their Characteristics 537
20.3.2 Drilling Machines 546
20.3.3 Shaping, Planing and Slotting Machines 552
20.3.4 Milling Machines 555
20.3.5 Broaching Machines 560
20.3.6 Gear Teeth Producing Machine Tools 565
20.3.7 Grinding Machines 575
Summary 582
Multiple Choice Questions 583
Review Questions 583

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21 Kinematic Systems of Conventional Machine Tools 585

Learning Objectives 585
21.1 Introduction 585
21.2 Role of Kinematic Systems in Machine Tools 586
21.3 Kinematic Systems of General-Purpose Conventional Machine Tools 586
21.3.1 Kinematic System and Working Principle of Centre Lathes 586
21.3.2 Kinematic System of General-Purpose Drilling Machine
and Its Principle of Working 594
21.3.3 Kinematic System and Working Principles of Various Machines 596
21.3.4 Kinematic System and Working Principle of Milling Machine 599
21.3.5 Kinematic System and Working Principles of Semi-Automatic
and Automatic Lathes 600
21.4 Kinematic System of Gear Teeth Generating Machine Tools 612
21.4.1 Kinematic System of Gear Shaping Machine 612
21.4.2 Kinematic System of Gear Hobbing Machine 616
21.5 Kinematic Systems and Working Principle of Hydraulically Driven Machine Tools 620
21.5.1 Working Principle of Copying Lathe 621
21.6 Design of Kinematic System for Special-Purpose Machine Tool 621
21.7 Solved Problems 624
Summary 628
Multiple Choice Questions 629
Review Questions 630
Problems 632

22 Machining Applications of Conventional Machine Tools 633

Learning Objectives 633
22.1 Introduction 633
22.2 General Applications of the Conventional Machine Tools 634
22.2.1 Machining Applications of Lathes 634
22.2.2 Machining Applications of Drilling Machine 634
22.2.3 Applications of Shaping Machines 637
22.2.4 Applications of Planing Machines 640
22.2.5 Applications of Slotting Machine 641
22.2.6 Applications of Milling Machines 641
22.2.7 Machining Applications of Broaching Machines 650
22.2.8 Applications of the Gear Teeth Generating (by Machining) Machines 651
22.3 Special Applications of Conventional Machine Tools Using Various Attachments 651
22.3.1 Definition and Need of Attachments 651
22.3.2 Conditions Favourable for Application of Attachments in Machine Tools 652

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22.3.3 Working Principles and Application of Various Attachments in

Different Machine Tools 653
Summary 665
Multiple Choice Questions 665
Review Questions 666

23 Methods of Mounting Blanks and Cutting Tools in Machine Tools 669

Learning Objectives 669
23.1 Introduction 669
23.2 Mounting Blanks and Cutting Tools in Machine Tools 670
23.3 General Methods of Mounting Blanks and Cutting Tools in Different
Machine Tools 670
23.3.1 Mounting of Blanks and Tools in Lathes 670
23.3.2 Mounting of Jobs and Tools in Drilling Machines 679
23.3.3 Mounting of Jobs and Cutting Tools in Shaping, Planing and
Slotting Machines 681
23.3.4 Mounting of Jobs and Tools in Milling Machines 683
23.3.5 Mounting of Jobs and Tools in Grinding Machines 686
23.3.6 Mounting of Jobs and Tools in CNC Machine Tools 689
Summary 691
Multiple Choice Questions 692
Review Questions 693

24 Design and Application of Jigs and Fixtures for

Aiding Machining 695
Learning Objectives 695
24.1 Introduction 695
24.2 Purpose of Using Fixtures and Jigs in Machine Shops 696
24.3 Considerations While Designing Fixtures and Jigs 698
24.4 Principles and Methods of Design of Fixtures and Jigs 699
24.4.1 Design for Locating 699
24.4.2 Design for Supporting 703
24.4.3 Design for Clamping the Blank in Jig and Fixture 706
24.5 Functions and Design Aspects of Bushes Used in Jigs 709
24.5.1 Factors to be Considered While Designing for Jig Bushing 709
24.5.2 Types of Bushes Used in Jigs 710
24.6 Design of Jigs and Fixtures for Specific Machining Requirements 711
24.6.1 Economic Viability Analysis Prior to Use of a Fixture or Jig 711
24.6.2 Planning Prior to Design and Construction of a Fixture or Jig 713
24.6.3 Examples 716

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24.7 Solved Problems 719

Summary 725
Multiple Choice Questions 726
Review Questions 726
Problems 727

25 Computer Numerical Controlled Machine Tools 731

Learning Objectives 731
25.1 Introduction 731
25.2 Basic Principles and Applications 732
25.2.1 Historical Background 732
25.2.2 Basic Working Principle of Numerical Control (NC) 734
25.2.3 Coordinate Systems in NC (and CNC) Machine Tools 736
25.2.4 Dimensioning of Products and Programming Tool–Work Movements 736
25.2.5 Point-to-Point and Continuous Path Control 739
25.2.6 Operation and Control of NC Machine Tools 742
25.3 Construction and Operation of CNC Machine Tools and Machining
Centres 746
25.3.1 Basic Construction and Working Principle of CNC Machine
Tools 746
25.3.2 Machining Centres 747
25.3.3 Manual Part Programming for Machining Jobs in CNC Machine Tools 748
25.3.4 Computer Aided Part Programming 763
25.3.5 Further Advancement from CNC Machine Tools and
Machining Centers 769
Summary 769
Multiple Choice Questions 769
Review Questions 770
Problems 771

26 Foundation, Inspection and Testing of Machine Tools 775

Learning Objectives 775
26.1 Introduction 775
26.2 Purpose of Machine Tool Foundation: Its Design Principle and Construction 776
26.2.1 Purpose of Machine Tool Foundation 776
26.2.2 Basic Principle of Design of Machine Tool Foundation 776
26.2.3 Typical Construction of Machine Tool Foundation 780
26.3 Inspection and Testing of Machine Tools 782
26.3.1 Purposes of Inspection and Testing 782
26.3.2 Planning and Procedure of Machine Tool Inspection and
Testing 783
26.3.3 Methods of Testing Machine Tools 785

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 xxiv Contents

26.4 Solved Problems 790

Summary 791
Multiple Choice Questions 791
Review Questions 792
Problems 793

Index 795

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 PART A
Machining

Chapter 1
Introduction to Machining
Chapter 2
Geometry of Cutting Tools
Chapter 3
Mechanism of Machining
Chapter 4
Mechanics of Machining
Chapter 5
Heat Generation and Cutting Temperature in Machining
Chapter 6
Failure, Life and Materials of Cutting Tools
Chapter 7
Estimation of Machining Time
Chapter 8
Machinability, Some Critical Problems and Remedial Measures
Chapter 9
Grinding: Fast Machining and Finishing by Bonded Abrasives
Chapter 10
Economy and Eco-Friendliness in Machining

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MAMT_Chapter 1.indd 2 7/21/2011 3:43:36 PM
 1 Introduction to Machining
Learning Objectives
The contents of this chapter would enable the readers to understand:
• Role of production engineering on society, • Purpose, principle, definition and requirements
economy and the progress of civilization. of machining.
• Concept and definition of manufacturing. • Necessity and advantages of learning the theory of
• Broad classification of manufacturing machining in addition to machining technology.
processes.

1.1 Introduction
The prosperity and progress of any society or nation are achieved and assessed mainly by improvement and
maintenance of the standard of living of the people, which is done by producing and making available ample
quantity of quality goods and services for man’s material welfare (MMW). Here, services refer to design by
architects, treatments by doctors, invention of theories by scientists, etc.
The successful creation or production of those materials for MMW (covering housing, food, clothing,
medicine, education, transport, communication and entertainment) depends mainly upon:
1. Availability of natural resources (NR): air, water, light and heat, plants and animals and solid and
liquid minerals.
2. Exertion of human efforts (HE): both physical and mental.
3. Development and use of machines and equipments (i.e., tools).
This can be depicted in a simple form as
MMW = NR(HE)TOOLS
Here, TOOLS refers to power plants, chemical plants, steel plants, manufacturing industries, machine tools,
etc., which enhance production capabilities. This equation distinctly reveals the important roles of natural
resources, human efforts and plants and industries in producing MMW and achieving progress of civilization.
Briefly, it can be stated that ‘Production engineering deals with the science, technology and management of
production of goods and services for man’s material welfare by best utilization of the resources’. Production
engineering covers two equally important domains:
1. Production processes or Manufacturing processes.
2. Production management.

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 4 Machining and Machine Tools

1.2 Engineering Manufacturing

1.2.1 Need of Manufacturing and Its Definition
1.2.1.1 Manufacturing Processes
Manufacturing can be simply defined as a value addition process by which raw materials or objects, originally
of low value due to inadequate material properties and poor or irregular size, shape and finish are converted into
high-utility and high-value products with proper size, form, dimensions and finish, imparting some functional
ability. Figure 1.1 illustrates an example, where a lump or rod of mild steel of irregular shape, size and surface
having insignificant use and value is converted into a useful object (like a bolt) by a manufacturing process
which imparts suitable features, dimensions and surface finish needed for some functional use of the object.
Manufacturing deals primarily with the science, technology and methods of production of specific objects
effectively and efficiently by
1. Appropriate selection and use of input materials, tools, machines and environment.
2. Proper selection and application of a suitable manufacturing process and system.
3. Improvement of the existing materials and processing methods and systems.
4. Development of new materials, systems, processes and techniques.
However, all the materials, processes, systems and techniques must be
1. Technologically acceptable.
2. Technically feasible.
3. Economically viable.
4. Environment friendly.
Manufacturing technology is continuously and rapidly advancing to meet the growing demands for
1. Enhancement of productivity, product quality and overall economy, especially after liberalization
and for global competitiveness.
2. Fabrication of micro-size and ultra-precision components for advanced electronics, mechatronics,
computers, medical appliances, etc.
3. Processing exotic materials coming up with vast and rapid progress of science and technology like
aerospace, nuclear engineering, information technology, control, etc.

Manufacturing process

Raw material Product

Input Output

Value addition

Figure 1.1 Value addition by manufacturing a bolt from a lump of mild steel.

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 Introduction to Machining 5

Routes
(manufacturing methods)

Input Output
(raw material) (product)

Figure 1.2 Possibility of manufacturing a product in various routes or methods.

1.2.1.2 Production Management

Production management is equally important and is essentially executed for management and control of all
the aspects of manufacturing. Production management usually refers to proper planning, coordination and
control of all manufacturing activities to finally get the job done in the most profitable way by best utiliza-
tion of the available resources − man, machine, material and money − with maximum satisfaction of the
customers.
Innumerable methods of manufacturing have been developed and are in use today. It may be possible to
manufacture a product of given material and geometry by several methods or routes as indicated in Fig. 1.2.
These methods or routes may be different with respect to principle, technique, productivity, product quality
and cost as well as feasibility and effect on the environment. Management helps to select the most appropriate
route, and plan and execute that based on some relevant criteria. Attempts are made to attain, in addition to
the stipulated accuracy and finish, one or more of the following objectives or criteria:
1. Reduction of manufacturing time.
2. Increase in productivity.
3. Reduction of cost of manufacturing.
4. Increase in profit and profit rate.
In any industry, profits need to be continuously enhanced for the survival, progress and expansion of
the industry with satisfaction of the employees, entrepreneurs and also customers. Figure 1.3 schematically
depicts how profit can be increased by adopting the following three possible strategies:
1. Increasing revenue R or selling price by raising quality, reliability and safety of the product.
2. Reducing manufacturing cost C by best utilization of resources (material, skill, process and system).
3. Increasing volume of production (saleable) by creating or expanding market by adding quality and
aesthetics, improving reliability, trust and post-sell services, advertisement, etc.
Production management integrates all such essential activities leading to maximum benefits by best utili-
zation of all the resources.

1.2.2 Broad Classification of Manufacturing Processes

It is quite difficult to know the exact number of manufacturing processes developed so far that are getting
used presently, because a spectacularly large number of processes have already been developed till now and the
number is growing further exponentially with growing demands and rapid progress in science and technology.

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 6 Machining and Machine Tools

R (revenue)
a

Profit PI C (manufacturing cost)

Qi

Quantity of production, Q

Figure 1.3 Three strategies for increasing profit in industry.

However, the ever-growing number of manufacturing processes are broadly classified in the following four
major groups:
1. Forming or shaping: Solid products of desired size and shape are manufactured from raw materials
taken in three possible states:
(a) In solid state: as in forging, rolling, drawing, extrusion, etc.
(b) In liquid state: as in casting, spraying, etc.
(c) In powder form: in powder metallurgical processes, PM.
2. Joining: by welding, brazing, soldering and adhesive bonding.
3. Removal processes: machining (traditional and non-traditional) and grinding (abrasive
machining).
4. Regenerative processes: manufacturing of solid products layer by layer from raw materials taken in
different forms:
(a) Liquid: as in stereo lithography, etc.
(b) Powder: as in selective sintering.
(c) Sheet: as in laminated object manufacturing (LOM).
(d) Filament (wire shaped) as in fused deposition manufacturing (FDM).
Regenerative processes have recently come up and are carried out very rapidly with enough accuracy and
finish by using CAD-CAM, mainly for rapid prototyping and tooling.

1.3 Machining
1.3.1 Purpose, Principle, Definition and Requirements of Machining
Purpose of Machining
A large number of engineering components, such as shafts, gears, bearings, clutches, cams, screw−nuts, etc.
need reasonably high dimensional and form accuracy and good surface finish for serving their functional

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 Introduction to Machining 7

purposes. Preforming like casting, forging, rolling, etc. generally cannot provide the desired accuracy and
finish. For that, preformed objects called blanks (for machining) need semi-finishing and finishing and this
is done by machining and grinding (which is also basically a machining process). Therefore, it can be briefly
stated that the engineering components are essentially finished to desired accuracy and surface finish by
machining to enable the product
1. Meet its functional requirements.
2. Provide improved performance.
3. Have longer service life.

Principle of Machining
Machining is basically a removal process. For example, a layer is removed from the top surface of a plate to
make that surface flat and smooth as well as to get the desired thickness (dimension) by chiselling as indicated
in Fig. 1.4(a).
The excess material is gradually removed in the form of chips by the relative motion of the tool and the
workpiece. However, actual machining is done much faster and more uniformly using powered machines
instead of such manual chiselling. Figure 1.4(b) schematically shows a typical machining work. A metal rod
of irregular shape, size and surface is converted into a finished rod of desired dimension and surface finish by
machining due to the relative motion of the tool and the workpiece.

Definition of Machining
Machining is an essential finishing process by which jobs of desired dimensions and surface finish are
produced by gradually removing the excess material from the preformed blank in the form of chips with the
help of cutting tool(s) moved past the work surface(s).

Chips Force

Chisel (cutting tool)

Finished surface
Cutting velocity
Desired
thickness

Finished surface
Surface before Cutting motion
machining

Blank Product

Vc Vc

Depth of cut Chip

(t ) Feed motion
Tool

Figure 1.4 (a) Finishing by removal process. (b) Principle of machining (turning).

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 8 Machining and Machine Tools

Power

Blank

Machine Machining process Product

Fixture

Tools Environment

Correction Analysis

Figure 1.5 Requirements for machining.

Machining Requirements
Figure 1.5 illustrates the basic requirements for machining work. The blank and the cutting tool are firmly
mounted in rigid fixtures and are moved in a power-driven device called the machine tool to accomplish
machining by gradual removal of layers of material from the workpiece surface(s). Thus, the desired dimen-
sional accuracy and surface finish is attained. A suitable cutting fluid is often employed at the cutting point
to ease machining by cooling and lubrication. Production has to be satisfactory w.r.t. both rate of production
and product quality. If not, the causes are analysed and appropriate corrective measures are taken.

1.3.2 Machinability
It is already known that machining is essentially done for achieving the desired or stipulated dimensional
accuracy and surface finish keeping in view high productivity, product quality and overall economy. Fulfill-
ment of these objectives is largely dependent on improving the machinability characteristics of the work–tool
combination. Machinability simply means ‘ease of machining’, which is judged by
1. Magnitude of the cutting forces.
2. Level of the cutting temperature.
3. Wear and life of cutting tools.
4. Surface roughness.
5. Chip formation.
Improved machinability means lesser cutting forces, lower cutting temperature, slower tool wear or longer
tool life, better surface finish and favourable chip form but without sacrificing productivity. Improvement of
machinability for a given workpiece requires the following:
1. Proper design and preforming of the blank.
2. Proper planning and scheduling of the machining operations.
3. Appropriate selection of cutting tools − type, material and geometry.
4. Optimum selection of the values of the process parameters − cutting velocity, feed and depth of cut.
5. Proper selection and application of environment or cutting fluid for cooling and lubrication at the
cutting zone.

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 Introduction to Machining 9

Machinability, as such, has several important aspects and implications, which have been discussed later in
more detail.

1.4 Need or Benefits of Learning ‘Theory of Machining’

1.4.1 Aims and Objectives in Machining
While machining various components for desired size and shape with specified dimensional accuracy (toler-
ance) and surface finish, machining industries look for several aspects or objectives to be fulfilled, such as:
1. Reduction of machining time per piece T, min.
2. Increase in production rate P = (1/T )A, number of pieces/min, where A is acceptance level (if rejec-
tion is 10%, A will be 1.0 − 0.1 = 0.9).
3. Reduction of machining cost per piece C, Rs/piece
C = K1T + K2Tc /TL
where K1 is the man-machine hour cost, Rs/min; Tc is the actual cutting time, min; TL is the tool
life, min; and K2 is the consumables cost in between tool change, Rs.
4. Increase in profit, Pr = R − C, Rs/piece, where R is revenue, that is, selling price per piece.
5. Increase in profit rate, PR = (R − C )/T, Rs/min.
6. Increase in PR per unit investment.
The major objectives are based on enhancement of profit. The principal strategies that enable raising profit
have already been discussed (Fig. 1.3). It also appears that the most significant and common factor that
governs fulfillment of all the objectives is reduction of machining time, T. The length of machining time T
comprises a number of components and is given by
Tc
T = Ti + Tc + TCT (1.1)
TL
where Ti is the idle time (for waiting, preparation, loading and unloading, etc.), Tc is the actual machining
time involving chip formation, TL is the life of each cutting edge (or tool), and TCT is the tool change time,
that is, the amount of time required to resharpen or replace the tool or change cutting edge (by indexing).
Reduction of Ti and TCT is under the purview of automation and management. Increase in tool life (TL)
is the combined role of material scientists, metallurgists and machinists. Ti and TCT have been reduced dras-
tically by spectacular improvement in mechanization and automation in the last few decades. Now, reducing
Tc is the prime concern of the machining industry.
Taking a simple example of straight turning, let us compute the actual machining time Tc that will be required
to reduce the diameter of a rod from D1 to D2 over a length L. We know that the cutting velocity Vc is given by
π Da N
Vc = m/min
1000
where N is speed of rotation of the blank in rpm and Da is the average diameter of the workpiece in mm
given by
D1 + D2
Da =
2

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 10 Machining and Machine Tools

Therefore
1000Vc
N= (1.2)
π Da
The number of passes np is given by
D1 − D2
np = (1.3)
2t
where t is the depth of cut, mm. We know that the actual machining time Tc is given by
L
Tc = np min (1.4)
Nso
Combining Eqs. (1.2)−(1.4), we get
π Da L( D1 − D2 )
Tc = (1.5)
2000Vc sot
K
= (1.6)
MRR
where K is a constant, depending upon the user’s or customer’s stipulation and independent of the machinist,
and MRR is the material removal rate, given by Vc sot, mm3/min. Hence, now the major objective in manu-
facturing by machining is to enhance MRR through raising, as far as possible, the levels (values) of the process
parameters: cutting velocity (Vc), feed (so) and/or depth of cut (t) for reducing actual cutting time (Tc) and
hence the total time (T ) of machining per piece of job.
After the aims and objectives are confirmed, a proper strategy needs to be planned. Figure 1.6 visualizes
the strategy and planning for a typical machining (turning) task.

1.4.2 Constraints in Fulfilling the Machining Objectives

Fulfillment of all the aims and targets is hinged on increase in MRR through raising as far as possible one
or more of the process parameters − Vc , so and t − as indicated by Eqs. (1.5) and (1.6). However, increase in
cutting velocity, feed or depth of cut are restrained by several factors which are essentially considered during
finalization of the values of those key process parameters.

1.4.2.1 Factors Restraining Increase in Cutting Velocity

Power Constraint
Cutting velocity should not be so high that the required cutting power exceeds the power available in the
machine tool for machining.
Cutting power requirement = PzVc + PxVf
where Pz is the tangential and main component of the cutting force, Px is the axial component of the cutting
force, and Vf is the velocity of tool feed. Figure 1.7 visualizes how the cutting force developed in straight
turning is resolved into three components Px, Py and Pz.

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 Introduction to Machining 11

Aim High MRR

Constraints Force Temp. Dim. Dev. Wear Vibrat. Surf. Rough

Cutting velocity Feed Depth of cut

Objective
(Vc) (so) (t )

Vc
p DL (D1 − D2)
Operation Tc =
2000 Vcsot

t
so

Tool mat. & geom. (g, a, l, f, f 1, r )

Control parameters Cutting fluid application
Special techniques

Figure 1.6 Strategy planning for machining (say turning).

Px
Vc
Py Px
Vf Py Pxy
Pz

Pz

Figure 1.7 Cutting force components in turning.

The value of PxVf is negligibly small compared to that of PzVc as Vf << Vc. Therefore, depending upon the
maximum value of Pz, the value of Vc is to be decided such that the value of PzVc remains safely lower than
the power available in that machine tool for machining.

Temperature Constraint
Machining generates heat, resulting in a high temperature at the cutting zone, which is detrimental to both
the tool and the product. High temperature aggravates the damage of the cutting edges and also impairs
the accuracy and surface integrity of the product. The cutting temperature q c more or less increases with

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 12 Machining and Machine Tools

Vc

Cutting temperature, qc
so

Vc, so, t

Figure 1.8 Role of increase in the different process parameters on increase in cutting temperature.

the increase in the process parameters. The cutting temperature is most susceptible to cutting velocity and
least susceptible to depth of cut, as indicated in Fig. 1.8. The average cutting temperature q c rises (roughly)
according to

θc = K Vc a1 (1.7)

where a1 is the thickness of the chip before cut (Fig. 1.9) = so sinf, so being the assumed longitudinal feed
and f being the principal cutting edge angle of the tool. Therefore, Vc has to be judiciously chosen to prevent
excessive rise in cutting temper ature.

Tool life Constraint

The life of cutting tool (edge) decreases rapidly with increase in cutting velocity as
K1
Tool life = (1.8)
Vc x s o y t z
where the values of the indices x, y and z are roughly in the order of 0.5, 0.25 and 0.1, respectively, and Kl is
constant depending upon the tool−work materials and machining environment.

Machine Functional Constraint

Cutting velocity Vc for given diameter D of workpiece (in turning) or cutting tool (in drilling, milling, etc.)
is varied by changing the spindle speed N as
π DN
Vc =
1000
Too much increase in the speed N leads to early failure of critical parts like bearings of the machine tool,
severe vibration if there are eccentric masses and even failure of some elastic components of the machine−
fixture−tool−work system by resonance or near resonance.

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 Introduction to Machining 13

a1
a2
Workpiece Chip
a

g (Rake angle)

so Tool

f1
a1

Figure 1.9 Tool angles and chip thickness in turning.

Product Quality Constraint

Too much increase in Vc may cause dimensional inaccuracy in the product by thermal deformation and also
impair the machined surfaces by inducing thermal defects and built-up-edge (BUE) formation, damaging the
tool sharpness and vibration.

1.4.2.2 Factors that Restrain Increase in Feed

Cutting Force Constraint
The major cutting force component, Pz (Fig. 1.7) is governed by several factors, as

Pz = t sot s f (1.9)

where tso is the chip load (cross section of the chip before cut), t s is the shear strength of the work material
under the cutting condition and f is the form factor, depending upon the sharpness of the cutting edge and
the friction between the chip and the tool. Equation (1.9) shows that Pz is directly proportional to the values
of feed so and depth of cut t. Therefore, too much increase in so and t for higher MRR may raise Pz beyond
the limit w.r.t. power consumption, dimensional deviation and vibration.

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 14 Machining and Machine Tools

so so
Feed marks
hmax

f1 r
f

Figure 1.10 Inherent surface roughness ‘h’ due to feed marks produced by (a) a sharp tool and
(b) a radiused (nose) tool.

Surface Roughness Constraint

Continuous machining like turning produces visible feed marks or scallop marks, which provides the primary
inherent surface roughness as schematically shown in Fig. 1.10. It clearly shows that the value of maximum
surface roughness due to feed marks alone is governed by the magnitude of feed so and the tool geometry, that
is, cutting angles f and f 1 and nose radius r. Mathematically,

⎧ so
⎪⎪ cot φ + cot φ for a sharp tool tip
1
hmax =⎨ 2 (1.10)
⎪ o
( s )
for a tool tip with nose radius r
⎪⎩ 8r

Therefore, to keep the surface finish within the desired or stipulated level, the value of feed so cannot be
increased beyond a certain limit.

Temperature Constraint
Equation (1.7) shows that cutting temperature may also rise undesirably due to large increase in feed.

Tool Life Constraint

The increase in cutting forces and temperature due to increase in feed reduces tool life.

Product Quality Constraint

The dimensional accuracy and surface integrity of the machined product may deteriorate due to drastic
increase in feed through rise in temperature, damage of the tool-tip condition and vibration.

1.4.2.3 Factors that Restrain Increase in Depth of Cut

1. Cutting force and related constraints: According to Eq. (1.9), increase in t proportionally raises
cutting forces and the consequences.

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 Introduction to Machining 15

2. Constraint due to machining allowance: Presently a little amount of material is left for machining
for saving material and processing cost. This has been possible for improved preforming process and
near-net shape principle. Depth of cut cannot be greater than the machining allowance.
3. Job size constraint: For machining jobs of small diameter or low thickness, obviously a very small
depth of cut is necessarily taken.
4. Tool size constraint: Because the tool-bits are very small in size, depth of cut cannot be large, espe-
cially for expensive tool materials like diamond and cBN.
The major constraints that are generally found to restrict increase in the process parameters are indicated in
Fig. 1.6.

1.4.3 Control Over the Machining Constraints

The problems that arise due to machining constraints can be substantially controlled, even without sacrificing
productivity and product quality, by:
1. Proper selection of the cutting tool parameters, both material and geometrical.
2. Proper selection and application of cutting fluid.
3. Application of special techniques if feasible.

1.4.3.1 Reduction of Cutting Forces (Without Sacrificing MRR)

The magnitude of the cutting forces could be reduced, without sacrificing MRR, as follows:
1. By increasing tool rake angle, g (Fig. 1.9): Equation (1.9) shows that in continuous machining like
turning of a given material having shear strength t s with a given chip load, the magnitude of the major
force or power component Pz (Fig. 1.7) is influenced by a factor called the form factor (f) given by
f = z − tan g + 1 for ductile jobs (1.11)
and f = 2 (z − tan g ) for brittle jobs
where z is the chip reduction coefficient given by
z = a2/a1 ≅ e m (p /2 − g ) (1.12)
Equations (1.9), (1.11) and (1.12) reveal that Pz can be reduced directly by increasing (in the positive
direction) the tool rake angle g ; and indirectly by reducing the value of z . Later (in Chapter 2) it
would be seen that the value of the rake angle g can be effectively increased by providing an inclina-
tion angle l at the cutting edge.
2. By employing lubricant (cutting fluid): Equation (1.12) indicates that the reduction of friction
( m) at the work–tool interfaces by employing a suitable cutting fluid causes reduction in z , which in
turn reduces the cutting force.
3. By reducing shear strength (t s ) of the work material under cutting condition: Equation (1.9)
shows that Pz can be reduced without sacrificing MRR by reducing t s if not restricted otherwise. For
ductile work materials (most engineering materials behave in a ductile manner in machining), t s is
governed by
τ s = 0.74σ u ∈0.6 Δ (1.13)

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 16 Machining and Machine Tools

where s u is the ultimate tensile strength, ∈ is the cutting strain and Δ is the percentage elongation
of the work material. The mechanical properties s u and Δ are often favourably changed, if feasible,
by putting some additives (like lead or sulphur in structural steels) or by some treatments (annealing,
etc.). The value of cutting strain ∈ also decreases with the increase in tool rake angle as (roughly)
∈ ≅ z − tan g (1.14)
4. By widening the cutting angle of the tool: Amongst the cutting force components (Fig. 1.7), the
transverse component Py is most responsible for causing elastic deflection and vibration, especially when
the workpiece is long and slender. Such deflection and vibration aggravate dimensional inaccuracy
and surface roughness, and are also detrimental to the cutting tools and the machine tool. The force
Py can be easily reduced, without sacrificing MRR and even Pz, by controlling the tool geometry.
Figure 1.11 shows how Py can simply be reduced by increasing the principal cutting edge angle f
(Fig. 1.9), as
Py = Pxy cos f (where Pxy ∝ Pz) (1.15)
The transverse force Py can also be significantly reduced by favourably shifting the direction of chip
flow towards the x-axis by using tools having a suitable negative inclination angle l.

1.4.3.2 Reduction of Cutting Temperature

High cutting temperature q c is reduced without sacrificing MRR in the following ways:
1. By lowering principal cutting edge angle, f : The relation shown in Eq. (1.7) depicts that the rise
in cutting temperature due to increase in Vc and so for high MRR can be compensated to some extent
by taking tools with lower value of f as indicated in Fig. 1.12.
2. By increasing nose radius: Increase in tool nose radius r enables a sizeable reduction in cutting
temperature through reduction of f effectively, or by the sharing of heat by wider tool tip as can be
seen in Fig. 1.13.
Transverse force, (Py)

Px
f f
Pxy
Py

Mild steel

Py = Pxy cosf
Cast iron
where
Pxy ∝ Pz & Pz ∝MRR
40° 50° 60° 70° 80° 90°
Principal cutting edge angle (f)

Figure 1.11 Reduction of PY by increasing f.

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 Introduction to Machining 17

Average cutting temperature (qa )

Feed, so

40° 50° 60° 70° 80° 90°

Principal cutting edge angle (f )

Figure 1.12 Reduction of cutting temperature by reducing cutting edge angle, f .

A
A

fi i
r
B B
f
f

Figure 1.13 Reduction of cutting temperature by nose radiusing.

3. By geometrical modification of tools, like compound rake, chip breaker, etc.: As our ultimate
aim is the reduction of q c , the geometry at the tool tip can be specially designed to enable production
of lesser forces and heat as well as better heat dissipation through the tool.
4. By profuse cooling: Cutting temperature is substantially reduced by proper selection and applica-
tion of coolant (cutting fluid).

1.4.3.3 Reduction of Surface Roughness

Surface finish in machining like turning is generally improved as follows:
1. By controlling tool geometry: It clearly appears from Fig. 1.10 and Eq. (1.10) that without
sacrificing feed so or MRR, surface roughness hmax can be reduced drastically by reducing f and/or
f1 and also by providing a wide nose radius r.

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 18 Machining and Machine Tools

2. By reduction or elimination of BUE formation: Often a lump of work material, called

built-up-edge (BUE), develops and strongly adheres at the tool tip. This BUE formation not only
raises cutting force and vibration but also reduces tool life and impairs surface finish. Such BUE
formation is generally reduced by proper selection of cutting tool material, speed−feed combination
and cutting fluid application.
3. By controlling vibration.
4. By retention or prolonging sharpness of the tool tip.

1.4.3.4 Reduction of Tool Damage (Wear, Etc.) and Improvement of Tool Life
While machining a given material, the failure of the cutting tool is generally retarded (i.e., tool life is improved)
without sacrificing productivity and product quality as follows:
1. By appropriate selection of tool material: For good performance and longer service life, the cutting
tool material needs to be quite strong, hard, tough, thermo-chemically stable and diffusion-resistant
depending upon the work material, type of cutter and machining condition.
2. By reducing cutting force, heat generation, vibration and BUE formation.
3. By proper selection and application of cutting fluid for cooling and lubrication.
Therefore, it appears that the constraints that restrict increase in Vc , so and t can be counteracted to a large extent
by appropriate selection and application of tool material and geometry (g, a, f, q, l, r, etc.) and cutting fluid.

1.4.3.5 Cutting Fluid Applications

It has already been realized that cutting fluid plays a substantial role on machinability and hence on the
efficiency and economy of machining.

Purpose of Employing Cutting Fluid

1. Cooling tool and workpiece.
2. Lubrication at work–tool interfaces.
3. Washing away the debris from the cutting zone.
4. Improvement and protection of surface finish.

Major Aspects of Cutting Fluid Application

1. Essential properties of the cutting fluid for benefits in machining.
2. Various types of cutting fluids and their characteristics.
3. Appropriate selection.
4. Methods of application.
In addition to the general control parameters, several special techniques may also be suitably employed to
counteract the severe constraints.

1.4.3.6 Special Techniques in Machining

Some special techniques have evolved over the years for

MAMT_Chapter 1.indd 18 7/21/2011 3:43:39 PM

 Introduction to Machining 19

1. More efficient and economic machining of conventional materials.

2. Effective machining of exotic materials which are as such difficult to machine and grind.
3. Very high production machining.
4. Environment friendliness in machining and grinding.
5. Micro- and ultra-precision machining.
These techniques are apparently associated with
1. Simple but effective geometrical modifications of cutting tools, such as
(a) Rotary turning tool for reduction of friction force.
(b) Cutting edge bevelling for better performance.
(c) Chisel-edge modifications of drill for reducing thrust force.
(d) Offset cutting edge of multipoint cutting tools for free cutting.
2. Basic machining and grinding processes such as
(a) Stretch machining for easy machining of extremely ductile and sticky materials.
(b) Dynamic machining and grinding for better finish and lesser forces.
(c) Hot machining for easy machining of super-alloys and other difficult-to-machine materials.
(d) Ultrasonic vibration-assisted machining for improving machinability.
(e) Ultrasonic cleaning of the grinding wheel.
(f ) Efficient cooling in grinding by using cardboard and side-painting.
3. High production bulk machining such as
(a) Laser turning for fast MRR and saving material waste.
(b) Ballistic machining by explosives for extra-high speed machining.
4. Pollution control or environment friendliness such as
(a) Dry machining.
(b) Hard turning.
(c) Cryogenic machining and grinding.
(d) Machining with minimum quantity liquid (MQL).
All these interesting and important techniques have been discussed in detail in the subsequent chapters.
Therefore, it clearly appears that thorough knowledge in the theory of machining can help and hence is
essentially required to accomplish machining work in the best possible way, by enabling:
1. Pinpointing the aims and objectives in machining at different levels.
2. Identification of the salient factors
(a) The process parameters Vc, so and t.
(b) The major constraints that restrict drastic increase in those process parameters.
(c) The significant control parameters that help to counteract the constraints.
3. Evaluation of the role of variation of the process parameters and control parameters on the machin-
ability indices and thus, the optimum selection of those parameters or variables.
4. Assessment and improvement of
(a) Machinability of different work materials under different conditions.
(b) Performance of cutting tools, cutting fluids and any additional techniques.
5. Design and development of new type, material and geometry of cutting tools, unique cutting fluid
application methods and other useful special techniques.

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 20 Machining and Machine Tools

1.5 Major Aspects and Topics to be Studied under Machining

Theories of machining are essentially studied under the following topics:
1. Cutting tool geometry.
2. Mechanism of machining.
3. Mechanics of machining.
4. Cutting temperature.
5. Failure, life and materials of cutting tools.
6. Dynamics of machining.
7. Grinding-principles and mechanics.
8. Advanced techniques in machining and grinding.
9. Economy of machining and grinding.

1.6 Solved Problems

PROBLEM 1
In a batch production of mild steel shafts by machining, the following observations were made:
(a) Total idle time per piece is 20 min.
(b) Actual machining time per piece is 20 min.
(c) Life of each tool-tip is 10 min.
(d) Time required to replace a tool-tip is 5 min.
Determine the total time that will be required to produce each piece.
Solution: The desired total machining time per piece (Tt) can be calculated using the expression:
Tc
Tt =Ti +Tc + (TCT )
TL
Given: Ti = 20 min, Tc = 20 min, TL = 10 min and TCT = 5 min. Therefore,
20
Tt = 20 + 20 + × 5min = 50 min
10

PROBLEM 2
How much machining time will be required to reduce the diameter of a steel rod from 100 mm to
80 mm over a length of 200 mm by turning at a cutting velocity (Vc) of 160 m/min, a feed (so) of
0.25 mm/rev and a depth of cut (t) of 2.0 mm?
Solution: The desired machining time Tc can be determined by using the expression,

π DL ( D1 − D2 )
Tc =
1000Vc so 2t

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 Introduction to Machining 21

Given: D = D1 = 100 mm, D2 = 80 mm, L = 200 mm, so = 0.25 mm/rev, t = 2.0 mm, Vc = 160 m/min.
Therefore,
π × 100 × 200(100 − 80)
Tc = = 16.7 min
1000 × 160 × 0.25 × 2

PROBLEM 3
By how much (in percentage) is the average cutting temperature expected to change by doubling the
cutting velocity and reducing the principal cutting edge angle from 90° to 30° in a turning operation?

Solution: Generally, average cutting temperatures q avg in simple turning operation is governed by cut-
ting velocity Vc and true feed (thickness of uncut layer) a1 as

θavg ∝ Vc a1

where a1 = s0 sinf (f is the principal cutting edge angle). Therefore, originally, the cutting temperature was

θavg1 = K Vc so sin 90o

and θavg 2 = K 2Vc so sin 30o

Dividing q avg2 by q avg1, the ratio, R becomes 1. Therefore, the cutting temperature will not change, that
is, change in cutting temperature will be 0%.

PROBLEM 4
What will be the magnitude of the main or tangential component (Pz) of the cutting force in turning a
steel rod at a feed of 0.2 mm/rev and depth of cut 2.5 mm if (a) yield shear strength of the work material
is 400 MPa; (b) orthogonal rake of the tool = 0°; (c) after machining, the chip thickness becomes
double.

Solution: We know that

Pz = t· so·t s (x − tan g 0 + 1)

where

Chip thickness after cut

ζ=
Chip thickness before cut

Given: t = 2.5 mm, so = 0.2 mm/rev, t s = 400 MPa, g o = 0o and z = 2. Therefore,

Pz = 2.5 × 0.2 × 400 (2 − 0 + 1) = 600 N

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 22 Machining and Machine Tools

PROBLEM 5
In plain turning of a brass rod at feed of 0.4 mm/rev, what will be the surface roughness, if the tool’s
(a) cutting angles (f and f1) are 60° and 15°; (b) tool-nose radius r = 1.0 mm? Both are under tool
condition − sharp.

Solution: Given: so = 0.4, f = 60° and f1 = 15o.

Case (a): Cutting angles (f and f1) are 60° and 15°. The maximum value of surface roughness hmax in
turning becomes
so
hmax =
cot φ + cot φ1
Therefore,

0.4
hmax = = 0.0928 mm = 92.8 μm
cot 60° + cot 15°
Case (b): Tool-nose radius r = 1.0 mm. The maximum value of surface roughness hmax in turning becomes

( so )2 (0.4 )2
hmax = = = 0.02 mm = 20 μm
8r 8 ×1

SU M M A R Y
It is briefly indicated how production engineering, and implementation of feasible special techniques
manufacturing and machining are defined and inter- in machining. The major aspects of machining have
connected. The basic purposes and requirements been listed.
of machining have been highlighted. This chapter The materials and geometry of the cutting tools
briefly discussed aims and objectives in machining play a vital role in the effectiveness, efficiency and
industries, machining control parameters, general overall economy of manufacturing by machining.
constraints in achieving those objectives and how to The geometry of the general cutting tools has been
counteract those constraints by several means using dealt with in detail in the next chapter.
the knowledge of the basic theories of machining

MU LT I P L E CH O I C E QU E S T I O N S
[Answers are provided in the CD]
1. Among the manufacturing processes, machining (c) Joining process
is a (d) Regenerative process
(a) Forming process 2. Machining imparts finishing to a desired accu-
(b) Removal process racy and finish to enable the machined product

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 Introduction to Machining 23

(a) Meet its functional requirement 9. The value of chip reduction coefficient in turn-
(b) Provide proper performance ing ductile metals, depends upon the tool’s
(c) Have longer service life (a) Rake angle
(d) All of the above (b) Clearance angle
(e) None of the above (c) Principal cutting edge angle
3. By machining, excess material from the work- (d) None of the above
piece is removed in the form of 10. Without sacrificing MRR, surface roughness
(a) Strips in turning can be reduced by reducing
(b) Sheets (a) Tool feed rate
(c) Chips (b) Depth of cut
(d) Grains (c) Tool rake angle
4. Machinability of any work material under a (d) Main cutting edge angle
given machining condition is judged by 11. The cutting tool geometry plays significant
(a) Magnitude of cutting temperature role on
(b) Level of cutting temperature (a) Cutting temperature
(c) Tool life (b) Surface finish
(d) All of the above (c) Tool life
(e) None of the above (d) All of the above
5. Length of time (min) required for turning a (e) None of the above
rod depends upon 12. Application of cutting fluid in machining does
(a) Spindle speed only not help in
(b) Tool feed rate only (a) Increasing MRR or productivity
(c) Both speed and feed (b) Reducing cutting power consumption
(d) None of the above (c) Prolonging tool life
6. If in a turning operation, the diameter of the (d) Improving quality of the finished surface
blank is to be reduced from 60 mm to 56 mm 13. While turning in a rigid lathe, the surface
in a single pass, then the depth of cut is to be finish of the product is least affected by the
(a) 1.0 mm increase of
(b) 2.0 mm (a) Cutting velocity
(c) 4.0 mm (b) Feed
(d) None of the above (c) Depth of cut
7. Increasing cutting velocity in machining is not (d) None of the above
restrained by increase of 14. Too soft and sticky materials are easily
(a) Cutting forces machined by
(b) Cutting temperature (a) Stretch machining
(c) Rate of tool wear (b) Hot machining
(d) Cutting power (c) Dynamic machining
8. Under the same condition of turning, the cut- (d) None of the above
ting power consumption can be reduced by 15. The magnitude of cutting force in turning
increasing the cutting tool’s does not increase with the increase of
(a) Rake angle (a) Cutting velocity
(b) Clearance angle (b) Feed
(c) Principal cutting edge angle (c) Depth of cut
(d) Nose radius (d) None of the above

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 24 Machining and Machine Tools

R E V I E W QU E S T I O N S
1. Briefly describe with the help of a simple 14. What factors restrain increase in feed and
diagram the basic principle of machining. depth of cut in turning operation and
2. State the purposes of machining. how?
3. How can machining be defined? 15. State the causes and effects of high cutting
4. Justify the following: ‘like any manufacturing temperature in machining.
process, machining is also a value addition process’. 16. Write and show the effects of raising cutting
5. Show by a block diagram the general require- velocity, feed and depth of cut on cutting
ments for accomplishing machining work. temperature.
6. What is meant by ‘machinability’? How is it 17. How can proper selection of tool geometry
judged or evaluated? help in improving surface finish in turning?
7. What objectives are kept in view in the indus- 18. How can proper selection of tool geometry
try while planning and conducting machining help in reducing the magnitude of the cutting
a product and why? forces in turning without sacrificing produc-
8. Why and how attempts are made to reduce tivity or MRR?
the amount of actual machining time required 19. How do increase in rake angle and principal
for any job? cutting edge angle of the turning tool enable
9. In reference to machining by turning in lathe, reduction in cutting forces and cutting tem-
how are ‘cutting velocity’, ‘feed’ and ‘depth of perature without sacrificing MRR?
cut’ defined and expressed? 20. How does increase in the transverse force (Py)
10. Derive a simple equation for turning to indicate affect the product quality in turning slender
the role of increase in cutting velocity, feed and rods in centre lathe? How can Py be reduced
depth of cut on machining time and MRR. without reducing MRR?
11. How can saving in machining time per piece 21. How can surface finish be improved in straight
(Tp) help reduce machining cost per piece (Cp) turning of C20 steel rods by HSS tools?
and increase in profit rate? 22. How can tool life be enhanced in machining
12. List the factors under the following sets which like turning keeping MRR unchanged?
are associated with machining activities: 23. When special techniques are justifiably
(a) Aims while planning machining work. employed in machining? Name some such
(b) Objectives to be considered. special techniques.
(c) Constraints that resist achieving the 24. How do thorough knowledge in machining
objective. principles and theories enable us to derive sev-
(d) Control parameters that enable countering eral benefits in machining work?
the constraints. 25. What are the major aspects of machining that
13. What factors restrain increase in cutting veloc- need to be studied for deriving several benefits
ity in machining and how? and success in machining?

PR O B L E M S
With Answers
1. Determine the total machining time that will be (a) Actual machining time per piece = 16 min
required to machine a rod in a centre lathe, if (b) Total idle time per piece = 5 min

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 Introduction to Machining 25

(c) Life of each cutting edge = 8 min idle time per piece in 5 min, actual machining
(d) Time for changing each cutting edge = time per piece is 10 min and time required for
3 min each tool-tip change is 2.5 min. Determine
Ans: 27 min the life (min) of each tool-tip.
2. How much time will be required to reduce the 2. Reduction of diameter of an aluminium rod
diameter of a cast iron rod from 80 mm to from 85 mm to 75 mm in two passes over a
76 mm over a length of 120 mm by turning in length of 200 mm at spindle speed (N ) of 640
a lathe at cutting velocity 140 m/min and feed rpm in a lathe took 2.5 min. Determine the
0.32 mm/rev? value of feed rate of the tool that was taken in
Ans: 0.673 min = 40.37 s this case.
3. By how much (in percentage) the average cut- 3. In plain turning of a rod in a lathe under a giv-
ting temperature will increase in a turning en condition, the magnitude of the transverse
operation if both the cutting velocity and feed component (Py) was found to be 200 N. How
are doubled, keeping other conditions un- much will be the value of Py under the same
changed? condition of machining only if the principal
Ans: Will increase by 100% cutting edge angle (f) is changed from 60° to
4. While turning a brass rod by a sharp cutting 90°?
tool in a given condition, how much (in per- 4. During plain turning a brass rod by a turning
centage) change will occur in surface rough- tool whose principal cutting edge angle is 90°
ness if only the depth of cut is changed from and auxiliary cutting edge angle is 20°, the
2.0 mm to 2.5 mm? maximum surface roughness has been found
Ans: 0.0% (no change) to be 0.20 mm. At how much feed rate of the
tool, this turning was carried out?
Without Answers
1. The total machining time Tt for machining a
job in a lathe appeared to be 20 min when total

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MAMT_Chapter 1.indd 26 7/21/2011 3:43:40 PM
 2 Geometry of Cutting Tools
Learning Objectives
The contents of this chapter would enable the readers to:
• Be familiar with the configuration and • Illustrate the shape and major geometrical
geometry (mainly the angles) of cutting tools. features of HSS drills and milling cutters.
• Demonstrate the various tool angles in • Evaluate different geometrical angles of single-
different systems of references: ASA, ORS, point tools, drills and milling cutters in any
NRS, etc. reference system from the given specification
• Use designations of single-point tools in of those tools.
different systems. • Practice re-sharpening of turning tools and
• Use the graphical and vector methods of twist drills in different methods.
converting the tool angles from one system
to the other systems.

2.1 Introduction
Cutting tools have been of use to human beings since the Paleolithic age. Through centuries and decades,
spectacular changes in the material and performance of cutting tools have occurred, from stone to dia-
mond and cubic boron nitride today, revolutionizing industries and the progress of civilization. For effec-
tive and easy machining, the main cutting edges of a cutting tool made of any material need to be as sharp
as possible.
The cutting edges are developed as the lines of intersection of the three major surfaces – the rake surface
and the two clearance surfaces. Thus, the total performance of any cutting tool depends on
1. The material of the tool.
2. The sharpness of the cutting edges.
3. The orientation angles of the planes that generate the cutting edges.
Therefore, the overall performance of cutting tools is governed almost equally by choice of the material
and geometry of the cutting tools and by their way of application. Appropriate selection of tool geometry
enables efficient and economic machining of any job. This requires thorough knowledge of cutting tool
geometry.

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 28 Machining and Machine Tools

2.2 Geometry of Single-Point Turning Tools

2.2.1 General Configuration of Cutting Edges of
Tools Used for Machining
Both the material and the geometry of cutting tools play very important roles on their performances in terms
of achieving efficiency and overall economy of machining. Cutting tools may be classified according to the
number of their working cutting edges (points) as follows:
1. Single-point: turning tools, shaping, planing and slotting tools and boring tools.
2. Double-point or two-point: drills.
3. Multipoint (more than two points): milling cutters, broaching tools, hobs, gear shaping cutters,
etc. Grinding wheels are also multipoint cutting tools.
However, the basic principle of machining by gradual material removal in the form of chips is more or less
same for all cutting tools, where the sharp wedge shaped cutting edge(s) is forcibly pushed against the work
material as indicated in Fig. 2.1.

2.2.1.1 Concept of Rake and Clearance Angles of Cutting Tools

The phrase ‘tool geometry’ refers to some specific angles or slope of the salient faces and edges of the tools
at their cutting point. Rake angle and clearance angle are the most significant geometrical features of cutting
tools. Figure 2.1 shows the general configuration of rake angle and clearance angle.
1. Rake angle (g ): It is the angle of inclination of the cutting tool’s rake surface from the reference
plane, that is, the plane perpendicular to the velocity vector, Vc.
2. Clearance angle (a ): It is the angle of inclination of the clearance or flank surface of the tool from
the finished surface or the cutting plane, pC.
Rake angle is generally provided for ease of chip flow, and it may be positive, negative or even zero as shown
in Fig. 2.2. However, clearance angle must be greater than zero. Also
g + a + d = 90° (2.1)
where d is wedge angle, which should be sufficient for mechanical strength of the cutting edge.

g Rake angle
a Clearance angle
g Velocity
Reference plane (pR ) Force
vector, Vc
Reference plane (p R)
Rake surface
Cutting Rake face
Cutting Chip tool (chisel)
velocity a Finished
vector, Vc surface g

d
Wedge angle, d Flank surface Flank surface a

Figure 2.1 Wedge, rake and clearance angles of cutting tools.

MAMT_Chapter 2.indd 28 7/21/2011 11:16:53 AM

 Geometry of Cutting Tools 29

Vc Vc Vc

pR pR pR

−g
+g g =0

d
Tool
a a a
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 2.2 Sign convention of tool rake angles. (a) Positive rake, (b) zero rake, (c) negative rake.

The relative advantages of different types of rake angles are:

1. Positive rake: It helps reduce cutting force, thus cutting power requirement.
2. Negative rake: It increases strength and life of the cutting edge.
3. Zero rake: It simplifies design and manufacture (of form tools, etc.)
A clearance angle is essentially provided to avoid rubbing of the tool (flank) against the machined surface
and thus to reduce loss of energy and damages to the tool and the job surface. Hence, clearance angle must
be present and must be positive, in the range of 3−15° depending upon tool–work materials and type of the
machining operation like turning, drilling, boring, etc.

2.2.2 Systems of Description of Tool Geometry

Cutting tool geometry is described and designated in several systems[2–4]:
1. Tool-in-hand system: where only the salient features of the cutting tool point are identified or visu-
alized as indicated in Fig. 2.3. There is no quantitative information, for example, the values of the
angles are not known.
2. Machine reference system: ASA system.
3. Tool reference systems:
(a) Orthogonal rake system (ORS).
(b) Normal rake system (NRS).
4. Work reference system (WRS).

2.2.2.1 Designation of Tool Geometry in the Machine Reference System

This system is also called the ASA (American Standards Association) system. The geometry of a cutting tool
refers mainly to its several angles or slopes of its salient working surfaces and cutting edges. Those angles are
expressed w.r.t. some planes of reference.
In the ASA system, the three planes of reference and the coordinates are chosen based on the configu-
ration and axes of the machine tool concerned. Figure 2.4 shows the planes and axes used for expressing
tool geometry in ASA system in respect of turning operation. The planes of reference and the coordinates
used in the ASA system for tool geometry are pR − pX − pY and Xm − Ym − Zm, respectively, where pR is the

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 30 Machining and Machine Tools

Rake surface

Auxiliary cutting edge Principal cutting

Tool nose edge
Auxiliary flank (clearance) Principal flank
surface (clearance) surface

Figure 2.3 Basic features of a single-point tool in the tool-in-hand system.



reference plane, perpendicular to the velocity vector, Vc as shown in Fig. 2.4, p X is the machine longitudi-
nal plane, perpendicular to p R and taken in the direction of the assumed longitudinal feed) and p Y is the
machine transverse plane, perpendicular to both p R and p X, that is, taken in the direction of cross feed. The
axes Xm, Ym and Zm are taken in the direction of longitudinal feed, cross feed and cutting velocity vector,
respectively.
The main geometrical features and angles of a single-point tool in ASA system and their definitions will be
clear from Fig. 2.5. The definitions of tool angles when designated in ASA system (Fig. 2.5) are as follows:
1. Rake angles:
(a) Side (axial) rake g X: It is the angle of inclination of the rake surface from the reference plane p R
and is measured on the machine longitudinal plane p X.
(b) Back rake g Y: It is the angle of inclination of the rake surface from the reference plane and is
measured on machine transverse plane p Y.
2. Clearance angles:
(a) Side
clearance
 a x: It is the angle of inclination of the principal flank from the machined surface
(or Vc ) and measured on the p X plane.
(b) Back clearance ay: It is the same as a X but is measured on the p Y plane.

Zm (Vc (

Ym
pX pY
Ym
pX
Xm

Xm

pY pR

Feed
pR

Figure 2.4 Planes and axes used for visualizing and designating tool geometry in the ASA system.

MAMT_Chapter 2.indd 30 7/21/2011 11:16:53 AM

 Geometry of Cutting Tools 31

Zm , Vc

pY pR
r
Xm
gx

pX

ax
Nose radiusing
Section along p X

Ym
pX
pY
Ym

Xm fe Zm
ay
fs pR
pX

pR pY

gy

Section along p Y

Figure 2.5 Cutting tool angles in ASA system.



(c) Auxiliary back clearance α y′ : It is the angle of inclination of the auxiliary flank from Vc mea-
sured on the p Y plane.
3. Cutting angles:
(a) Approach angle fs: It is the angle between the principal cutting edge (its projection on pR) and
p Y, measured on pR.
(b) End cutting edge angle fe: It is the angle between the end cutting edge (its projection on pR)
and p X , measured on p R.
4. Nose radius, r (in inches): It is the curvature of the tool tip, it provides strength to the tool nose and
a better surface finish.
In the ASA system, the geometry of single-point turning tools is designated or specified as
gx, gy, ax, α y′ , fe, fs, r (inch)
For example, a typical specification in ASA system may be
10°, −8°, 7°, 6°, 15°, 30°, 1/8 (inch)

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 32 Machining and Machine Tools

Here, gx = 10°, gy = − 8°, ax = 7°, α y′ = 6°, fe = 15°, fs = 30° and nose radius r = 1/8 (inch).

2.2.2.2 Designation of Tool Geometry in the Orthogonal Rake System (ORS)

This system is also known as ISO – old system. The planes of reference and the co-ordinate axes used for
expressing the tool angles in ORS are pR − pC − pO and Xo − Yo − Zo, respectively, which are taken in respect
of the tool configuration as indicated in Fig. 2.6. 

pR is the reference plane, perpendicular to the velocity vector Vc , pC is the cutting plane perpendicular to
pR and taken along the principal cutting edge, and pO is the orthogonal plane perpendicular to both pR and
pC. Also, Xo is taken along the line of intersection of pR and pO, Yo is taken along the line of intersection of
pR and pC, and Zo is taken along the velocity vector, that is, it is normal to both Xo and Yo axes.
The main geometrical angles used to designate tool geometry in ORS are shown in Fig. 2.7 and their
definitions are:
1. Rake angles:
(a) Orthogonal rake gO: It is the angle of inclination of the rake surface from the reference plane
p R, measured on the orthogonal plane, pO.
(b) Inclination angle l: It is the angle of inclination of the principal cutting edge from p R, measured
on the cutting plane pC.
2. Clearance angles:
(a) Orthogonal clearance of the principal flank ao: It is the angle of inclination of the principal
flank from pC, measured on pO.
(b) Auxiliary orthogonal clearance α o′ : It is the angle of inclination of the auxiliary flank from the
auxiliary cutting plane π C′ measured on the auxiliary orthogonal plane π O′ as shown in Fig. 2.8.
3. Cutting angles:
(a) Principal cutting edge angle f : It is the angle between pC and the direction of assumed
longitudinal feed or pX, measured on p R.

Z O (Vc (
pC
pO
Yo
pO Yo
Xo
Xo

pR

pC

pR

Figure 2.6 Planes and axes used for visualizing tool geometry in the orthogonal rake system (ORS).

MAMT_Chapter 2.indd 32 7/21/2011 11:16:54 AM

 Geometry of Cutting Tools 33

(b) Auxiliary cutting edge angle f1: It is the angle between p C′ (Figs. 2.7 and 2.8) and pX, measured
on p R.
4. Nose radius r (mm): Nose radius r is the radius of curvature of the tool tip (mm).
The geometry of single-point turning tools is designated in ORS by:
l, go, ao, α o′ , f1, f, r (mm)

Z o (V (
c
Xo
pC pR pO
pR Yo
pC
Zo
pO
l
ao go
Yo
B
Section B − B
Xo A
r
f1
Section A − A pO
f
pR B
pC
A

Figure 2.7 Cutting tool angles in ORS.

pC
C′
Yo
pO
Xo p ′O Auxiliary flank
′
pC
X ′o

a o′ p ′O
C
p ′C

pR Z ′o

Section C − C

Figure 2.8 Auxiliary orthogonal clearance α o′ (ORS).

MAMT_Chapter 2.indd 33 7/21/2011 6:01:16 PM

 34 Machining and Machine Tools

2.2.2.3 Designation of Tool Angles in Normal Rake System (NRS)

NRS is also known as ISO – new system. The ASA system has a few advantages, such as convenience of
inspection. But ORS is advantageously used for analysis and research in machining and tool performance.
However, it does not reveal the true picture of the tool geometry when the cutting edges are inclined from
the reference plane, that is, when l ≠ 0. Besides, if the tool is sharpened or re-sharpened by grinding, some
additional calculations for correction of angles have to be done using ORS.
These two limitations of ORS are overcome by using NRS for designation of tool geometry. The basic
difference between ORS and NRS is the fact that in ORS, rake and clearance angles are visualized in the
orthogonal plane pO, whereas in NRS those angles are visualized in another plane called the normal plane, pN.
The orthogonal plane pO is simply normal to pR and pC irrespective of the inclination of the cutting edges
(l), but pN (and for the auxiliary cutting edge, π N′ ) is always normal to the cutting edge. The differences
between ORS and NRS are shown in Fig. 2.9.
The planes of reference and the coordinates used in NRS are pRN − pC − pN and Xn − Yn − Zn, respectively,
where pRN is the normal reference plane (the Xn − Yn plane), pN is the normal plane (the plane normal to the
cutting edge), Xn = Xo, Yn is the cutting edge and Zn is the normal to Xn and Yn. It is to be noted that when
l = 0, NRS and ORS become same, that is, pO = pN, Yn = Yo and Zn = Zo.
The definition of tool angles in NRS is as follows:
1. Rake angles:
(a) Normal rake gn: It is the angle of inclination of the rake surface from pR and is measured on
normal plane pN.
2. Clearance angles:
(a) Normal clearance an: It is the angle of inclination of the flank from pC and is measured on pN.
(b) Auxiliary normal clearance α n′ : It is the angle of inclination of the auxiliary flank from the
auxiliary cutting plane (π C′ ) and is measured on the auxiliary normal plane π N′ (the plane
perpendicular to the auxiliary cutting edge).

Yn
pN
Zn p n Zo
gn an Zn

Section B – B pc
pO
Yo
Zo Yo pO X o, Xn
Yn
l
A pO g ao
o

B l l
B Section A – A O
pN l A
A g
pR pC o
gn B
pR C

Figure 2.9 Tool angles in ORS and normal rake system (NRS).

MAMT_Chapter 2.indd 34 7/21/2011 11:16:55 AM

 Geometry of Cutting Tools 35

The cutting angles f and f1 and nose radius r (mm) are same in ORS and NRS. The geometry of single-point
turning tools is designated in NRS by
l, gn, an, α n′ , f1, f, r (mm)

2.2.2.4 Concept of Work Reference System (WRS) and Tool Angles in WRS
Any machining operation needs two formative motions of the tool–work pair, namely cutting motion and
feed motion. The feed motion is obviously very slow compared to cutting motion, that is, feed velocity
Vf << cutting velocity Vc. For example, in plain turning
Vc = pdN and Vf = soN (2.2)
where d is the diameter of the job (in turning) or tool (drill, milling cutters, etc.) and the value of feed so <<pd.
All the axes, planes of reference and tool angles in machining are defined and evaluated directly or indi-
rectly based on the reference plane pR. Again, pR is based on (perpendicular to) the cutting velocity vector.
Generally, Vf being very small is neglected and Vc is taken for all reference purposes. But occasionally, the
value of Vf inherently becomes significant w.r.t. Vc, for example, in threading in lathes, drilling, etc. In such
cases, the resultant (velocity) Vr of Vc and Vf is taken instead of Vc alone. Otherwise, the actual or effective
values of the tool angles would show significant errors under cutting conditions. Inclusion of Vf and use of
VR in place of Vc alone refers to the work reference system (WRS) of describing tool geometry. Figure 2.10
depicts how the tool angles are designated in WRS (e.g., in threading).
Now, because velocity vector is tilted by an angle m due to the incorporation of Vf , the actual values of side
rake (gxw) and side clearance (axw) angles in WRS would change as,

gxw = gx + m (2.3)

and axw = ax − m (2.4)

where m = tan−1 (Vf /Vc) in general, m = tan−1 (so/pd ) in turning, etc. So, it appears that unlike gxw, axw effec-
tively decreases in WRS. But since the clearance angle should never be zero or negative, care is taken during
design, manufacture and use of some tools so that ax is sufficiently greater than m under any machining
condition to keep axw > 0.
The tool geometry described so far is more or less true for any cutting tool but it is fully applicable to
single-point cutting tools like turning, shaping, planing, slotting and boring tools.

2.3 Geometry of Multiple-Point Cutting Tools

2.3.1 Geometry of Milling Cutters
Milling cutters are multiple-toothed cutters[3] having a large number of equi-spaced teeth depending upon
the size and application of the cutter. They are widely used for producing both flat and contoured surfaces.
Milling cutters are generally of three basic types:
1. Plain or slab milling cutter.
2. End milling cutter.
3. Face milling cutter.

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 36 Machining and Machine Tools

Vc
VR

m m p RW
m
Vf
pR
px

a xw g xw gx
ax

A A

Figure 2.10 Tool angles in work reference system (WRS).

Plain milling cutters are of medium size and are of hollow disc or hollow cylindrical type, having a number
of straight or helical teeth around the periphery. These cutters are mounted on and rotate about the axis of
the horizontal arbour (shaft). Unlike plain milling cutters, end milling cutters are usually of smaller size and
are mounted in collets which are coaxially fitted in the (usually) vertical spindle of the milling machine. But
in respect of geometry of the cutting edges, plain milling cutter and end milling cutter are more or less same.
Face milling cutters are usually of large size (80−600 mm diameter) and are used for machining flat surfaces
in different planes. Figure 2.11 typically shows the configuration and geometry, planes of reference, rake angle
and clearance angles of plain milling cutters.
In a plain milling cutter, the transverse plane represents the orthogonal plane. Thus the radial (or
transverse) rake gr and the radial clearance ar are nothing but orthogonal rake go and orthogonal clearance
ao, respectively. In a helical fluted milling cutter the normal plane pN (perpendicular to cutting edge) is
tilted from pO by an angle equal to the helix angle q which is actually the inclination angle l of the cut-
ting edges.
Face milling cutters possess a large number of equi-spaced blades or tool inserts which are fitted at the
periphery of the solid body as indicated in Fig. 2.12. In face milling cutting inserts, the principal cutting edge
is converted into the following three edges:
1. Main cutting edge: possesses wider f and covers larger depth of cut.
2. Intermediate cutting edge: possesses small length, angle f and depth.
3. Planishing edge: small width, f = 0, accomplishes finishing.

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 Geometry of Cutting Tools 37

Z o Vc Vc (Z o )
Z o Vc pO

g r (gg o )
pR go
pR pR
pO
P P
P pC
pC
pC
pO
a r (a o )
ao
(a) Straight fluted

Zn
Vc (Z o )
Zn Section A − A
pN
pC P Vc (Z
Z o)
A
pR B gn an
D P P
P A g
o
B pR pO
pO
pC
ao
(b) Helical fluted pO pN Section B − B

q (= l)

Figure 2.11 Configuration and geometry of plain milling cutter.

2.3.2 Geometry of Drills

Drilling is a very common machining process being widely used since long mainly to originate straight cylin-
drical holes by using cutting tools called drills. Often drills are also used to produce taper holes and to enlarge
and finish existing holes. Drills are available in various types based on size, shape, material and applications.
High speed steel (HSS) twist drills with two flutes and a tapered shank are the most common. Figure 2.13
visualizes the typical configuration and salient features of such drills.[5–7] Other drills include centre drills,
step drills, taper drills, spade drills, straight-shank small drills, long or deep-hole drills, slot drills, carbide
drills, gun drills, etc.
Compared to the geometry of single-point tools and even milling cutters, the geometry of drills is much
more complex because they have the following distinguishing characteristics:
1. Two sharp cutting edges connected by a relatively blunt and small chisel edge.
2. A cutting velocity vector (Vc) whose magnitude and direction continuously changes along the cut-
ting edges, as can be seen in Fig. 2.14.

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 38 Machining and Machine Tools

pR
Vc
go

Insert pO
Depth pC
ao

fI

Feed motion (job) Cutting motion (tool)

III II f II

Vc

Figure 2.12 Configuration and geometry of a typical face milling cutter. I – main cutting edge,
II – intermediate edge, III – planishing edge, f I – cutting edge (I) angle.

3. Almost zero cutting velocity near the drill-centre, which makes material removal very complex and
stringent at that zone.
4. Complex geometry (conical–helical) at both the flank and rake surfaces.
5. Continuous variation along the cutting edges of the orientation of the axes and planes of reference
and values of all the rake and clearance angles.
The geometry of any cutting tool (edge) is designated by the orientation or inclination of its salient edges and
faces from a set of suitable planes of reference taken at right angles to each other. The geometry of drills can
be designated in three different systems of reference planes as shown in Fig. 2.15.
1. Static reference system (SRS), using three reference planes, pRS, p XS and pYS normal to each other,
where pRS is the static reference plane, pXS is the static longitudinal (axial) plane taken along the
direction of feed, and pYS is the static transverse (radial) plane. The axes taken in this system are – XS
(along the direction of feed), YS and ZS.
2. Dynamic reference system (DRS), where the planes of reference are pRD, pXD and pYD, and the axes
are XD, YD and ZD.
3. Work reference system (WRS) using pRW, pXW and pYW as the planes of reference, and XW, YW and
ZW as the axes of reference.

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 Geometry of Cutting Tools 39

Tang

Taper shank

Neck

Margin clearance

Flute length q
(body) Helix angle

Margin(s)

Point
2r
angle Face

Point
Chisel edge
Web thickness
Land or flank

Main cutting edges

y Chisel edge angle

Figure 2.13 Configuration and salient geometrical features of taper shank twist drills.

SRS is conveniently used when the drill is studied under idle or static conditions, whereas the DRS
is considered while studying the geometry, mechanism and mechanics of material removal under running
conditions of the drill. WRS is essentially taken up when the feed velocity Vf becomes comparable with the
cutting velocity Vc and hence should not be neglected.
The planes of reference and the corresponding axes in the different systems may be defined with reference
to Fig. 2.15 as
1. pRS: static reference plane (also called face plane), parallel to the drill axis and passing through a main
cutting edge.
2. pRD: dynamic reference plane, parallel to the drill axis and normal to the local velocity vector.

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 40 Machining and Machine Tools

2r

Drill diameter
VC1
p R3
VC2
Chisel edge
VC3 p R2
length
p R1
3 2
1
Chisel edge
diameter

Figure 2.14 Variation of velocity vector, Vc and reference plane pR along the cutting edges of drills.

3. pRW : work reference plane, perpendicular to the local resultant velocity vector, VR.
4. pXS: static longitudinal plane, normal to pRS and parallel to the drill axis.
5. pXD: dynamic longitudinal plane, normal to pRD and parallel to the drill axis.
6. pXW : work longitudinal plane, same as pXD.
7. pYS: static transverse plane, normal to pRS and pXS.
8. pYD: dynamic transverse plane, same as pYS.
9. pYW: work transverse plane, normal to pRW and pXW.
It is to be noted that location and orientation of most of these axes and planes change point-to-point along
the cutting edge with change in the location and direction of the cutting velocity vector V c . Figure 2.16
visualizes all the axes and planes of the three different systems of reference together at any point i on a main
cutting edge.
The material removal at the chisel edge region is accomplished not exactly by ideal machining, but by
stringent processes like indentation or extrusion. The main reasons for this are negligible cutting velocity
and large negative rake (≅ −60°) at the chisel point. However, if the straight chisel edge is assumed to
be a cutting edge, then the axes and planes of the different systems of reference will appear as shown in
Fig. 2.17.
The geometry of drills is also described, as in the case of other common tools, mainly by describing the
rake, clearance and cutting angles. The values of these angles in drills continuously vary along the cutting
edges and also depend upon the reference system undertaken.
It is essential to establish the interrelationships amongst the geometrical parameters designated in the dif-
ferent systems for conversion of tool angles from one system to another.

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 Geometry of Cutting Tools 41

p RS

p YS, p YD
2r
YS ZS
p XS
p YS
p XS p RS

Vf XS , XD
XS , XD Vf

ZW
Vc ZD ZD (Vc) VR
ZS
p RW
m XD
A p
XS
Vf XW
p RS
LC p RD
YS p YD ,
2 TC
p YS
p RD
YD Section A – A
A p XD, p XW
p XD

Figure 2.15 Axes and planes of different reference systems used for drill geometry.

2.3.2.1 Cutting Angles (e)

By comparing drilling with turning in a lathe, it appears (Fig. 2.18) that
fs = r (same all along the cutting edge) (2.5)
where fs is the cutting angle of the principal cutting edge in the static reference system and r is half of the
point angle of the drill.
Since r and hence fs are independent of the velocity vector, fs remains constant throughout the cut-
ting edges. But the values of fD (dynamic cutting angle in the XD − YD plane) and fW (work cutting
angle in the XW − YW plane) differ (though slightly) from that of fs, and they continuously vary along
the cutting edge due to variation of the direction of the velocity vector along the cutting edges (as shown
in Fig. 2.14).
Figure 2.19 visualizes how fS, fDi and fWi at any point i corresponding to a radial distance ri are inter-
related. It can be established using Fig. 2.19 where OC, AB and BD are taken parallel to XD (the drill axis),
ZS and ZDi, respectively, that

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 42 Machining and Machine Tools

p XWi p
XDi
Z Di
ZS
Z Wi p XS
p YS
p YDi
p YWi

YS

bi

YDi, YWi

mi

bi i

mi
p RWi

XS , XDi p RD

XWi
p RS

Figure 2.16 Axes and planes of different systems of reference at any point ‘i’ on a cutting edge of
a twist drill.

tan φDi = tan φS /cos βi (2.6)

and tan φ Wi = tan φDi /cos μi (2.7)

where
bi = sin−1 (rc/ri)

bi is the web angle and rc the chisel edge radius

tan μi = (Vf /VCi ) = so N /2π ri N = so /2π ri

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 Geometry of Cutting Tools 43

p ′RW
Vc p ′RS, p R
′D
ml
′
ZW VR
Drill
Vf p ′XS, p X
′D
p ′XS, p ′XW p ′YW
p ′Y , p YD
′

X′W
XS′ , XD′
B Section B – B

p ′RS, p R
′D

p Y′ R, p Y′ D

Z S′ , Z D′ i

B
YS′ ,YD′

Figure 2.17 Axes and planes of different reference systems to designate geometry of a drill at its
chisel edge.

CM
fs
2r FM

Turning tool

Figure 2.18 Simulation of drilling with turning to determine cutting angle, fs.

2.3.2.2 Inclination Angles (k)

The inclination angle l in any cutting tool refers to the angle of inclination of the main cutting edge from
the reference plane pR, measured on the cutting plane pC (the plane perpendicular to pR and containing the
cutting edge). In a drill, the value of the inclination angle continuously changes along the cutting edge due
to change in orientation of the reference plane for orientation of velocity vector VCi. Inclination angle of any
cutting edge is visualized in the cutting plane pC as indicated in Fig. 2.20. It is derived from the drill geometry
shown in Fig. 2.20 that
sin bi = (rc/ri)

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 44 Machining and Machine Tools

fs
2r VCi VRi

mi
p RWi p RDi XS , XDi
A Vf
XWi
2rc
i
p RS
bi Section A – A [p XDi ]
A

ri

ZDi ZS
YS ZWi
bi
YDi , YWi mi
(90° − f s )
bi
(90° − f Di)
mi E (90° − f Wi)
A i
O f
B Wi
f Di
D fs = r
bi C
mi
XS , XDi
XWi

Figure 2.19 Inter-relationships among the cutting angles (of a drill) taken in different reference systems.

rc
and sin λDi =
ri /sin ρ
According to sign convention, l in a drill is always negative. Therefore, in drills,
⎛r ⎞
λDi = − sin −1 ⎜ c sin ρ⎟ (2.8)
⎝ ri ⎠
According to convention, ls is zero, as in drills the cutting edge is situated on pRS. Both dynamic inclination
angle l Di and work inclination angle l Wi can be derived using Fig. 2.21. If AB and BE are taken parallel to
Z Di and Z Wi, then
sin( − λDi ) = AB/OA = ( AB/AC ) ⋅ ( AC /OA ) = sin βi sin ρ

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 Geometry of Cutting Tools 45

AG ( AF + FG ) AB cos μi BE
and sin( − λ Wi ) = = = +
OA OA OA OA
Therefore
sin( − λ Wi ) = −(sin βi sin ρ cos μi + cos ρ sin μi ) (2.9)

2.3.2.3 Rake Angles (f )

Axial rake gx of the main cutting edge at a radial distance ri in various reference systems is shown in Fig. 2.22.
The dynamic axial rake gxDi at a radial distance ri is evaluated from the simple relation
tan γ xDi = (ri /r )tan θ (2.10)

pS

r pC

pRDi
90°− r
l Di

l Di i

ri
rc sin r

pC

VCi , ZDi

rc

YS i bi
ri
bi
YDi
pY ri

Figure 2.20 Web angle (b i ) and inclination angle (l Di) of a twist drill.

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 46 Machining and Machine Tools

ZS
ZDi

ZWi

mi
YS
bi

YDi, YWi l Di
D
A i
O
B l Wi

G
E C
bi
mi

XS, XDi
XWi

Figure 2.21 Inclination angle (l) of a drill in dynamic and work reference systems.

where r is the radius of the drill and q is the helix angle of the drill. By simple geometrical analysis it can also
be shown that
tan γ xsi = tan γ xDi cos βi (2.11)
Figure 2.21 reveals that the work axial rake gxWi is related to dynamic axial rake gxDi simply by

γ xWi = γ xDi + μi (2.12a)

where

μi = tan −1 (Vf /VCi ) = tan −1 ( so /2π ri )

It is also to be noted that the work axial clearance, axWi becomes lesser than the dynamic axial clearance axDi
by mi as
α xWi = α xDi − μi (2.12b)

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 Geometry of Cutting Tools 47

Z Wi
Z Di

VCi (ZDi)
B
VCi
ZS
mi ZS
A p RDi
mi
g xWi X Di
p RS
Vf XS
YS p
i
a xWi m i RWi
XS
g xDi
YD, YW
Section B – B (p xDi) a xSi
g xSi
a xDi
Section A – A (p XS)
B

Figure 2.22 Axial rake angles of drill in different reference systems.

Therefore, in any cutting tool, the value of aXD should be large enough so that aXW does not become zero
or negative under any circumstances. This is very important in the case of drills as mi becomes more and
more significant with the decrease in Vc towards the drill axis. Figure 2.23 visualizes orthogonal rake goDi and
normal rake gnDi as well as orthogonal clearance aoDi and normal clearance anDi in the dynamic reference
system. goDi and aoDi are visualized and taken in any orthogonal plane poDi which is perpendicular to both
p RDi and p C , whereas gnDi and anDi are obtained in the normal plane, pN, which is perpendicular to the
concerned cutting edge.

2.4 Conversion of Tool Angles

2.4.1 Conversion of Tool Geometry of Single-Point Tools
It is regularly required to convert the angle of cutting tools from one reference system of tool geometry
designation to another usually for the following reasons:
1. To understand the tool geometry in any reference system of choice from the geometry of a tool avail-
able in any other systems.
2. For deriving the benefits of the various tool designation systems as and when required.
3. For communication of the same tool geometry between people following different tool designation
systems.
The different methods of conversion of tool angles from one reference system to another include:
1. Analytical (geometrical) method – simple but tedious.
2. Graphical method (master line principle) – simple, quick and popular.

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 48 Machining and Machine Tools

ZDi XD
p oDi
r
g oDi a oDi

Zn XS,XD
Zn a nDi
ZDi
i
gnDi

p nDi
l Di

i bi

Figure 2.23 Orthogonal and normal rake and clearance angles of twist drills.

3. Transformation matrix method – suitable for tools of complex tool geometry, for example, form
tools, drills, hobs, gear shaping cutters, etc.
4. Vector method – very easy and quick but needs knowledge of the concept of vectors.
The graphical method and the vector method are versatile, and hence more popular and widely used.

2.4.1.1 Conversion of Angles of Single-Point Tools by Graphical Method

The graphical method of converting tool angles is based on the construction and use of master lines (ML) for
the rake surface and clearance or flank surface.

Conversion of Rake Angles

The principle of construction of a master line for the rake surface of a single-point tool is shown in Fig. 2.24.
The rake surface, when extended along the p X plane, meets the tool’s bottom surface (which is parallel to pR)
at the point D ′, that is, the point D in the plan view.
Similarly when the same tool rake surface is extended along pY, it meets the tool’s bottom surface at the
point B ′, that is, at B in the plan view. Therefore, the straight line obtained by joining B and D is nothing
but the line of intersection of the rake surface with the tool’s bottom surface which is parallel to pR. Hence,
if the rake surface is extended in any direction, its meeting point with the tool’s bottom plane must be situ-
ated on the line of intersection, that is, BD. Thus the points C and A that are obtained by extending the rake

MAMT_Chapter 2.indd 48 7/21/2011 11:16:58 AM

 Geometry of Cutting Tools 49

Zm pR
Xm
T pX gX

Xo T O′ Xo Zo D′
Zo Yo pC Master line for
rake surface
Ym pO g o
pR O′ O′
pC Xo Yo
C′ T Ym
O
Xm O′ Zm
l D gy
pY
pR
C p
T A′
B B′
T
A

Figure 2.24 Master line for rake surface (with all rake angles positive).

surface along pO and pC, respectively, up to the tool’s bottom surface, will be situated on the line of intersec-
tion BD, as indicated in Fig. 2.24. This line of intersection, BD of the rake surface and a plane parallel to pR
is called the master line of the rake surface. From the diagram in Fig. 2.24, the intercepts become
OD = T cot γ x
OB = T cot γ y
OC = T cot γ o
OA = T cot λ
where T is the thickness of the tool shank (or blade or bit). Figure 2.24 is simplified into Fig. 2.25 for conver-
sion of tool rake angles.

Ym Master line for

Yo
rake surface
Xo
fg

E Xm O H
f D
f
G C For
M T = unity
OD = cot g x
B OB = cot g y
OC = cot g o
OA = cot l

A F
(f —f g )

Figure 2.25 Conversion of tool rake angles.

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 50 Machining and Machine Tools

Conversion of Rake Angles from ASA to ORS

The values of variables from go to l are to be determined from the known values of gx and gy. To derive go =
f (g x and gy ), consider
ΔOBD = ΔOBC + ΔOCD (Fig. 2.25)
So,
(1/2)OB ⋅OD = (1/2)OB ⋅CG + (1/2) OD ⋅CH
= (1/2)OB ⋅OC sinf + (1/2)OD ⋅ OC cosf
Dividing both sides by (1/2)OB ⋅OC ⋅OD, we get
1/OC = (1/OD) sinf + (1/OB)cosf
Hence,
tango = tan gx sinf + tangy cosf (2.13)
Similarly, to derive l as f (gx and gy), consider
ΔOBD = ΔOAD − ΔOAB
Then,
(1/2)OB ⋅OD = (1/2)OA ⋅ AE − (1/2)OB ⋅ AF
= (1/2)OD ⋅ OA sinf − (1/2)OB ⋅ OA cosf
Dividing both sides by (1/2)OA ⋅OB ⋅OD, we get
1/OA = (1/OB) sinf − (1/OD) cosf
Hence,
tan l = tan gy sinf − tan gx cosf (2.14)
Equations (2.13) and (2.14), if combined, can be expressed as

⎡tan γ o ⎤ ⎡ sin φ cos φ ⎤ ⎡tan γ x ⎤

⎢tan λ ⎥ = ⎢ − cos φ sin φ ⎥ ⎢tan γ ⎥ (2.15)
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦⎣ y⎦

where
⎡ sin φ cos φ ⎤
⎢ − cos φ sin φ ⎥⎦
⎣
is a transformation matrix.

Conversion of Tool Rake Angles from ORS to ASA

Here, the values of gx and gy are to be determined from the known values of go and l. To derive g x and g y
as functions of go and l, Eq. (2.15) may be inversed to the form
⎡tan γ x ⎤ ⎡sin φ − cos φ ⎤ ⎡tan γ o ⎤
⎢tan γ ⎥ = ⎢ cos φ sinφ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣tan λ ⎥⎦
(2.16)
⎣ y⎦ ⎣

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 Geometry of Cutting Tools 51

which leads to the relations

tan γ x = tan γ o sin φ − tan λ cos φ (2.17)
and tan γ y = tan γ o cos φ + tan λ sin φ (2.18)
This can also be directly established by respectively considering (in Fig. 2.25)
ΔOAC = ΔOAD − ΔOCD
involving go , l and gx , that is, OC, OA and OD and
ΔOAC = ΔOAB + ΔOBC
involving go , l and gy , that is, OC, OA and OB, and then by proceeding as earlier.

Conversion of Clearance Angles

Conversion of Clearance Angles of Principal Flank
Figure 2.26 visualizes the different clearance angles and the construction of the master line for the prin-
cipal flank surface. The graphical method of conversion of clearance angles is based on the use of master
lines. According to definition, the master lines of the two flank surfaces are nothing but the dotted lines in
Fig. 2.26(a), which are the lines of intersection of the flank surfaces with the plane parallel to pR but passing
the bottom surface of the tool. It appears from Fig. 2.26(b) that the intercepts are
OD = T tan ax (2.19a)
OB = T tan ay (2.19b)

Zm
Xm
gx
T ax pX

Xo Zo
D′ go
T
Yo
Zo C′ p
ao O
ML for auxiliary T Ym
flank l
Master line
O D for pr. flank T
Zm
pC
ML for C ay
gy
principal B B′
flank pY
pR
A′
A

(a) (b)
Figure 2.26 Different clearance angles and construction of master line for the principal flank.

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 52 Machining and Machine Tools

Yo

Ym ML for principal flank

Xo

Xm
O f D
For T =unity
f fa
OD = tana x
C
OB = tana y
M
OC = tana o
OA = cot l
B

(f —fa )

Figure 2.27 Conversion of clearance angles using a master line.

OC = T tan ao (2.19c)
OA = T cot l (2.19d)
Figure 2.26 is redrawn in a simpler form as Fig. 2.27 for convenience of conversion of clearance angles.
The inclination angle l has appeared again because l is the angle of inclination of the principal cutting edge,
which is situated on both the rake surface and principal flank surface.

Conversion of Clearance Angles of the Principal Flank from ASA to ORS

The value of ao (ORS) is to be determined from the known value of ax (ASA). To derive ao as f (ax ), consider
(from Fig. 2.27)
ΔOAD = ΔOAC + ΔOCD
So,
(1/2) OD⋅OA sinf = (1/2) OA⋅OC + (1/2) OD ⋅OC cosf

Dividing both sides by (1/2) OA⋅OC⋅OD, we get

(1/2) (1/OC) sinf = (1/OD) + (1/OA) cosf
Hence,
cotao sinf = cotax + tanl cosf (2.20)
from which
cotao = (cotax + tanl cosf )/sinf (2.21)

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 Geometry of Cutting Tools 53

T T
l′
a ′o
p ′C

C f1

′
pO
O′ A
D′ f1 a ′Y
f B
C′ p ′Y
ML for f a′ M′ B′ (f 1 − f a′ )
ML for auxiliary
principal flank
flank For T = unity ML for
O ′D ′ = tana ′x auxiliary A′
O ′B′ = tan a ′y pR flank
O ′C′ = tana ′o
O ′A′ = cot l′

(a) (b)

Figure 2.28 Clearance angles and master line of auxiliary flank.

The value of the inclination angle l is to be obtained from Eq. (2.14), where the values of gx and gy would be
available from the tool designation in ASA system.

Conversion of Clearance Angles of the Principal Flank from ORS to ASA

Equation (2.20) is again used for determining ax (ASA) from the known values of ao and l which are pro-
vided by the tool designation in ORS.

Conversion of Clearance Angles of the Auxiliary Flank

The clearance angles and the master line associated with the auxiliary flank are shown in Fig. 2.28.

Conversion of Clearance Angles of the Auxiliary Flank from ASA to ORS

Here, the value of α o′ is to be determined from the known value of α y′ . To derive α o′ = f (α y′ ) consider (in
Fig. 2.28)

ΔO ′A ′C ′ = ΔO ′A ′B ′ + ΔO ′B ′C ′
1 1 1
⇒ O ′A ′ ⋅ O ′C ′ = O ′B ′ ⋅ O ′A ′ cos φ1 + O ′B ′ ⋅ O ′C ′ sin φ1
2 2 2

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 54 Machining and Machine Tools

pY pC

Yo f1
(f + f1) Ym
ML for principal
Xo flank

Xm O D
f L
pX pO
f1
C

OD = cot g x
B OB = cotg y
OC = cotg o
pR OA = cot l
OL = cot l′
A

Figure 2.29 Evaluation of auxiliary inclination angle, l′ (OL is parallel to the auxiliary cutting edge).

Dividing both sides by (1/2)O′A′ ⋅ O ′B ′ ⋅ O ′C ′, we get

1 / O ′B ′ = (1 / O ′C ′ )cos φ + (1 / O ′A ′ )sin φ
Hence,
cot α y′ = cot α o′ cos φ1 + tan λ ′ sin φ1 (2.22)

cot α y′ − tan λ ′ sin φ1

or cot α o′ = (2.23)
cos φ1
where l ′ is the inclination angle of the auxiliary cutting edge. The value of l′ has to be obtained from

tan λ ′ = tan γ x cos φ1 + tan γ y sin φ1 (2.24)

Equation (2.24) can be proved using Fig. 2.29. To derive l′ as f (g x and g y), consider (in Fig. 2.29),

ΔOBD = ΔOBL + ΔOLD

Then,
1 1 1
OB ⋅ OD = OB ⋅ OL cos φ1 + OD ⋅ OL sin φ1
2 2 2

or 1 / OL = (1 / OD )cos φ1 + (1 / OB )sin φ1
Thus,
tan λ ′ = tan γ x cos φ1 + tan γ y sin φ1

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 Geometry of Cutting Tools 55

Conversion of Clearance Angle of the Auxiliary Flank from ORS to ASA

Here, the value of α y′ (ASA) is to be determined from the given value of α o′ provided in the tool specifica-
tion in ORS. This can be easily done using the same Eq. (2.22), where the value of l′ is to be determined
from
tan λ ′ = tan γ o sin(φ + φ1 ) − tan λ cos(φ + φ1 ) (2.25)

The values of go , l, f and f1 would be available from the tool designation in ORS. Equation (2.25) can also
be easily derived using Fig. 2.29. To derive l′ = f (go and l), consider (Fig. 2.29),

ΔOAC = ΔOAL + ΔOCL

Then,
1 1 1
OA ⋅ OC = OA ⋅ OL sin(φ + φ1 ) − OC ⋅ OL cos(φ + φ1 )
2 2 2

or 1 / OL = (1 / OC )sin(φ + φ1 ) − (1 / OA )cos(φ + φ1 )

Thus,
tan λ ′ = tan γ o sin(φ + φ1 ) − tan λ cos(φ + φ1 )

Typical Configurations of Master Lines

In the graphical method of conversion of tool angles, the location and orientation of the master lines change
with the change in the geometry of the cutting tool. The configuration of the master line for the rake surface
and the locations of the points A, B, C, D and M would be as shown in Fig. 2.25 when all the correspond-
ing rake angles have positive values. When any rake angle is negative the location of the corresponding point
(A, B, etc.) comes up on the other side of the tool. Figure 2.30 shows, for example, some typical configura-
tions of the master line (for the rake surface) under different geometrical conditions of the tool.

Evaluation of the Maximum Rake and Minimum Clearance Angles of Single-Point Tools
Most contemporary cutting tools are made of simple shaped small inserts which are mechanically clamped
on the tool shank or body and, after damage or wear, are thrown away. However, several cutting tools are still
made of high speed steel (HSS) and are sharpened and re-sharpened a number of times by grinding before
discarding the entire tool. The principal and auxiliary cutting edges of single-point HSS tools are re-sharp-
ened by plain grinding of their rake face and two flank surfaces. Those surfaces are conveniently ground in the
maximum rake system (MRS) using their respective setting angle and orientation or tilting angle.
The setting angle refers to the angular position of the line of intersection of the rake surface and the refer-
ence plane pR, which is the master line. The orientation (or tilting ) angle refers to desired angle of tilting of
the tool about the corresponding master line. This orientation angle is the maximum rake angle gm or the
minimum clearance angle. Single-point tools can be sharpened or re-sharpened by directly using the values of
the tool angles provided in the tool geometry specifications in any system. But the MRS enables tool grind-
ing much more easily, quickly and inexpensively, because tool grinding in ASA as well as ORS needs some
extra calculations for required corrections and use of a 3-D vice for holding and positioning the tool shank
against the grinding wheel. In NRS, corrections are not necessary but a 3-D vice is required for tool grinding.
However, tool grinding in MRS needs no correction and is possible using only a 2-D vice which is cheaper
and much easier to handle.

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 56 Machining and Machine Tools

Configuration of ML Geometrical condition

ML

l = O (ML p C)
D g x = positive
pC C g y = positive
g o = positive
B

(a)

A
pY ML
gy = O (ML p Y)
D l = negative
gx = positive
C
go = positive
B

(b)

ML
B
pO
A go = O (ML pO)
D l = negative
g x = positive
g y = negative

(c)

C B A
ML
pX g x = O (ML p X)
l = negative
g y = negative
g o = negative

(d)

Figure 2.30 Typical configurations of ML (rake surface) for different tool geometry.

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 Geometry of Cutting Tools 57

Determination of Maximum Rake fm and Setting Angle e f for Grinding the Rake Surface
The values of fg and gm can be easily determined from the designation of the tool geometry. In ASA system,
fg and gm can be evaluated from the known values of gx and gy by using Eqs. (2.26) and (2.27) as

φγ = tan −1 (tan γ x /tan γ y ) (2.26)

and γ m = tan −1 ( tan 2 γ x + tan 2 γ y ) (2.27)

Equations (2.26) and (2.27) can be derived by considering ΔOBD in Fig. 2.25, where

tan φ γ = OB /OD = cot γ y /cot γ x

Thus,
φγ = tan −1 (tan γ x /tan γ y )
Again,
ΔOBD = (1/ 2 )OB ⋅ OD = (1/ 2 )BD ⋅ OM
where OM = cot gm. Then

(1/ 2 )OB ⋅ OD = (1/ 2 ) OB 2 + OD 2 ⋅ OM

⇒ 1/OM = 1/OD 2 + 1/OB 2
Thus,

tan γ m = tan 2 γ x + tan 2 γ y

The values of fγ and gm can also be evaluated from the known values of go and l of ORS by using

φ γ = φ − tan −1 (tan λ /tan γ o ) (2.28)

and γ m = tan −1 tan 2 γ o + tan 2 λ (2.29)

Equations (2.28) and (2.29) can also be proved from the same Fig. 2.25 by considering ΔOAC, where
tan(φ − φγ ) = OC /OA = cot γ o /cot λ
Thus,
φγ = φ − tan −1 (tan λ /tan γ o )
Again,
ΔOAC = (1/ 2 )OA ⋅ OC
= (1/ 2 ) AC ⋅ OM
= (1/ 2 ) OA 2 + OC 2 ⋅ OM
⇒ 1/OM = 1/OC 2 + 1/OA 2

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 58 Machining and Machine Tools

Thus,

tan γ m = tan 2 γ o + tan 2 λ

Determination of Minimum Clearance (` m)and Setting Angle (e` )

Evaluation of fα and am for Principal Flank
The values of fα and am can be evaluated from the tool geometry specified in ORS (or ASA) system using
Fig. 2.27. Considering ΔOAC,
tan(φ − φα ) = OC /OA = tan α o /cot λ

Thus,

φα = φ − tan −1 (tan α o tan λ ) (2.30)

Again,

ΔOAC = (1 / 2 )OA ⋅ OC = (1 / 2 ) AC ⋅ OM = (1 / 2 ) OA 2 + OC 2 ⋅ OM
where OM = tanam . Therefore

1/OM = 1/OC 2 + 1/OA 2

⇒ cot α m = cot 2 α o + tan2 λ (2.31)

In case of tool geometry being specified in the ASA system, first the values of l and ao are to be evaluated
from the given values of g x, g y and a x using the Eqs. (2.14) and (2.21).

Determination of φα′ and α m′ of the Auxiliary Flank

Considering ΔO′C′A′ in Fig. 2.28, we get
tan(φ1 − φα′ ) = O ′C ′ / O ′A ′ = tan α o′ /cot λ ′ (2.32)

⇒ φα′ = φ1 − tan −1 (tan α o′ tan λ ′ ) (2.33)

Again,
ΔO ′A ′C ′ = (1 / 2 )O ′C ′ ⋅ O ′A ′ = (1 / 2 ) A ′C ′ ⋅ O ′M ′
where O ′M ′ = tan α m′ and α m′ is the minimum clearance of the auxiliary flank. Thus,

α m′ = cot −1 cot 2 α o′ + tan2 λ ′ (2.34)

The values of α o′ and l′ are to be evaluated from the given specifications in ASA or ORS.

Workshop Method of Conversion and Evaluation of Angles of Single-Point Tools

Cutting tool geometry can be quite complex, requiring a lot of geometrical and engineering concepts and
operating mathematical equations for a complete description. Hence conversion, evaluation and use of the
various tool angles in different reference systems are quite difficult for the shop floor people.

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 Geometry of Cutting Tools 59

Mainly for them, some simple graphical method requiring no calculations has evolved. Simple use of a scale,
a divider and a bevel protractor are enough for this purpose. The procedure has been made clear in the fol-
lowing examples:

Example 2.1 Conversion of Rake Angles

Determine the values of f, g o, l, fg , gm and l′ of a turning tool whose geometry is
specified in ASA system as 8°, 11.5°, 7°, 8°, 25°, 30°, 0 (inch).

Solution: Here g x = 8°, g y = 11.5°, fs = 30° and r = 0 (in). The procedural steps to be followed are:
1. f = 90° − fs = 90° − 30° = 60°.
2. Take (or prepare) a chart paper where an axis is provided with divisions in terms of angular degrees
(actually cotangent of the angle) as shown in Fig. 2.31.

pC

Ym
Yo
Xo pO

pY f γ = 33° Master line for

pX rake surface
30 20 15 12 10 9 8 7 6 5 4
Xm O
g (cot g )
D

L
C
f = 60°
M

pR

Figure 2.31 Determination of different rake angles by graphical method.

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 60 Machining and Machine Tools

3. Draw the tool in pR with principal cutting edge at f = 60° and other lines pX, pY, pC and pO as
indicated in Fig. 2.31.
4. Take OB (g y = 11.5°) and OD (g x = 8°) along Ym and Xm axes as shown.
5. Draw the master line (ML for the rake surface) by joining the points B and D.
6. Locate the points A and C on Yo (pC) and Xo (pO) axes.
7. Draw OM perpendicular to the ML.
8. Draw OL parallel to the auxiliary cutting edge π C′ .
9. Revolve OA, OC, OM and OL and project on the graduated axis and get the values of l, g o, gm and
l′, respectively.
10. Get the value of fγ directly by using a bevel protractor.
The results obtained are (approximately):
go = 12.5°, l = 6.5°, gm = 13.5°, fg = 33°, and l′ = 10.5°

Example 2.2 Conversion of Clearance Angles

Determine the values of ax , ay , am , and fa of the turning tool whose geometry is
specified in ORS as 0, 12é, 9é, 8é, 15é, 60é, 0 (mm).

Solution: The given specification can be considered to be in ORS as l = 0. Here, l = 0, ao = 9°, f = 60°
and r = 0 (mm). The procedural steps to be followed are:
1. Take (or prepare) a chart paper where one axis is graduated in angular degrees (actually tangent of
the angle) as shown in Fig. 2.32.
2. Draw the tool in pR with f = 60° and other lines to represent pX, pY, pO and pC as indicated in Fig.
2.32.
3. Take OC (ao = 9°) along pO or Xo axis.
4. Draw the master line (ML) for the principal flank through point C and parallel to pC or Yo axis,
as l = 0.
5. Locate the points B and D on the ML (along p Y and p X).
6. Revolve OB and OD to project them on the graduated axis and get the values of a x and a y.
7. Since l = 0, pC and ML are parallel and OC is normal to both pC and ML. Hence,
OC = tanao = tanam, so get the value of am.
8. Get the value of fα by measuring with a bevel protractor. Since ML is parallel to pC, here
fα = f = 60°.
The results obtained are (approximately):
a x = 10.5°, a y = 18.5°, am = 9°, and f a = 60°
Similarly, the angles associated with the auxiliary cutting edge also can be easily converted or evaluated
graphically.

MAMT_Chapter 2.indd 60 7/21/2011 5:00:42 PM

 Geometry of Cutting Tools 61

Master line for

principal flank

pC
Ym Yo
Xo pO
fα = 60°
pY
pX 10 12 14 16 18 20
Xm O 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 11 13 15 17 19
a (tana )
D

f = 60° C
(M )

B pR

Figure 2.32 Determination of different clearance rake angles by graphical method.

2.4.1.2 Conversion of Tool Angles by the Vectors Method

Products of Coplanar Vectors

In the Cartesian coordinate system, a vector OP as shown in Fig. 2.33 can be represented as

OP = OPx i + OPy j + OPz k
= Px i + Py j + Pz k (2.35)

where i , j and k are unit vectors along

 the x, y and z axes and OPx, OPy and OPz, that
 is,Px,Py and Pz are
direction cosines or projections of OP on the x, y and z axes. Similarly, the vectors A, B , C , etc. can be
expressed as

A = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k

B = b1 i + b2 j + b3 k

C = c1 i + c 2 j + c3 k and so on (2.36)
where a1, a2, etc. are coefficients.

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 62 Machining and Machine Tools

Pz P

O Py
y
j
Px i

Figure 2.33 Representation of a vector in Cartesian coordinates.

Mathematical Operations with Vectors

Summation:
 
A ± B = ( a1 i + a2 j + a3 k ) ± (b1 i + b2 j + b3 k )

= ( a1 ± b1 )i + ( a2 ± b2 ) j + ( a3 ± b3 )k (2.37)

Multiplication:  
If there are two vectors A and B in a plane with an included angle q as indicated in Fig. 2.34, their dot
product will be
 
A ⋅ B = A B cos θ (a scalar quantity)

= ( a1 i + a2 j + a3 k ) ⋅ (b1 i + b2 j + b3 k )
= a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3 (2.38)

M =A ×B

C
B

q
A

−M = B × A

Figure 2.34 Product of coplanar vectors.

MAMT_Chapter 2.indd 62 7/21/2011 11:17:01 AM

 Geometry of Cutting Tools 63

as i , j and k are at right angles and cos 90° = 0. Their cross product (shown in Fig. 2.34) will be
 
A×B =m  A B sin θ
 
a vector quantity, where m  is a unit vector normal to the plane containing the vectors A and B . Therefore,
 
A × B = ( a1 i + a2 j + a3 k ) × (b1 i + b2 j + b3 k )

= i( a2b3 − a3b2 ) + j ( a3b1 − a1b3 ) + k ( a1b2 − a2b1 ) (2.39)

which can be represented in a matrix form as

i j k
 
A × B = a1 a2 a3 (2.40)
b1 b2 b3
   
If there be another vector C in the same plane (Fig. 2.34), the mixed product of A, B and C will be
  
( A × B ) ⋅ C = [i( a2b3 − a3b2 ) + j ( a3b1 − a1b3 ) + k ( a1b2 − a2b1 )]⋅ (c1 i + c 2 j + c3 k )

= c1 ( a2b3 − a3b2 ) + c 2 ( a3b1 − a1b3 ) + c3 ( a1b2 − a2b1 ) (2.41)

This scalar quantity (product) can be presented by the following determinant:

a1 a2 a3
  
( A × B ) ⋅ C = b1 b2 b3 (2.42)
c1 c2 c3
  
Now, if the vectors A , B and C be coplanar, then

a1 a2 a3
  
( A × B ) ⋅ C = b1 b2 b3
c1 c2 c3
  
will be zero, as the angle between the vectors A × B (or m ) and C is 90°, and cos 90° = 0. This simple
concept of mixed product of three coplanar vectors is utilized for converting cutting tool angles from one
reference system to another.[4]

Conversion of Rake Angles from ASA to ORS and Vice-Versa by the Vectors Method
   

Let four vectors P , Q , R and S be taken on the rake surface of a tool in the directions of p X, p Y, p O and
pC, respectively, as shown   
in Fig.
   The three unit vectors i , j and k are taken along Xm, Ym and Zm as
 2.35.

shown in Fig. 2.35. If P , Q , R and S are assumed to be unit vectors, then (as shown in Fig. 2.35) they can
be represented as

P = (cos γ x )i + (0) j + ( − sin γ y )k (2.43a)

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 64 Machining and Machine Tools

Zm

k i
gx
pX P
k

j
k
pO
g
o
l
Ym
j R j

k
pC Xm i
f

gy
S
pY
pR

Figure 2.35 Conversion of tool rake angles by using four vectors on the rake surface.


Q = (0)i + ( − cos γ y ) j + ( − sin γ y )k (2.43b)

R = (cos γ o sin φ )i + ( − cos γ o cos φ ) j + ( − sin γ o )k (2.43c)


and S = ( − cos λ cos φ )i + ( − cos λ sin φ ) j + ( − sin λ )k (2.43d)

Conversion of Rake Angles from ASA to ORS

  

To get go as f (g x and g y ), consider the mixed product of the vectors P , Q and R involving the concerned angles
go, g x and g y . Since these three vectors are coplanar (on the rake surface), it appears from Eq. (2.43) that
cos γ x 0 − sin γ x
0 − cos γ y − sin γ y = 0 (2.44)
cos γ o sin φ − cos γ o cos φ − sin γ o
which leads to
tang o = tang x sinf + tang y cosf
  

Similarly, taking the coplanar vectors P , Q and S , we can also arrive at

tanl = − tang x cosf + tang y sinf

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 Geometry of Cutting Tools 65

Conversion of Rake Angles from ORS to ASA


  

To get g x as f (go and l), consider the mixed product of the coplanar vectors P , R and S involving the
concerned rake angles gx, go and l and get [from Eq. (2.43)]

cos γ x 0 − sin γ x
cos γ o sin φ − cos γ o cos φ − sin γ o = 0
− cos λ cos φ − cos λ sin φ − sin λ
which leads to
tan γ x = tan γ o sin φ − tan λ cos φ
 
 the relation tan g y = tan go cos f + tan l sin f can also be proved proceeding with the vectors Q , R
Similarly,

and S [from Eq. (2.43) and Fig. 2.35].

Conversion of Clearance Angles by the Vector Method

    

Let four unit vectors, P1 , Q1 , R1 and S1 be taken on the principal flank of a tool along pX, pY, pO and pC
planes   
 as shown
 
  2.36. Unit vectors i , j and k are taken along Xm, Ym and Zm axes. The four vectors
in
Fig.
P1 , Q 1 , R1 and S1 can be represented as


P1 = (sin α x )i + (0) j + ( − cos α x )k (2.45a)

Q1 = (0)i + ( − sin α y ) j + ( − cos α y )k (2.45b)
Zm

k
i

pX

k
ax

P1
k
ao pO
l Ym

j R1 j

k
pC Xm i ay
f

Q1
S1 pY
pR

Figure 2.36 Conversion of clearance angles by using vectors on the flank surface.

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 66 Machining and Machine Tools



R1 = (sin α o sin φ )i + ( − sin α o cos φ ) j + ( − cos α o )k (2.45c)


and S1 = ( − cos λ cos φ )i + ( − cos λ sin φ ) j + ( − sin λ )k (2.45d)
Now, like the rake angles, the clearance angles can be converted from ASA to ORS by taking the mixed prod-
uct of three properly chosen vectors out of the four coplanar vectors
  shownin Eq. (2.45). For instance, to get
ao as f (ax and a y ), we take the mixed product of the vectors P1, Q 1 and R1 which gives us the matrix

sin α x 0 −cosα x
0 − sin α y − cos α y = 0
cos γ o sin φ − cos γ o cos φ − sin γ o
and the relation
cotao = cotax sinf + cotay cosf
Similarly, clearance angles of the principal as well as the auxiliary flank can be converted from one system to
another by the vector method. This method of conversion of tool angles from one system to another is quite
simple and versatile. It also enables dealing with the complex geometry of tools, even that of drills conveniently.

2.4.1.3 Conversion of Tool Angles from ORS to NRS and Vice-Versa

The tool geometry of single-point tools is designated in ORS and NRS as
λ , γ o , α o , α o′ , φ1 , φ, r (mm) − ORS
λ , γ n , α n , α n′ , φ1 , φ, r (mm) − NRS

The two systems are almost the same, the only difference lies in the fact that go, ao and α o′ of ORS are replaced
by gn, an and α n′ in NRS. The corresponding rake and clearance angles of ORS and NRS are related as
tan γ n = tan γ o cos λ (2.46)

cot α n = cot α o cos λ (2.47)

and cot α n′ = cot α o′ cos λ ′ (2.48)

Equation (2.46) can be easily proved with the help of Fig. 2.37(a). The planes pO and p N having an
included angle of l are normal to Yo and Yn (principal cutting edge), respectively. When pO and p N are
extended below OA (i.e., pR) they intersect the rake surface along OB and OC respectively, as shown in Fig.
2.37(a). Therefore,
∠AOB = go
∠AOC = gn
where ∠BAC = l. From solid geometry, the line joining the points B and C on the rake surface will be parallel
to Yn (principal cutting edge) axis and AC will be normal to BC. Now,
AC = AB cos λ
⇒ OA tan γ n = (OA tan γ o )cos λ

MAMT_Chapter 2.indd 66 7/21/2011 11:17:03 AM

 Geometry of Cutting Tools 67

Zo
pN Zn
Yn
pC g
pO l o
Yo
l
O A
Xo, Xn
B
l
90° O A
90° O C
g A A
o gn
gn B C
l
pC
C
B

ao Yo
A
A′
A
B
pC pO
g Zo
pO A o
A′ an Yn

pn C
pR
Zn
A gn

l B
A
Zo
pC
C Zn

Section A – A

Figure 2.37 (a) Relation between normal rake gn and orthogonal rake go. (b) Relation between
normal clearance an and orthogonal clearance ao.

Hence
tan γ n = tan γ o cos λ
Equation (2.47) relates an and ao and can be easily established with the help of Fig. 2.37(b), as shown:
AC = AB cos λ
⇒ AA ′ cot α n = AA ′ cot α o cos λ

MAMT_Chapter 2.indd 67 7/21/2011 11:17:03 AM

 68 Machining and Machine Tools

Therefore
cotan = cotao cosl
Similarly, it can be proved that
cot α n′ = cot α o′ cos λ ′
where l′ is the inclination angle of the auxiliary cutting edge.

2.4.1.4 Relations between Tool Angles in Some Critical Conditions

From the equations correlating the cutting tool angles, the following critical observations can be made:
1. When f = 90°, gx = go for px = pO.
2. When l = 0, gn = go and an = ao.
3. When l = 0 and f = 90°, gn = go = gx (pure orthogonal cutting, p N = p O = p X).

2.4.1.5 Sharpening and Re-Sharpening of Single-Point Tools by Grinding

Re-sharpening is generally avoided in case of modern tools made of coated carbides, ceramics, cermets, cBN
and diamond which are expensive and extremely difficult to grind. But all cutting tools made of HSS are re-
sharpened by conventional grinding.

Methods of Re-Sharpening HSS Single-Point Tools

Sharpening and re-sharpening of cutting tools refers to the restoration of sharpness and geometry of the cut-
ting edges. Single-point tools possess two cutting edges, which are
1. Principal cutting edge – obtained as the line of intersection of the rake surface and the principal flank
surface.
2. Auxiliary cutting edge – obtained as the line of intersection of the rake surface and the auxiliary flank
surface.
Therefore, it is necessary to grind three surfaces of a single-point tool to generate two sharp cutting edges.
Such grinding again can be done in the different reference systems:[8]
1. ASA system – needs extra calculation for correction of angles[9] and use of 3-D vice.
2. ORS – also needs correction[9] and a 3-D vice.
3. NRS – needs no correction but needs a 3-D vice.
4. MRS – needs no correction and only a 2-D vice.
Therefore, single-point tools are preferably re-sharpened by grinding in maximum rake system (MRS) and
minimum clearance system (MCS).

Grinding of Tool Rake Surface in MRS

The sequence of procedural steps for grinding of a tool–rake surface in MRS is
1. Determine the values of fγ (orientation angle) and gm (setting angle, i.e., maximum rake angle) from
the tool geometry given in ASA, ORS or NRS.

MAMT_Chapter 2.indd 68 7/21/2011 11:17:04 AM

 Geometry of Cutting Tools 69

ML ML

90° − f γ
Grinding
wheel (b) Orientation (f γ )

gm

Table
(a) Initial setting (c) Initial setting (g m )

Figure 2.38 Setting for grinding tool (single-point) rake surface in MRS.

2. Place the tool shank below the grinding wheel of the tool and the cutter grinder, keeping the shank
parallel to the wheel axis as indicated in Fig. 2.38(a).
3. Rotate (orient) the shank about the Zm axis by an angle 90° – fγ to bring the ML parallel to the wheel
axis as indicated in Fig. 2.38(b).
4. Rotate (tilt) the tool about the ML by maximum rake angle gm as shown in Fig. 2.38(c).
5. Reciprocate the tool-table bringing the tool (rake face) in contact with the wheel surface for grinding
action.
6. Repeat reciprocation with small infeeds.

Grinding of Principal Flank in MRS

The sequence of procedural steps for grinding of a principal flank in MRS is
1. Determine the values of fα and am from the given tool geometry.
2. Place the tool shank below the grinding wheel as shown in Fig. 2.39(a).
3. Rotate the tool about Zm by 90° – fα to bring the ML of the principal flank parallel to the wheel axis
as indicated in Fig. 2.39(b).
4. Rotate the tool shank (vice) about the ML by am as indicated in Fig. 2.39(b).
5. Reciprocate the tool (flank) in contact with the wheel.
6. Repeat reciprocation with slight infeeds.

Grinding Auxiliary Flank Surface in MRS

The sequence of procedural steps for grinding of an auxiliary flank in MRS is:
1. Determine the values of φα′ and α m′ of the auxiliary flank from the given tool geometry.

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 70 Machining and Machine Tools

ML
ML

(90°–fa )
am

(a) (b)

Figure 2.39 Grinding of principal flank in MRS.

2. Place the tool shank below the wheel as shown in Fig. 2.40(a).
3. Rotate the tool by an angle φα′ to bring the ML parallel to the wheel axis as indicated in Fig. 2.40(b).
4. Rotate the tool about the ML of the auxiliary flank by α m′ .
5. Reciprocate the table with the tool against the grinding wheel periphery.
6. Repeat reciprocation with small infeeds.

2.4.2 Conversion of Geometry and Sharpening of Twist Drills

2.4.2.1 Conversion of Rake Angles of Drills
The geometrical features of cutting angles (or tool-tips) of all cutting tools are more or less the same, and hence
the geometrical characteristics of single-point tools are applicable to other tools also. However, the geometry
of some cutting tools like form tools, gear shaping cutters, hobs, drills, etc. are more complex. The geometry
of twist drills is very complex mainly due to continuous variation of rake and clearance angles and cutting
velocity along the cutting edges. Besides, drill geometry is essentially described in a large number of systems
– static, dynamic and work reference systems where again, the dynamic and work reference systems are of two
categories each – orthogonal and normal rake system. Drill angles are changed from one system to another for
various purposes. Using the following relationship [Eq. (2.17)] for the rake angles of single-point tools

tan g x = tan g o sin f − tan l cos f

The dynamic orthogonal rake goDi and work orthogonal rake gwDi at any point i on the main cutting edges of
twist drills can be derived from

tan γ oDi = (tan γ xDi + tan λDi cos φDi ) / sin φDi (2.49)

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 Geometry of Cutting Tools 71

ML

ML

(90°–fa ′)
a m′

(a) (b)

Figure 2.40 Grinding of auxiliary flank in MRS.

and tan γ oWi = (tan γ xWi + tan λ Wi cos φ Wi ) / sin φ Wi (2.50)

where the dynamic axial rake of drill is given by

γ xDi = tan −1[(ri / r )tan θ ]

and gxWi = gxDi + mi
where
μi = tan −1 ( so / 2π ri )

The expressions for lwi, gxwi, fDi, fwi, etc. are already provided in Section 2.3. Similarly, using the simple
relation given in Eq. (2.46) we get
tan gn = tan go cos l
The dynamic normal rake gnDi and work normal rake gnwi of drills are derived from

tan γ nDi = tan γ oDi cos λDi (2.51)

and tan γ nWi = tan γ oWi cos λ Wi (2.52)

Figure 2.41 shows the typical pattern of variation of different rake angles along the main cutting edges of
a twist drill. It is to be noted that the difference between the values of the corresponding rake angles in the
dynamic reference system and the work reference system are very small, because at any point on the main
cutting edges, the feed velocity Vf is negligibly small compared to the cutting velocity Vc. But the difference
in g Di and g Wi would be sizeable at the chisel edge where Vc is very low. The values of the different clearance
angles, which also continuously vary along the cutting edges of a drill, depend upon how the drill cone is
ground for sharpening its cutting edges.

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 72 Machining and Machine Tools

70

50
geD gxD
30

Angle in degrees
10
0
–10
goD
–30 g nD Tool: HSS drill
Dia: 12.5 mm
Web thick: 3.0 mm
–50
Point angles: 120 deg
lD Feed: 0.11 mm
–70
0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.0
Ratio ri /r

Figure 2.41 Pattern of variation of different rake angles along the cutting edges of a drill.

2.4.2.2 Sharpening of Drills and Conversion of its Clearance Angles

While manufacturing drills, their cutting edges are finally sharpened by grinding the drill-point (cone). After
sufficient wear due to use, the worn out/dull cutting edges of HSS drills are re-sharpened. A drill is usually
re-sharpened (and thus shortened) a number of times before totally discarding it. The values of the clear-
ance angles and their distribution along the cutting edges depend largely upon the method of grinding the
drill-point and also upon the values of the salient grinding parameters. A drill cone can be ground by several
methods. The commonly used methods are as follows:
1. Flat grinding – usually done for very small drills.
2. Conical grinding – widely used manually as well as semi-automatically.
3. Helical grinding – automatic and fast.
Conical grinding may be done in the following ways:
1. With apex (grinding cone) up.
2. With apex down.
Conical grinding with apex up is preferred and widely practiced as this method provides a favourable pat-
tern of distribution of the clearance angle along the cutting edges. It also provides flexibility in magnitude
and pattern variation of the clearance angles in drills. Here, only this method of conical grinding has been
described in detail.

Conical Grinding of a Drill Point

Figure 2.42 shows schematically the setting and motions of a taper shank twist drill against a rotating grind-
ing wheel for re-sharpening. The drill bit is clamped in a Vee-block, keeping one cutting edge along the
grinding surface as indicated in Fig. 2.42. The fixture holding the drill is oscillated manually by a handle
or semi-automatically about the axis of an imaginary cone as shown in the same figure. The axis of the

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 Geometry of Cutting Tools 73

Apex
Grinding cone axis
Grinding cone
Drill clamp

Drill
Half rotation for next flank

Grinding wheel
Oscillation
Handle for oscillating

Figure 2.42 Setting for conical grinding of a drill point.

imaginary cone is offset from the drill axis by a small distance. After grinding one flank to some extent, the
drill bit is indexed by 180° for the other flank. The cycle is repeated with a little axial feed of the drill. Before
sharpening the drill point, the two flanks remain confined by conical surfaces and cutting edges remain with-
out clearance angles. Because of the method of conical grinding, the flank surfaces become conical-helical
and the cutting edges attain the desired clearance angles. Figure 2.43 visualizes the principle of this method
of grinding for generation of clearance angle. The magnitude and distribution pattern of the clearance angle
(dynamic normal, a nDi) of a given drill are governed by the following grinding parameters, which are also
indicated in Fig. 2.43:

1. Grinding axis offset C = C o r , which varies in the range 0.1–0.25.
2. Co is offset between the axes of the grinding cone and the drill’s cutting edge.
3. Grinding cone angle 2s,  which varies in the range 20–40°.
4. Grinding apex offset L = L r , where L is distance of the grinding cone apex from the drill axis and
it varies in the range 1.6−4.
Based on the diagram in Fig. 2.43, the expression for the dynamic normal clearance, anDi can be derived as
 2
⎧⎪[ L + (r i / r )] kσ tan 2σ ⎫⎪
cot α nDi = ⎨  ⎬ − kσ (2.53)
⎩⎪ 2C sin ρ ⎭⎪
where ks = 1 – tan2s. Equation (2.53) clearly reveals that the clearance angle (anDi) continuously varies 
 along the cutting edge of drill and is also influenced by the level of the grinding parameters C ,
(with ri/r)
2s and L depending upon the cone angle 2r of the drill.

Conversion of Clearance Angles of Twist Drills

In twist drills, of all the rake angles only gxDi is obtained directly from
tan γ xDi = r / r1 tan θ

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 74 Machining and Machine Tools

an 2s
I
II

aN
⎢

II Co I
aN
⎢⎢

II
Co
rc
I

II
Ko Co

Figure 2.43 Grinding of a drill cone by conical grinding.

Other rake angles are derived from gxDi. However, in the case of clearance angles of drills, the values of only
anDi are obtained directly, from equations like Eq. (2.53). Other clearance angles are derived from anDi. The
values of aoDi and axDi are evaluated from

cot α nDi = cot α oDi cos λDi (2.54)

and cot α xDi = cot α oDi sin φDi − tan λDi cos φDi (2.55)
Again, the values of the clearance angles in the work reference system are to be obtained from Eqs.
(2.56)−(2.58):
α xWi = α xDi − μi (2.56)
−1
where μi = tan ( so /2π ri ) . Also
cot α oWi = (cot α xWi + tan λ Wi cos φ Wi )/sin φ Wi (2.57)

and cot α nWi = cot α oWi cos φ Wi (2.58)

The typical pattern of variation of different clearance angles along the cutting edges of drills is shown in
Fig. 2.44.

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 Geometry of Cutting Tools 75

40
Tool: Twist drill
Dia: 12.5 mm
Web thick: 3.0 mm
30 Point angle: 120 deg

Angle in degrees
a nD
20
a oD
a oW

10

0
0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.0
Ratio ri /r

Figure 2.44 Pattern of variation of different clearance angles along the cutting edges of drill.

2.4.3 Sharpening and Re-Sharpening of Milling Cutters

Milling cutters, especially plain (or slab) and end milling cutters are of complex shape and geometry. Such
tools are preferably made of high speed steel (HSS). But HSS tools cannot be used at high speed. Presently,
throw-away type carbide tips are used for making milling cutters, especially in face milling cutters for higher
speed and productivity. However, HSS plain and end milling cutters are still used for easy processing. These
HSS milling cutters are sharpened and re-sharpened by grinding. For sharpening or re-sharpening the worn
out cutting edges
1. The flank surfaces are ground in case of profile-sharpened milling cutters.
2. The rake surface is ground in case of form-relieved type milling cutters.
Sharpening of milling cutters requires knowledge of workshop techniques and cutter geometry.

2.5 Solved Problems

PROBLEM 1
Determine the values of orthogonal rake angle (g o),the inclination angle (l) of the main cutting edge
and the maximum rake angle (g m) of the turning tool specified in the ASA system as 10°, − 10°, 8°, 6°,
15°, 30°, 0 (inch).

Solution: This can be done graphically using a master line. However, this can also be solved analyti-
cally using the following equations:
To determine orthogonal rake (go): We know that
tan γ o = tan γ x sin φ + tan γ y cos φ

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 76 Machining and Machine Tools

Here, it is given that gx = 10°, gy = − 10°, and f = 90° − 30° = 60°. Therefore

tan γ o = tan 10° sin 60° + tan( −10°)cos 60°

= 0.176 × 0.866 − 0.176 × 0.50
= 0.1524 − 0.088 = 0.0644
Therefore go = 3.68°.
To determine inclination angle (l): We know that

tan λ = − tan γ x cos φ + tan γ y sin φ

Therefore
tan λ = − tan(10°)cos 60° + tan( −10°)sin 60°
= −0.176(0.5 + 0.866 ) = −0.240
Therefore l = − 13.5°
To determine rake angle (gm): We know that

tan γ m = tan 2 γ x + tan 2 γ y

Therefore,

tan γ m = (0.176 )2 + ( −0.176 )2 = 0.249

and gm = 14° (here it should be −14°).

PROBLEM 2
Determine the values of the side rake (gx), back rake (gy) and maximum rake (gm) angles of the single-
point turning tool whose geometry is specified or designated as 0°, 10°, 8°, 6°, 15°, 60°, 0 (mm).

Solution: The specification is given in ORS (or NRS) as l = 0.

To determine the side rake angle (gx): We know that

tan γ x = tan γ o sin φ − tan λ cos φ

Here it is given that go = 10°, l = 0, f = 60°. Therefore,

tan γ x = tan 10° sin 60° − tan 0° cos 60° = 0.1527

Therefore, gx = 8.68°
To determine the back rake angle (gy): We know that
tan γ y = tan γ x cos φ + tan λ sin φ
Therefore
γ y = tan −1[tan 10° cos 60°] = 5.03°

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 Geometry of Cutting Tools 77

To determine the maximum rake angle (gm): We know that

tan γ m = tan 2 γ o + tan 2 λ

Here, tan gm = tan go. Therefore
gm = go = 10°

PROBLEM 3
Determine the values of side clearance (ax) and minimum clearance (am) angles of the single-point
turning tool whose geometry is specified in ORS as −10°, 10°, 8°, 6°, 15°, 75°, 0 (mm).
Solution: The specification is given in ORS. Here, l = − 10°, go = 10° ax = 8°, α o′ = 6° and f = 75°.
To determine the side clearance angle (ax): We know that
cot φ x = cot α o sin φ − tan λ cos φ
Therefore,
cot α x = cot 0° × sin 75° − tan( −10°)cos 75°
= 89.3 × 0.966 + 0.176 × 0.2588
= 86.26 + 0.55 = 86.295
Therefore ax = 10.7°.
To determine the minimum clearance angle (am): We know that

cot α m = cot 2 α o + tan2 λ

Therefore
cot α m = cot 2 8° + tan2 ( −10°)
= 50.62 + 0.031 = 50.651 = 7.117
Hence am = 7.99°.

PROBLEM 4
Under what geometrical conditions of a turning tool will the values of its side rake (gx), orthogonal rake
(go) and normal rake (gn) angles be the same?

Solution: We know that

tan gn = tan go cos l
where l is the inclination angle. Therefore, when λ = 0 , go = gn. Again,
tan γ x = tan γ o sin φ + tan λ cos φ
= tan γ o sin φ (as λ = 0)
Hence, (gx) and (go) will be same if f = 90°. Therefore, gx = go = gn will occur if l = 0 and f = 90°.

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 78 Machining and Machine Tools

PROBLEM 5
Determine the values of dynamic axial rake (gxDi) and dynamic inclination angle (lDi ) at a radial distance
of 5 mm of a 20 mm diameter twist drill whose helix angle (q ) is 32°, point or cone angle (2r) is 120°
and chisel edge diameter (dc) is 4 mm.

Solution: To determine dynamic axial rake (gxDi): We know that

⎛γ ⎞
tan γ Di = ⎜ i ⎟ tan θ
⎝γ ⎠

Here it is given that r1 = 5 mm, r = 10 mm, and q = 32°. Therefore

5
tan γ xDi = tan 32° = 0.3124
10

Hence, gxDi = 17.35°.

To determine dynamic inclination angle (l Di): We know that

γc
sin λDi = sin ρ
γi
Here rc = 2 mm and r = 60°. Therefore

2
sin λDi = sin 60° = 0.4
5
Hence lDi = 23.58°.

PROBLEM 6
If a single start Vee-thread of pitch 2.0 mm is cut on a 16 mm diameter rod by a tool of geometry 0°, 0°,
8°, 10°, 30°, 30°, 0 (inch) in the ASA system, what will be the value of side rake angle (gxw) of the tool
in the work reference system?

Solution: We know that in case of thread cutting tool

gxw = gxDi + mi
where
so
tan μ i =
2π r
Here it is given that so = pitch = 2 mm and r = 8 mm. Since gxD = 0° (given)
⎛ 2.0 ⎞
γ xw = μi = tan −1 ⎜ = 2.28°
⎝ 2π 8 ⎟⎠

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 Geometry of Cutting Tools 79

SU M M A R Y
The general concepts of configuration and geometry, also been adequately addressed. Using simple dia-
especially rake angles and clearance angles, of cut- grams, several useful equations have been deduced
ting tools have been illustrated and described. The to establish the relationships among the various tool
cutting tool geometry has been demonstrated in the angles in different systems.
different systems of common use – ASA, ORS, NRS To explore and evaluate the role of tool-geometry
and WRS. The methods of designation of tool angles on effectiveness and efficiency of machining, it is
in different systems have been presented. The neces- essential to understand the salient aspects of the
sity and way of conversion of tool angles from one mechanism of chip formation or machining and
reference system to others by the graphical method the effects of variation in the various tool angles on
and the vector method have been described with such chip formation mechanisms. The mechanism of
specific examples. The simple geometry of milling machining has therefore been presented in the next
cutters and the complex geometry of twist drills have chapter.

MU LT I P L E CH O I C E QU E S T I O N S
[Answers are provided in the CD]
1. The angle of inclination of the top surface of (c) Machine transverse plane
the turning tool from the plane perpendicular (d) Machine longitudinal plane
to the velocity vector is called tool’s 5. Orthogonal plane of any single-point tool is
(a) Rake angle normal (or perpendicular) to the tool’s
(b) Clearance angle (a) Principal cutting edge
(c) Cutting edge angle (b) Cutting plane and reference plane
(d) Inclination angle (c) Normal plane and reference plane
(d) Rake surface and normal plane
2. Cutting tools are essentially provided with
6. The summation of approach angle and principal
clearance angle
cutting edge angle of any turning tool will be
(a) For ease of chip flow
(a) 60°
(b) To reduce cutting forces
(b) 90°
(c) To avoid rubbing with the finished
(c) 120°
surface
(d) 180°
(d) To reduce friction at the chip–tool
7. Inclination angle of a turning tool is measured
interface
in its
3. ASA (American Standards Association) system of
(a) Cutting plane
designation of cutting tool geometry is actually
(b) Orthogonal plane
(a) Tool-in-hand system
(c) Reference plane
(b) Machine reference system
(d) Normal plane
(c) Tool reference system
8. The principal cutting edge angle of any turn-
(d) Work reference system
ing tool is measured in its
4. Side rake of a turning tool is the angle of in-
(a) Reference plane
clination of its rake surface from the reference
(b) Cutting plane
plane and is measured on
(c) Orthogonal plane
(a) Cutting plane
(d) Normal plane
(b) Orthogonal plane

MAMT_Chapter 2.indd 79 7/21/2011 11:17:06 AM

 80 Machining and Machine Tools

9. The value of normal rake of any cutting tool (c) Side rake angle is zero
cannot be (d) Inclination angle is zero
(a) Lesser than that of its orthogonal rake 14. The normal rake and orthogonal rake become
(b) Equal to that of its orthogonal rake same in case of a single-point tool when its
(c) Greater than that of its orthogonal rake (a) Principal cutting edge angle is zero
(d) Any of the above (b) Inclination angle of the principal cutting
10. The radial rake of a helical fluted plain milling edge is zero
cutter represents the cutter’s (c) Back rake is zero
(a) Side rake (d) Side rake is zero
(b) Inclination angle 15. If ‘l’ represents inclination angle of a turning
(c) Orthogonal rake tool, then the correct relation between its orthog-
(d) Normal rake onal rake angle (go) and normal rake angle (gn) is
11. The helix angle of an HSS twist drill is related (a) tan gn = tan go cos l
with that drill’s (b) tan gn = tan go sin l
(a) Rake angles (c) tan go = tan gn cos l
(b) Clearance angles (d) tan go = tan gn sin l
(b) Cutting angles 16. Along the main cutting edges of twist drill the
(d) Inclination angles clearance angle
12. The inclination angle of the main cutting (a) Remains unchanged
edges (of twist drills) throughout its length is (b) Gradually increases towards the centre
(a) Positive (c) Gradually decreases towards the centre
(b) Zero (d) None of the above
(c) Negative 17. If the reference plane becomes parallel with
(d) None of the above the rake surface of a turning tool then its
13. The master line of the rake surface of a turning (a) Side rake becomes zero
tool becomes parallel with the principal cut- (b) Orthogonal rake becomes zero
ting edge, when (c) Normal rake becomes zero
(a) Orthogonal rake angle is zero (d) All of the above
(b) Normal rake angle is zero (e) None of the above

R E V I E W QU E S T I O N S
1. Show by a suitable sketch the rake angle and reference used for designation of cutting tool
clearance angle of any cutting tool in a ma- geometry.
chining work. Also state why these angles are 5. Draw a single-point turning tool and visualize
provided. its different rake angles, clearance angles and
2. What can be the ranges of tool rake angle and cutting edge angle in machine reference or
clearance angle? Show the differences between ASA system.
positive rake tool and negative rake tool. 6. Define side rake and back rake as well as side
3. Sketch a single-point turning tool and visual- clearance and back clearance w.r.t. geometry
ize its salient features. of turning tool.
4. How can tool rake angle and clearance an- 7. Draw a single-point turning tool and show its
gle be defined? Name any three systems of different (a) rake angles, (b) clearance angles

MAMT_Chapter 2.indd 80 7/21/2011 11:17:06 AM

 Geometry of Cutting Tools 81

and (c) cutting edge angles in orthogonal rake and (c) axial clearance angles (in dynamic refer-
system (ORS). ence system) at any point on main cutting edge.
8. Show by a sketch and define (a) orthogonal 19. With the help of suitable diagram visualize the
rake, (b) inclination angle, (c) orthogonal clear- orthogonal rake and normal rake in dynamic
ance angle and (d) principal cutting edge angle reference system at any point on a main cut-
with respect to geometry of single-point cut- ting edge of a twist drill.
ting tool. 20. With the help of a diagram, derive the relation,
9. Show by a sketch and define normal plane and
normal rake in reference to geometry of turn- ⎡⎛ r ⎞ ⎤
λDi = sin −1 ⎢⎜ c ⎟ sinρ ⎥
ing tools. When do normal rake and orthogo- ⎣⎝ ri ⎠ ⎦
nal rake of any cutting tool become same?
10. How is the geometry of single-point cutting where ri is the radial distance of point ‘i’ on a
tool designated or specified in main cutting edge from drill axis; lDi is the
(a) ASA system? inclination angle of the main cutting at any
(b) Orthogonal rake system (ORS)? radial distance, ri ; rc is the chisel edge radius
(c) Normal rake system (NRS)? and 2r is the drill point angle.
11. Describe briefly with the help of simple dia- 21. State the purposes of tool angle’s conversion
grams, how work reference system is different and name four methods that are used to con-
from ASA system w.r.t. tool geometry. When vert tool angles from one system to another.
use of work reference system (of tool designa- Also state their relative advantages and appli-
tion) becomes essential and why? cations.
12. Sketch a straight-fluted end milling cutter and 22. Describe, with the help of proper diagrams
show its orthogonal rake and orthogonal clear- and deriving simple equations, how the rake
ance angles. angles of single-point turning tool can be con-
13. Draw a helical fluted plain or slab mill- verted from
ing cutter and visualize its orthogonal rake, (a) ASA system to ORS (orthogonal rake
orthogonal clearance, inclination angle and system).
normal rake angle. (b) ORS to ASA system.
14. Sketch a conventional twist drill and label its 23. Derive simple equations, using proper dia-
(a) different parts, (b) point angle, (c) helix grams, for conversion of the clearance angles
angle and (d) chisel edge angle. of single-point tool from
15. What are the distinguishing geometrical fea- (a) ASA system to ORS (orthogonal rake
tures of drills over single-point tools? system).
16. Name the different reference systems that (b) ORS to ASA system.
are followed to describe and designate drill- 24. Show schematically how the master line for
geometry under different situations. Show the the auxiliary flank (clearance) surface can be
planes and axes that are used in those reference drawn from the given specification of a single-
systems. point turning tool given in
17. With the help of a suitable sketch visualize that (a) ASA system.
the point angle (half of it) of drill is equivalent (b) ORS (orthogonal rake system).
to the principal cutting edge angle of single- 25. Describe with the help of suitable diagrams
point tools. how the values of maximum rake angle and
18. Draw a suitable sketch of a twist drill and minimum clearance angle can be determined
show its (a) inclination angle, (b) axial rake from the geometrical specification of a turning
tool given in

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 82 Machining and Machine Tools

(a) ASA system. cotan = cotao cosl

(b) ORS.
where an and ao, respectively, are normal
26. With the help of suitable diagrams, describe
clearance and orthogonal clearance of the
how the simple equations can be derived by
principal flank of a turning tool and l is the
vector method to enable convert the rake
inclination angle of the principal cutting edge
angles of a turning tool from
of that tool.
(a) ASA system to ORS.
30. Describe briefly with the help of a suitable
(b) ORS to ASA system.
diagrams the method of sharpening and re-
27. Drawing suitable diagrams, describe how by
sharpening the cutting edges of HSS (high
vector method the clearance angles of a turning
speed steel) turning tool by grinding.
tool can be determined or evaluated in ORS
31. Name the different methods of grinding the
from the given geometrical specification of the
cone or point of HSS twist drill for sharpening
same tool in ASA system and vice-versa.
its cutting edges. State the characteristics and
28. With the help of a suitable diagram derive a simple
applications of those methods.
relation (equation) between orthogonal rake and
32. Describe briefly with the help of suitable dia-
normal rake of single-point cutting tool.
gram the method of drill-point sharpening by
29. With the help of a suitable sketch, derive the
conical grinding with apex up.
relation or equation

PR O B L E M S
With Answers
1. Determine the values of orthogonal rake (go) where gx means side rake angle; gy means back
and normal rake of the single-point turning rake angle; go means orthogonal rake angle; l
tool whose geometry is specified as 10°, 0°, means inclination angle and f means principal
10°, 7°, 15°, 0°, 0 (inch) cutting edge angle.
Ans: go = 10°, gn = 10° 2. By vector method, derive the following angle-
2. Determine the values of side rake (gx), back rake relations related to tool geometry:
(gy) and maximum rake (gm) angles of the single- (a) tan go = tan gx sin f + tan gy cos f
point turning tool whose geometry is specified (b) cot ax = cot ao sin f − tan l cos f
in ORS as 10°, 0°, 5°, 8°, 20°, 90°, 0 (mm). where go is the orthogonal rake angle; l is the
Ans: gx = 0°, gy = 10°, and gm = 10° inclination angle of principal cutting edge; f is
3. Under what geometrical condition of a turn- the principal cutting edge angle; ax is the side
ing tool, are the values of its all rake angles the clearance angle of principal flank.
same? 3. Determine the values of (a) normal rake angle
Ans: When both the orthogonal rake (go) and (gn) and (b) normal clearance of the principal
the inclination angle (l) are fever. flank of the turning tool whose geometry is
specified in ORS as −10°, 5°, 8°, 7°, 20°, 60°,
Without Answers 0 (mm).
1. With the help of suitable diagrams prove 4. Determine the (a) values of normal rake angle
(a) tan go = tan gx sin f + tan gy cos f and (b) normal clearance angle of a helical
(b) tan l = −tan gx cos f + tan gy sin f fluted plain milling cutter whose orthogonal
(c) tan gx = tan go sin f−tanl cos f rake is 15°, orthogonal clearance is 25° and
(d) tan gy = tan go cos f + tan l sin f helix angle is 20°.

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 3 Mechanism of Machining
Learning Objectives
The contents of this chapter would enable the readers to:
• Describe with illustration the mechanism of • Classify possible types of machining chips with
chip formation in machining: ductile mate- examples and reasoning.
rials and brittle materials. • Define and distinguish, with illustrations,
• Experimentally investigate the actual mecha- between orthogonal cutting and oblique
nism of material removal in turning, drilling cutting.
and plain milling. • Identify the causes behind oblique cutting.
• Illustrate and assess the geometrical features • Evaluate chip flow deviation angle and effective
of ductile chips: chip reduction coefficient or rake under oblique cutting.
cutting ratio; shear angle and cutting strains; • Demonstrate the role of tool geometry on chip
chip contact length. formation.
• Visualize built-up-edge formation and state • Explain with illustration the pattern and
its types, causes and effects. mechanism of chip formation in drilling and
milling.

3.1 Introduction
Machining is basically a process of material removal from the preformed blanks and is employed to provide
desired shape and dimensions with higher accuracy and surface finish. In any machining, material is gradu-
ally removed in the form of chips. Machining of different work materials produces different types and pat-
terns of chips. Even a given work material shows wide variation in the chip form under different machining
conditions. Almost all the machining parameters – tool geometry, levels of process parameters and the machin-
ing environment – play a significant role on the pattern of chips. Based on the shape, size and colour, the
machining chips are categorized as favourable chips and unfavourable chips indicating good machinability
and poor machinability. Attempts are always made to obtain favourable chips through proper selection of the
machining condition. This requires knowledge about the mechanism of machining and formation of chips,
their configuration and characteristics and dependence on the different machining parameters under various
machining environments as well as assessment and improvement of quality of chips. This chapter deals with
the aforesaid aspects.

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 84 Machining and Machine Tools

3.2 Purpose of Studying Mechanism of Chip Formation in

Machining
Machining is essentially carried out to semi-finish or finish preformed blanks to specified or desired dimen-
sional accuracy and surface finish to enable the products to
1. Fulfill their functional requirements.
2. Provide desired or better performance.
3. Render long service life.
The mode of chip formation and form of the chips are important indexes of machining. Ideal machining
produces favourable chips. Machining chips are generally characterized by shape, size, smoothness, colour,
thickening, strain hardening, microstructure, etc.
The features and characteristics of machining chips widely vary depending upon
1. Work material; brittle, ductile, sticky, etc.
2. Type of machining; continuous, interrupted, etc.
3. Cutting tool: material and geometry.
4. Levels of the process parameters: cutting velocity, feed and also depth of cut.
5. Machining condition: dry or wet, type and method of application of cutting fluid that affects cutting
temperature, friction and tool wear.
The characteristic features of the chips produced in any machining indicate directly or indirectly
1. The basic nature of the work material.
2. Behaviour of the work material under the different machining conditions.
3. Mode or mechanism of chip formation.
4. Level of the cutting temperature.
5. Nature and degree of chip–tool interaction: friction, built-up-edge formation, etc.
6. Cutting edge condition: sharp, dull or damaged by wear, etc.
7. The role of variation of the machining parameters on machining.
8. Effects of various cutting fluid applications.
Therefore, thorough knowledge of chip formation mechanism is essentially required for assessment and
improvement of machinability through proper selection and application of
1. Cutting tool.
2. Cutting velocity, feed and depth of cut.
3. Cutting fluid.
4. Special technique.

3.3 Mechanism of Chip Formation in Machining

3.3.1 Chip Formation in Machining Ductile Materials
The basic two mechanisms that accomplish chip formation are:
1. Yielding: generally for ductile materials.
2. Brittle fracturing: for brittle material.

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 Mechanism of Machining 85

a1 (Uncut chip thickness)

a2 (Chip thickness)
Chip

Vf

F
Workpiece

R N
Tool
Vc

Figure 3.1 Compression of work material (layer) ahead of the tool tip.

However, most of the engineering materials behave ductile in machining. During machining, the uncut
layer of the work material just ahead of the cutting tool (edge) is subjected to almost all sided compression
as indicated in Fig. 3.1. The force exerted by the tool on the chip arises in the form of normal force N and
frictional force F.
Due to such compression, shear stress develops and grows within that compressed region, in different
magnitude, in different directions. Whenever and wherever the value of the shear stress reaches or exceeds
the shear strength of that work material in the deformation region, yielding or slip begins resulting in shear
deformation in that region and initiating of separation in the form of a small crack (Fig. 3.2) along the plane
of maximum shear stress. In the case of brittle materials, the crack immediately propagates causing chip sepa-
ration along irregular plane. However, in machining ductile materials, the forces causing the shear stresses
in the region of the chip quickly diminish and finally disappear while that region moves along the tool rake
surface towards and then goes beyond the point of chip–tool separation. As a result, the slip or shear stops
propagating long before the total separation takes place. In the mean time, the succeeding portion of the work
material starts undergoing compression followed by yielding and shear. This phenomenon repeats rapidly
resulting in formation and removal of chips in thin layer. This phenomenon has been explained in a simple
way by Piispannen[1] using a card analogy as shown in Fig. 3.2.
In actual machining also, such serrations are visible in the chips at their upper surface as shown in Fig. 3.2.
The lower surface becomes smooth due to further plastic deformation for intensive rubbing with the tool at
high pressure and temperature. The pattern of shear deformation by lamellar sliding, indicated in the model,
can also be seen in actual chips by proper mounting, etching and polishing the side surface of the machining
chip and observing under microscope.
The nature and amount of deformation of the chips due to the primary and the secondary shear deforma-
tions of the chips ahead and along the tool face (Fig. 3.3) depend upon
1. Work material.
2. Tool: material and geometry.
3. Cutting velocity (Vc) and feed (so).
4. Cutting fluid application.

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 86 Machining and Machine Tools

Chip
Chip

Vc Tool

(a) (b)

Figure 3.2 Piispannen model of card analogy to explain chip formation in machining ductile materials:
(a) Shifting of postcards by partial sliding; (b) chip formation by shear in lamella.

Primary deformation (shear) zone

Workpiece

Secondary deformation zone

Chip
Vc
Tool

Figure 3.3 Primary and secondary deformation zones in the chip.

The deformation process causing chip formation is quite complex. Thorough experimental studies[2,3] are
needed for clear understanding of the phenomenon and its dependence on the affecting parameters. Some
feasible and popular experimental methods for this purpose are as follows:
1. Study of deformation of rectangular or circular grids marked on the side surface as shown in Fig. 3.4.
2. Microscopic study of chips frozen by drop tool or quick stop apparatus.
3. Study of running chips photographed by high speed camera fitted with low magnification microscope.

3.3.1.1 Study of Circular Grid Deformation

The type of stress actually responsible for transformation of circular grid into an elliptical form, as indicated
in Fig. 3.4(b), can be experimentally identified by using the following Levy–Lode’s theorem:
e1 + e2 − 2e3 tan(30° − ρ )
= (3.1)
e1 − e2 tan 30°
where
e1 = l n (r1/r0 )
e2 = l n (r2 /r0 )
e1 + e2 + e3 = 0

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 Mechanism of Machining 87

2r1
2r2

2r 0
Tool Circular
grid before
deformation Circular grid after
deformation

Tool

Work specimens
(a) (b)

Figure 3.4 Pattern of grid deformation during chip formation: (a) Rectangular grids and
(b) circular grids.

Here r0 is the radius of the un-deformed circular grid (Fig. 3.5); r1, r2 are the major and minor radii of the
deformed elliptical grid (Fig. 3.5); r is the angle index. It has been found that
r = 0 for pure tension (3.2)
r = 60° for pure compression (3.3)
and r = 30° for pure shear (3.4)
The proof of Eq. (3.2) is provided in the accompanying CD.
By studying circular grid deformation in machining ductile metals, it has been noted that the actual value
of the angle index r is very close to 30°. Thus, it is inferred that chip formation in machining ductile metals
is caused mainly by shearing action.

3.3.1.2 Microscopic Study of Frozen Chip

Here the machining needs to be suddenly stopped at high speed to obtain frozen chip under machining at
normal speed and feed for close study of mechanism of chip formation and chip–tool interaction. The cutting

r0
r2
(s 1) r r (s 1)
r1

Figure 3.5 Deformation of circular grid under tension.

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 88 Machining and Machine Tools

Vc Vc

V > Vc
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 3.6 Producing and mounting frozen chips: (a) Machining; (b) tool withdrawn; (c) mounting.

tool is rapidly withdrawn at velocity higher than Vc to retain the chip intact as indicated in Fig. 3.6. After
stopping the tool–work motions, the portion of the frozen chip is cut out and then mounted and polished for
study under optical as well as scanning electron microscope (SEM).
Various types of drop-tool and quick-stop devices have been designed and used for freezing flowing chip
of turning, drilling, shaping, planing and even grinding. Figure 3.7 schematically shows the design and work-
ing principle of some drop-tool devices being used to freeze turning chips.[4–6] The turning tool is placed in
position by a hinge and a shear pin as indicated in Fig. 3.7. While machining, the shear pin is broken at high
speed by striking and the tool is immediately pulled down by a spring.
Figure 3.8 shows schematically a simple device[7] for obtaining frozen chips in shaping, planing, etc. at
moderate speeds. The work specimen is fitted by two screws in the axial slot of a cylindrical slide which is
kept in position by a shear pin within the stationary hollow block as indicated in Fig. 3.8. Before the end of
cut, the slide along with the workpiece is thrown out from the guide block at the same speed by the ram by
breaking the shear pin.
Another suitable device called quick stop apparatus,[8] as schematically shown in Fig. 3.9, is used for freezing
high speed turning. The ring-shaped test specimen is fixed on a solid rod by a shear pin as indicated in Fig. 3.9.
A horn made of steel plate is fixed with the test ring. After some progress of machining, the plunger is rapidly

SP H H SP

Vc Vc
TS TS

SP
H
SP – Shear pin
H – Hinge
TS – Tension spring
Vc
TS

Figure 3.7 Some drop-tool devices used for freezing turning chips.

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 Mechanism of Machining 89

Ram
Work
specimen

Slide

Shear pin

Figure 3.8 Device for getting frozen chips in planing and shaping machine.

Plunger
Horn CS

Shear pin
Shear pin

Vc
Test specimen

Figure 3.9 Quick stop apparatus for freezing turning chip.

released to arrest the horn. Immediately the shear pin breaks, the test ring stops rotating and disengages from
the cutting tool. The ending chip remains stuck with the test ring. Figure 3.10 schematically shows a typical
micro-view of a frozen turning chip after polishing. Suitable devices have been developed and are used also
for freezing, drilling[9] and grinding.[10]

3.3.2 Mechanism of Chip Formation in Machining Brittle Materials

During machining, first a small crack develops at the tool tip due to wedging action of the cutting edge (Fig.
3.11). At the sharp crack tip, stress concentration takes place. In the case of ductile materials, immediately
yielding takes place at the crack tip which reduces the effect of stress concentration and prevents its propaga-
tion as crack. However, in the case of brittle materials the initiated crack quickly propagates, under stressing

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 90 Machining and Machine Tools

Vc

Secondary
deformation
zone
N F

Tool

Figure 3.10 Typical micro-view of a frozen turning chip.

action, and total separation of the chip takes place from the parent workpiece through the minimum resis-
tance path as indicated in Fig. 3.11. Machining of brittle material produces discontinuous chips and mostly
of irregular size and shape. The process of forming such chips is schematically shown in Fig. 3.12. Due to
continuous motion of the uncut layer with Vc, the work material ahead is subjected to compression over the
tool-face and starts swelling elastically. At the limiting state of stress a piece of material is separated out by
fracture. Then the cycle repeats as shown in Fig. 3.12.

Crack propagation in
Initial minute crack brittle materials

Vc

Figure 3.11 Development and propagation of crack causing chip separation.

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

Figure 3.12 Schematic view of chip formation in machining brittle materials: (a) Separation;
(b) swelling; (c) further swelling; (d) separation again; (e) swelling again.

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 Mechanism of Machining 91

3.4 Geometry and Characteristics of Continuous Chip Formation

The geometry of the chips being formed at the cutting zone follows a particular pattern especially in machin-
ing ductile materials. The major sections of the engineering materials being machined are ductile in nature;
even some semi-ductile or semi-brittle materials behave ductile under the compressive forces at the cutting
zone during machining. The pattern and degree of deformation during chip formation are quantitatively
assessed and expressed by some factors, the values of which indicate the forces and energy required for a
particular machining work.

3.4.1 Chip Reduction Coefficient and Cutting Ratio

The geometrical features of formation of continuous chips are schematically shown in Fig. 3.13. The chip thick-
ness (a2) becomes larger than the uncut chip thickness (a1). The reason can be attributed to the following:
1. Compression of the chip ahead of the tool.
2. Frictional resistance to chip flow.
3. Lamellar sliding of chip segments (Fig. 3.2).
The significant geometrical parameters involved in continuous chip formation (Fig. 3.13) are defined as (in
respect of straight turning): t = depth of cut (mm), that is, perpendicular penetration of the cutting tool tip in
work surface; so = feed (mm/rev), that is, axial travel of the tool per revolution of the job; b1 = width of chip
before cut (mm); b2 = width of chip after cut (mm); a1 = thickness of uncut layer (or chip before cut) (mm);
a2 = chip thickness, that is, thickness of chip after cut (mm); A1 = cross section (area) of chip before cut (mm2).
The degree of thickening of the chip is expressed by
a2
ζ= > 1.00 (3.5)
a1
where z is the chip reduction coefficient and
a1 = so sinf (3.6)

so a1
Plane of shear or lamellar sliding
b1
a2

po
a1 b2
b1
a2
t A1
Vc go
po
a1 po
f

ao

Figure 3.13 Geometrical features of continuous chips’ formation.

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 92 Machining and Machine Tools

Here f is the principal cutting edge angle. Larger value of z means more thickening, that is, more effort in
terms of forces or energy is required to accomplish the machining work. Therefore, it is always desirable to
reduce the values of a2 or z without sacrificing productivity or metal removal rate (MRR).
Chip thickening is also often expressed by the reciprocal of z as

1 a
= rcu = 1 < 1.0 (3.7)
ζ a2

where rcu is the cutting ratio. Chip reduction coefficient z is generally assessed and expressed by the ratio of
the chip thickness, after cut (a2) and before cut (a1) as in Eq. (3.5). However, z can be expressed or assessed
also by the ratio of
1. Total length of the chip before cut (L1) and after cut (L2).
2. Cutting velocity Vc and chip velocity Vf .
Considering total volume of chip produced in a given time we have

a1b1L1 = a2b2L2 (3.8)

The width of chip b generally does not change significantly during machining unless there is side flow in some
adverse situation. Therefore assuming, b1 = b2 in Eq. (3.8), z can be expressed as

⎛ a ⎞ L
ζ ⎜= 2 ⎟ = 1 (3.9)
⎝ a1 ⎠ L 2

Again considering unchanged material flow rate, Q

Q = (a1b1) Vc = (a2b2) Vf (3.10)
Taking b1 = b2, it appears that

⎛ a ⎞ V
ζ ⎜= 2 ⎟ = c (3.11)
⎝ a1 ⎠ Vf

Equation (3.11) reveals that the chip velocity Vf will be lesser than the cutting velocity Vc and the ratio would
be equal to the cutting ratio,
1 Vf
rcu = =
ζ Vc

A simple but very significant equation has been derived[11] to depict the dependence of the value of chip
reduction coefficient z on tool rake angle and coefficient of friction m at the chip–tool interface.
Figure 3.14 schematically shows that an elementary mass m is assumed to be travelling with the chip
in a circular path. The velocity of that mass gradually decreases from Vc to Vf due to friction force F as
indicated in Fig. 3.14. Therefore,
dv
F = −m (3.12)
dt

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 Mechanism of Machining 93

( p
2
−g )
m O
q
R
Vf

g
Vc N F

Figure 3.14 Geometry of chip thickening.

dθ
and N = mv (3.13)
dt
Combining Eqs. (3.12) and (3.13), we get

F dv
=μ=−
N vdθ

dv
or = − μ dθ (3.14)
v

where m is the apparent coefficient of friction at the chip–tool interface. Integrating Eq. (3.14), we get
Vc
= e μ[(π /2 )−γ ]
Vf
Thus,

ζ = e μ[(π /2 )−γ ] (3.15)

Here, (π/2 ) − γ is taken in radian. The simple but very significant expression [Eq. (3.15)] clearly depicts that
the value of z can be desirably reduced by
1. Using tool having large positive rake.
2. Reducing friction by using lubricant.
The role of rake angle and friction at the chip–tool interface on chip reduction coefficient are also schemati-
cally shown in Fig. 3.15.

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 94 Machining and Machine Tools

7
ζ = exp{m(p /2 − g )} m = 0.4
m = 0.6
6 m = 0.8
m = 1.0
Chip reduction coefficient (z )

1
−15 −10 −5 0 +5 +10 +15
Rake angle (g deg.)

Figure 3.15 Role of rake angle and friction on chip reduction coefficient, z.

3.4.2 Shear Angle

The uncut chip layer while moving during machining at cutting velocity Vc almost abruptly changes its direc-
tion due to presence of the obstructing tool and undergoes thickening as schematically shown in Fig. 3.16.
The plane of separation of the thickened chip from the parent workpiece is known as shear plane. Shear angle
can be defined as the angle of inclination of the shear plane from the direction of cutting velocity (as visualized in
Fig. 3.16) and is measured on orthogonal plane (or normal plane).
The value of shear angle, denoted by bo (taken in orthogonal plane), depends upon
1. Chip thickness before and after cut, that is, z.
2. Rake angle go (in orthogonal plane).
From Fig. 3.16, we have
AC = a2 = OA cos (bo − go)
and AB = a1 = OA sin bo
Dividing a2 by a1, we get

a2 cos(βo − γ o )
=ζ = (3.16)
a1 sin βo

cos γ o
or tan βo = (3.17)
ζ − sin γ o

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 Mechanism of Machining 95

Vc′
Shear plane
a1
B A
bo
a2
(b o − g o)
O C go
Vc
po

Figure 3.16 Shear plane and shear angle in chip formation.

Replacing chip reduction coefficient z by cutting ratio rcu, Eq. (3.17) changes to
rcu cos γ o
tan βo = (3.18)
1 − rcu sin γ o

Equation (3.17) depicts that with the increase in z, shear angle decreases and vice-versa. It is also evident
from Eqs. (3.17) and (3.15) that shear angle increases both directly and indirectly with the increase in tool
rake angle. Increase in shear angle means more favourable machining condition requiring lesser cutting force
and specific energy.

3.4.3 Cutting Strain

The magnitude of average strain, that develops along the shear plane due to machining action, is called cutting
strain (shear). The relationship of this cutting strain ∈ with the governing parameters is derived from Fig. 3.17.

Shear plane

bo
2
1
ts ΔS

O Y
M
go
N
P Shear strain
Y ΔS
po

Figure 3.17 Cutting strain in machining.

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 96 Machining and Machine Tools

Due to presence of the tool as an obstruction, layer 1 has been shifted to position 2 by sliding along the shear
plane. From Fig. 3.17, cutting strain (average) is given by

ΔS PM
∈= =
Y ON

PN + NM PN NM
or ∈= = +
ON ON ON

or ∈= cot βo + tan(β o −γ o ) (3.19)

High cutting strain refers to unfavourable machining.

3.4.4 Built-Up-Edge (BUE) Formation

3.4.4.1 Causes of Formation
In machining ductile metals such as steels with wide chip–tool contact length, lot of stress and temperature
develop in the secondary deformation zone at the chip–tool interface. Under such high stress and tempera-
ture in between two clean surfaces of metals, strong bonding may locally take place due to adhesion similar to
welding. Such bonding will be encouraged and accelerated if the chip and tool materials have mutual affinity
or solubility. The weldment starts forming as an embryo at the most favourable location and then gradually
grows as schematically shown in Fig. 3.18.
With the growth of the BUE, the force FB (shown in Fig. 3.18) also gradually increases due to wedging
action of the tool tip along with the BUE formed on it. Whenever the force FB exceeds the bonding force Fb
of the BUE, the BUE gets fractured or sheared off and carried away by the flowing chip. Then again BUE
starts forming and growing. This goes on repeatedly.

NB

FB
Built-up-edge

Fb
Vc

Tool

Figure 3.18 Scheme of BUE formation.

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 Mechanism of Machining 97

3.4.4.2 Characteristics of BUE

BUEs are characterized by their shape, size and bond strength, which depend upon
1. Work–tool materials.
2. Stress and temperature, that is, cutting velocity and feed.
3. Cutting fluid application governing cooling and lubrication.
BUE may develop basically in three different shapes as schematically shown in Fig. 3.19. In machining too
soft and ductile metals by tools such as high speed steel or uncoated carbide, the BUE may grow larger and
overflow towards the finished surface through the flank as shown in Fig. 3.20.
While the major part of the detached BUE goes away along with the flowing chip, a small part of the
BUE may remain stuck on the machined surface and spoil the surface finish. BUE formation needs certain
level of temperature at the interface depending upon the mutual affinity of the work–tool materials. With

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 3.19 Different forms of BUE: (a) Positive wedge; (b) negative wedge; (c) flat type.

Chip

Vc
BUE

Tool

Figure 3.20 Overgrowing and overflowing of BUE causing surface roughness.

s03 > s02

s02 > s01
s01
Size of BUE

Cutting velocity (Vc)

Figure 3.21 Effect of variation in Vc and so on size of BUE.

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 98 Machining and Machine Tools

the increase in Vc and so the cutting temperature rises and favours BUE formation. However, if Vc is raised
too high beyond certain limit, BUE will be squashed out by the flowing chip before the BUE grows. Figure
3.21 schematically shows the effect of increasing Vc and so on BUE formation (size). Sometime the BUE
may adhere so strongly that it remains strongly bonded at the tool tip and does not break or shear off even
after reasonably long period of machining. Such detrimental situation occurs in the case of certain tool–work
materials and at speed-feed conditions which strongly favour adhesion and welding.

3.4.4.3 Effects of BUE Formation

Formation of BUE causes several harmful effects, such as:
1. It unfavourably changes the rake angle at the tool tip causing increase in cutting forces and power
consumption.
2. Repeated formation and dislodgement of the BUE causes fluctuation in cutting forces and thus
induces vibration which is harmful for the tool, job and the machine tool.
3. Surface finish gets deteriorated.
4. It may reduce tool life by accelerating tool-wear at its rake surface by adhesion, grain pullout and
flaking.
Occasionally, formation of thin flat type stable BUE may reduce tool wear at the rake face.

3.4.5 Broad Classification of Machining Chips

Different types of chips of various shape, size, colour, etc. are produced by machining depending
upon
1. Type of cut, that is, continuous (turning, boring, etc.) or intermittent cut (milling).
2. Work material (brittle or ductile).
3. Cutting tool geometry (rake, cutting angles, etc.).
4. Levels of the cutting velocity and feed (low, medium or high).
5. Cutting fluid (type of fluid and method of application).
Machining chips are broadly categorized as
1. Discontinuous chips of (a) irregular and (b) regular size and shape.
2. Continuous chips (a) without and (b) with BUE.
3. Jointed or segmented chips.
Figure 3.22 schematically shows the typical types of chips. The types of chips and the conditions generally
under which such types of chips form are as follows:
1. Discontinuous type chips:
(a) Of irregular size and shape: work material – brittle like grey cast iron.
(b) Of regular size and shape:
• Work material ductile but hard and work hardenable.
• Feed – large.
• Tool rake – negative.
• Cutting fluid – absent or inadequate.

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 Mechanism of Machining 99

Vc
Vc

(a) Irregular size and shape (b) Regular size and shape

(i) Discontinuous chips

(a) Without BUE (b) With BUE

(ii) Continuous chips

(iii) Jointed or segmented chips

Figure 3.22 Common types of machining chips.

2. Continuous type chips:

(a) Without BUE:
• Work material – ductile.
• Cutting velocity – high.
• Feed – low.
• Rake angle – positive and large.
• Cutting fluid – both cooling and lubricating.
(b) With BUE:
• Work material – ductile.
• Cutting velocity – medium.

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 100 Machining and Machine Tools

• Feed – medium or large.

• Cutting fluid – inadequate or absent.
3. Jointed or segmented type chips:
(a) Work material – semi-ductile.
(b) Cutting velocity – low to medium.
(c) Feed – medium to large.
(d) Tool rake – negative.
(e) Cutting fluid– absent.
Often in machining ductile metals at high speed, the chips are deliberately broken into small segments of
regular size and shape by using chip breakers mainly for convenience and safety of the operators and also for
reduction of chip–tool contact length and related problems.

3.4.6 Shear Plane and Shear Zone Theories

So far, it is considered that the chip is formed abruptly along a shear plane only. But practically this is not
feasible, because, then change in velocity from Vc to Vf and plastic strain from almost nil to high value would
have been in no time resulting in infinite retardation and strain rate. Practically, the shear deformation occurs
over a zone (instead of across a plane) as indicated in Fig. 3.23. However, the thickness of the shear zone
comes to be very low, about 20 μm at high speed machining. Due to this, shear plane theory is conveniently
used for general study.

3.4.7 Orthogonal and Oblique Cutting

Generally it is expected that in turning ductile material by a sharp tool, the continuous chip would flow
over the tool’s rake surface and in the direction apparently perpendicular to the principal cutting edge, that
is, along orthogonal plane (which is normal to the cutting plane containing the principal cutting edge) as
indicated in Fig. 3.24. Practically, the chip may not flow along the orthogonal plane due to several factors
such as presence of inclination angle l, etc. The effect of inclination angle (l) on the direction of chip flow is
schematically shown in Fig. 3.25 which visualizes that

A Shear plane A
B1
B C C
B2
Shear zone

(a) (b)

Figure 3.23 (a) Shear plane theory and (b) shear zone theory in machining ductile materials.

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 Mechanism of Machining 101

1. When l = 0, the chip flows along orthogonal plane (i.e., rc = 0).

2. When l ≠ 0, the chip flow is deviated from po and rc = l.
Here rc is chip flow deviation (from po) angle. Some important definitions are:
1. Orthogonal cutting: when chip flows along orthogonal plane po (i.e., rc = 0).
2. Oblique cutting: when chip flow deviates from orthogonal plane (i.e., rc ≠ 0). Practically rc may
not be zero even if l = 0 and rc may not be exactly equal to l . This is because there are some other
factors (than l) which also may cause chip flow deviation.
3. Pure orthogonal cutting: This refers to chip flow along po and f = 90° as shown in Fig. 3.26 where
a tubular job of uniform thickness is turned (reduced in length) in a lathe by a turning tool of geom-
etry l = 0 and f = 90° resulting in chip flow along po (which is also px in this case).

3.4.7.1 Causes of Chip Flow Deviation and Angle of Deviation

The direction of chip flow in machining like turning by single point tool may deviate from the orthogonal
plane due to the following three factors:

Vc

ym Yo
Xo
xm t
so
Orthogonal plane p c
pc

Chip

Figure 3.24 Direction of chip flow in orthogonal turning.

Vf

Vf Tool
rc = l

pn
Chip Tool
pc
po pc po
po po

Zn
l=0 p l
Vc Vc
90°
90°

(a) (b)

Figure 3.25 Role of inclination angle l on chip flow direction: (a) l = 0 and (b) l ≠ 0.

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 102 Machining and Machine Tools

Vc

p o = p x in turning

Chip

f
Feed
Figure 3.26 Pure orthogonal cutting (pipe turning).

1. Restricted cutting effect (RCE).

2. Tool-nose radius (r).
3. Presence of inclination angle l (≠ 0).

Restricted Cutting Effect

In machining like turning, shaping, etc. by single point turning tool, the metal removal is accomplished mainly
by the principal cutting edge. The auxiliary cutting edge also takes part in machining to some extent depending
upon the auxiliary cutting edge angle (f1) and the magnitude of feed (so ), as indicated in Fig. 3.27. A small
volume of the work material in the form of a helical rib of small triangular section remains uncut. This causes
surface roughness, in the form of fine threads called feed marks or scallop marks as shown in Fig. 3.27. The
work material flows out in the form of chip at velocity VA when the auxiliary cutting edge plays negligible role
on chip formation. However, when the auxiliary cutting edge comes into sizeable contact with the workpiece,
then the material that comes out from that edge at velocity, say VB, interferes with the main stream of the chip
causing chip flow deviation from the direction of VA by an angle, say y, as indicated in Fig. 3.27. This phe-
nomenon is called restricted cutting effect (RCE). From Fig. 3.27,

so

P
A f1 Uncut portions
B
f O (feed marks)

Tool position 1
VB
(f + f 1) VR y Tool position 2
N
VA

M f + f1

Figure 3.27 Chip flow deviation due to RCE.

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 Mechanism of Machining 103

∠APB = 180° − (f + f1)

and ∠AOB = (f + f1)
From properties of triangle, ΔOMN, and assuming, VA = ON and VB = MN, we get

VB VA
=
sin ψ sin(φ + φ1 − ψ )

sin(φ + φ1 − ψ ) V A
or = (3.20)
sin ψ VB

Assuming[12]
V A (t/sin φ ) 2t
= = (3.21)
VB so /2 so sin φ
Eq. (3.20) can be rewritten as

sin(φ + φ1 )cos ψ − cos(φ + φ1 )sin ψ 2t

= (3.22)
sin ψ so sin φ

On simplification of Eq. (3.22), y can be expressed as

sin(φ + φ1 )
tan ψ = (3.23)
(2t/so sin φ ) + cos(φ + φ1 )

Equation (3.23) reveals that even in absence of l the chip flow may deviate, and the angle of deviation, y,
though small, depends upon the cutting angles and depth of cut to feed ratio (t/so).

Tool-Nose Radius (r)

Equation (3.23) indicates that chip flow direction is significantly influenced by the principal cutting edge
angle f. In nose radius tool, the value of f continuously varies, starting from zero, over the curved portion of
the principal cutting edge. Such variation reasonably influences the chip flow deviation. Therefore, to incor-
porate the effect of tool-nose radius also, f in Eq. (3.23) is replaced by average value of f (i.e., favg) which can
be determined with the help of the diagram shown in Fig. 3.28. From this figure, we get

AB(φ/2 ) + BC (φ )
φavg = (3.24)
AB + BC
where AB = r φ and
t2 t − t1
BC = =
sin φ sin φ
Here t1 = r − r cos f. Therefore
(φ/2 ) + [(t/r ) + cos φ − 1](1/sin φ )
φavg = (3.25)
1 + [(t/r ) + cos φ − 1]/ φ sin φ

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 104 Machining and Machine Tools

A
t1 B r
f
t
t2 O

Figure 3.28 Variation of principal cutting edge angle along the nose of tools.

Orthogonal plane, p o

Direction of chip flow

−l
l
For −l

For l = 0
Cutting plane, p c
For +l

Figure 3.29 Role of inclination angle on chip flow direction.

It is to be noted in Eq. (3.25) that the difference between f and favg is governed mainly by the ratio of
depth of cut to nose radius. Hence to incorporate the effect of nose radius along with restricted cutting effect,
f in Eq. (3.23) has to be replaced by favg to be determined by Eq. (3.25). In this case

sin(φavg + φ1 )
tan ψ = (3.26)
(2t/so sin φavg ) + cos(φavg + φ1 )

Effect of Inclination Angle (l)

In the absence of RCE and nose radius, the chip flow deviation will be governed only by the value of l as
indicated in Fig. 3.29. Therefore, the combined effects of RCE, tool-nose radius and presence of l will affect
chip flow deviation angle rc as
rc = y + l
Generally, compared to l, y is very small (0° to 5°). So, approximately[13] rc = l, where l may be positive
or negative.

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 Mechanism of Machining 105

3.4.7.2 Effective Rake Angle (f e)

It has already been realized that the tool rake angle plays a vital role in both mechanism and mechanics of
machining. There are different rake angles but the one which is taken in the direction of actual chip flow is
the most significant. This rake is called effective rake ge (Fig. 3.30).

Definition of Effective Rake Angle (ge )

The angle of inclination of the rake surface from pR and is measured on the plane which is perpendicular to
the reference plane and is taken in the direction of actual chip flow (as indicated in Fig. 3.30).
In Fig. 3.30, OC is the apparent direction of chip flow but OD represents the actual direction of chip flow
which is deviated from OC by the chip flow angle rc. Zo, AB and DE are perpendicular to pR. Yo′ is parallel to
Yo and Yn′ is taken parallel to the axis Yn. Angles ∠ OED and ∠ AED are right angles. In this figure, DOE
represents effective rake angle. From Fig. 3.30, we have

DE DF + EF
sin γ e = = (3.27)
OD OC /cos ρc
where
AC
DF = AB = ; EF = AF sin l; AF = BD = CD − BC ;
cos λ
AC = OC sin gn; BC = OC sin gn tan l; CD = OC tan rc

Here gn is normal rake. Combining all these equations, we obtain

singe = cosl cosrc singn + sinl sinrc (3.28)

pn Zo Z
n
po

l Yo
Xo
Xn
l Yn
l O E Yo′
pc
ge
F
rc
go Yn′
A l
gn D Direction of actual
chip flow
B
C

Figure 3.30 Effective rake angle, ge.

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 106 Machining and Machine Tools

Assuming[13] l = rc we get

singe = cos2l singn + sin2l (3.29)

where
tangn = tango cosl

It can again be noted that if l = 0 then ge ≅ gn = go. In the case of oblique cutting, which is practically more
common, the actual direction of chip flow and the corresponding rake angle (i.e., effective rake) should be
used for more accurate analysis and assessment of cutting forces, friction and tool wear.

3.4.7.3 Effects of Oblique Cutting

Contrary to simpler orthogonal cutting, oblique cutting leads to the following effects on chip formation and
mechanics of machining:
1. Chip does not flow along the orthogonal plane.
2. Positive l causes
(a) Chip flow deviation away from the finished surface, which may result lesser further damage to
the finished surface.
(b) Reduction of mechanical strength of the tool tip.
(c) Increase in temperature at the tool tip.
(d) More vibration in turning slender rods due to increase in PY (transverse force).
3. Negative l causes
(a) Increase in strength of the tool tip.
(b) Reduction in tool tip temperature.
(c) Change of chip cross-section from rectangle (ideal) to skewed trapezium.
(d) The ductile metals to produce more compact helical chips as they are not broken by chip
breaker.
(e) Make analysis of cutting forces, chip–tool friction, etc. more complex.

3.4.8 Chip–Tool Contact Length

Chip–tool contact length (C ) refers to the length of contact of chip with the tool rake surface in the direction
of chip flow as shown in Fig. 3.31. The nature and length of contact between the flowing chip and the tool
at its rake surface are important aspects and play an important role in machining. Chip–tool contact length
usually comprises two portions (Fig. 3.31): length of plastic or bulk contact (Cp ) and length of elastic contact
(Ce). That is
C = Cp + Ce
In machining ductile materials, Ce becomes smaller than Cp and gradually almost disappears with the increase
in cutting velocity. The nature and length of chip–tool contact in machining affects
1. Magnitude and pattern of cutting forces.
2. Cutting temperature.

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 Mechanism of Machining 107

Vc

Vf

Cp
g
C Ce

Figure 3.31 Chip–tool contact in machining.

3. Pattern and extent of tool-wear (crater).

4. To some extent surface finish also.
The nature and length of chip–tool contact depends upon
1. Machining characteristics of the work material.
2. Cutting tool material.
3. Tool rake angle.
4. Lubrication and cooling by the cutting fluid.
5. BUE formation.
6. Type of chip.
Both, too long and too short chip-contact lengths are detrimental and hence undesirable. Too long contact
incurs more frictional losses and too short contact rapidly damages the cutting edges or tool-tip by concentra-
tion of stresses and heat over a small zone. Therefore, while machining a given work material, attempt should
be made to attain favourable chip-contact length by
1. Proper selection of tool; material and rake angle.
2. Speed-feed combination (without sacrificing MRR).
3. Proper selection and application of cutting fluid.
4. Modification of geometry of cutting edges.
Computational methods like finite element method (FEM), boundary element method (BEM), etc. are
widely and very successfully used[14] for stress and thermal analysis while designing several cutting tools. This
requires knowing the chip–tool contact area. Chip–tool contact length can be determined
1. Analytically: approximately.
2. Experimentally: more accurately but requires proper instrumentation and technique.
Several approaches and models have been proposed[15] for estimation of chip-contact length Cp. The analytically
evaluated value of Cp[16] appears to be close to the actual value obtained experimentally. It was assumed that the
boundary of the plastic zone of the chip ahead the tool-tip meets the rake surface at 45° as indicated in Fig. 3.32.

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 108 Machining and Machine Tools

a1
Shear plane

bo (b o−g o)
a2
45°
go

Cp

Figure 3.32 Evaluation of chip contact length.

From Fig. 3.32, for orthogonal cutting, we have

C p = a 2 tan ( b o − g o) + a 2 tan 45°
= z a1 [1 + tan ( b o − g o )] (3.30)
The actual values of the chip-contact length C, Cp and Ce are experimentally determined by measuring the
length of the
1. Scratch mark, developed on the tool rake surface, using microscope.
2. Depression or crater, developed on the rake surface, using profilometer.

3.5 Chip Formation in Drilling

3.5.1 Drilling Chip Configuration
The mechanism of chip formation is more complex in drilling, because of
1. Variation of the geometrical angles (l, g, a, etc.) along the cutting edges.
2. Wide variation in cutting velocity along the cutting edges.
3. Presence of the chisel edge at the tip of the drill-cone where material is removed by unfavourable
process like indentation or extrusion due to very large negative rake angle and negligibly small cutting
velocity.
Because of these distinguishing geometrical features of twist drills, the drilling chips are very different from
turning chips. Drilling in ductile metals produces two almost identical long coiled chips. But unlike helical
turning chips, drilling chips are conical–helical and of varying thickness along the width as schematically
shown in Fig. 3.33.

3.5.2 Chip Reduction Coefficient in Drilling

Chip reduction coefficient z is a quite significant machinability index and is generally assessed by
a
ζ= 2
a1

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 Mechanism of Machining 109

(a) (b)

Figure 3.33 Shape of drilling chips of ductile metals: (a) Conical–helical chip; (b) varying chip
thickness.

where a 2 and a1 are chip thickness after and before cut, respectively. In drilling
so
a1 = sin φi
2
where so is the feed in mm/rev and fi is the cutting angle (≅ r ; where 2r = drill cone angle). In drilling, so is
absolutely and fi is almost constant throughout the cutting edge. Therefore, a1 remains unchanged along the
cutting edge, but a2 and hence z vary sharply along the cutting edges of drills. The value of z depends mainly
upon the value of effective rake ge and the coefficient of friction m at the chip–tool interface [Eq. (3.15)]. In
drilling, the value of ge varies widely along the cutting edges, according to

sin g ei = cos2 l Di sin g nDi + sin2 l Di

where lDi and gnDi are the dynamic inclination angle and normal rake angle, respectively.
Bhattacharyya et al.[9] determined average value of z for the main cutting edges by drilling mild steel with
a pilot hole (Fig. 3.34) to avoid the effect of complex chip formation at the chisel edge. Based on the experi-
mental results, they arrived at
14
ζ avg = 0.74 (3.31)
rm so0.112

where rm is the mean radius = (rc + r)/2, mm, and so is the drilling feed (mm/rev). Later, it was been experi-
mentally derived[17] as
2.0
⎛π ⎞
ζ ewi = 2 ⎜ − γ ewi ⎟ so −0.2 (with pilot hole, Fig. 3.34) (3.32)
⎝2 ⎠
1.8
⎛π ⎞
= 1.35 ⎜ − γ ewi ⎟ so −0.375 (without pilot hole) (3.33)
⎝2 ⎠
where (p/2) − gewi is in radian, zewi is the work-effective chip reduction coefficient and gewi is the work-
effective rake along the main cutting edges.

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 110 Machining and Machine Tools

d p (Pilot hole diameter)

Figure 3.34 Drilling test with pilot hole.

3.5.3 Geometry and Mechanism of Material Removal at the Chisel Edge

Very large negative rake, very low cutting velocity and relatively quite large feed (uncut chip thickness) make
the material removal mechanism unfavourably much complex with very large thrust (axial) force at the small
chisel point. However, it is considered[18] that work material is removed by indentation or extrusion at the
central part (ΔLC) of the chisel edge and by machining, though adversely, by the remaining outward portions
of that chisel edge as schematically indicated in Fig. 3.35, where ΔLC is approximately equal to (5/p )so. At
the so-called cutting portions of the chisel edge, cutting edge angle f = 90°, inclination angle l = 0 and hence
cutting is orthogonal.

Chip g o (−ve)

Vc

Uncut chip
thickness Drill

ao
Workpiece
Chip-contact length
Vc
Main cutting edge

ΔL c
Lc

y′

Figure 3.35 Material removal mechanism at the chisel edge of drills.

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 Mechanism of Machining 111

The values of all the rake angles (gst, gxD, goD and gnD) are same throughout the cutting portion of the chisel
edge and there the apparent shear angle ba would be

⎛ cos γ st ⎞
βa = tan −1 ⎜ (3.34)
⎝ ζ − sin γ st ⎟⎠
where
tangst = tanr cosy ′ (3.35)
Here y ′ is the chisel edge angle (Fig. 3.35). The clearance angles (axDi, aoD and anD) are also equal (90° − gst)
throughout the chisel edge. Work reference system is very relevant at the chisel point where Vf is comparable
with Vc. Then, in work reference systems at the chisel edge,

gxwi = − gst + m i = gowi = gnwi (3.36)

and axwi = aowi = anwi = 90° − gst − m i (3.37)

where mi = tan−1 (so/2p ri) and ri is very small at the chisel edge.

3.6 Chip Formation Mechanism in Milling

Milling cutters are multi-toothed and remove material intermittently producing discontinuous but identical
chips of same size and shape while machining ductile materials. The plain as well as end milling cutters may
work in two different modes as can be seen in Fig. 3.36.
In up-milling the chip thickness varies from minimum to maximum; it is opposite in down-milling.
Figure 3.37 schematically shows the configuration of chips produced by straight fluted and helical fluted mill-
ing cutter. It visualizes the salient geometrical features of chip (uncut) produced by plain milling under single
tooth (at a time) action. Figures 3.36 and 3.37 visualize that in plain milling the chip thickness continuously
varies along its length. Due to combination of rotation (of the cutter) and linear feed motion (of the job) the
chip section along its length are bounded by two curate trochoids.

D
D

N N
− −

d
Feed Feed

Up-milling Down-milling
Workpiece

Figure 3.36 Machining by up-milling and down-milling.

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 112 Machining and Machine Tools

Helix angle

Chip produced by
helical cutter
Chip by straight
fluted cutter

B
B

Curate trochoid
(a) (b)
Figure 3.37 Ductile chips produced by (a) straight fluted and (b) helical fluted plain milling cutter.
Here B is the width of the job.

From Fig. 3.38, the maximum uncut chip thickness am appears to be

am = so sin y
where so is the table feed per tooth (mm/tooth) and y is the angle of engagement. Now

sm
so =
Zc Nc
where sm is the feed (mm/min) and Zc, Nc are the number of teeth and speed of the cutter. Also

so

y
yi
am
d
ai

Feed

Figure 3.38 Variation in chip thickness in plain milling.

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 Mechanism of Machining 113

( D/2 ) − d 2d
cos ψ = = 1− (3.38)
D/2 D

where d is the depth of cut. Then

2
⎛ 2d ⎞
sin ψ = 1 − cos 2 ψ = 1 − ⎜1 − ⎟
⎝ D⎠

2
d ⎛d⎞
or sin ψ = 2 −⎜ ⎟
D ⎝ D⎠

Then, maximum uncut chip thickness approximately is

2
d ⎛d⎞
am = 2 so −⎜ ⎟ (3.39)
D ⎝ D⎠
Similarly, the uncut chip thickness ai at any angle of engagement of yi is

2
di ⎛ di ⎞
ai = so sin ψ i = 2 so −⎜ ⎟ (3.40)
D ⎝ D⎠
In case of helical milling (Fig. 3.37)
ai = so sin yi cos l
and am = so sin y cos l (3.41)
Figure 3.39 depicts how plain milling inherently produces sizeable surface roughness (hmax). From Fig. 3.39,
surface roughness (maximum) hmax is evaluated from
2 2 2
⎛ D⎞ ⎛D ⎞ ⎛ so ⎞
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ = ⎜⎝ − hmax ⎟⎠ + ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠
2 2 2

D
D/2
h max

so

Figure 3.39 Inherent surface roughness in plain milling.

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 114 Machining and Machine Tools

Thus,

( so )2
hmax = [∵ (hmax )2 is very small] (3.42)
4D
Therefore, surface roughness in plain milling can be reduced by lowering feed per tooth so and by using large
diameter cutters. The geometry and chip formation characteristics are quite same in plain milling and end
milling.

3.7 Solved Problems

PROBLEM 1
During turning a mild steel rod at feed of 0.24 mm/rev by a carbide tool having orthogonal rake angle
of 10° and principal cutting edge angle of 30°, the chip thickness was found to be equal to 0.48 mm.
Determine (a) the expected values of chip reduction coefficient and (b) shear angle for this machining
condition.
Solution: (a) We know, chip reduction coefficient (z ) depends upon the orthogonal rake, feed, etc. as
a2
ζ=
a1
where a1 = so sinf. Given a2 = 0.48 mm, so = 0.24 mm/rev and f = 30°. Therefore

0.48
ζ= =4
0.24 sin 30°

(b) We also know that the shear angle bo is obtained from

cos γ o
tan βo =
ζ − sin γ o
Given: go = 10°. Therefore,

cos 10°
tan βo = = 0.2576 ⇒ βo = 14.4°
4 − sin 10°

PROBLEM 2
A mild steel rod was subjected to orthogonal turning at high speed, feed of 0.20 mm/rev and 2.0
mm depth of cut by a carbide tool of geometry: 0°, 10°, 8°, 7°, 15°, 60°, 0 (mm). Assuming co-
efficient of friction at the chip–tool interface equal to 0.50, determine the following for the above
machining: (a) Width of cut (b1); (b) thickness of chip before (a1) and after cut (a2); (c) shear
angle (bo).

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 Mechanism of Machining 115

Solution:
(a) We know that
t
b1 =
sin φ
Given: t = 2.0 mm and f = 60°. Therefore,
2 mm
b1 = = 2.31 mm
sin 60°
(b) We know that
a2
= ζ = e μ[(π /2 )−γ o ]
a1
(go is in radian). Now
a1 = so sin f = 0.2 × sin 60° = 0.1732

Given: m = 0.5 and go = 10°. Therefore

a2 = a1e 0.5[(π / 2 )− 0.174 ] = 0.1732e 0.5(1.396 )

= 0.1732 × 3.2 = 0.554 mm
Also
0.554
ζ= = 3.2
0.1732
(c) We know that
cos γ o cos 10° 0.985
tan βo = = = = 0.325
ζ − sin γ o 3.2 − sin 10° 3.2 − 0.1736
Therefore, bo = 18°.

PROBLEM 3
During orthogonal turning a mild steel rod by a tool having 10° orthogonal rake angle and 75° principal
cutting edge angle (f) at feed, 0.32 mm/rev, the chip thickness (a2) was found to be 0.60 mm. Determine
the expected value of the chip–tool contact length.
Solution: Given: a2 = 0.60 mm; so = 0.32 mm/rev; f = 75°; go = 10°. We assume that the entire chip–
tool contact is plastic contact (Cp ). Now

Cp = a1 [1 + tan (bo − go)]

where
a1 = so sin φ = 0.32 sin 75°
cos γ o
tan βo =
ζ − sin γ o

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 116 Machining and Machine Tools

where
a2 0.6
ζ= = = 1.94
a1 0.32 sin 75°
Therefore,
cos10°
tan βo = = 0.97
1.94 − 0.966
⇒ βo = 44°
Again
a2
ζ= ⇒ a2 = a1ζ = so sin φ ⇒ ζ = 0.32 × sin 75° × 1.94
a1
Using all these we get
C p = a2 [1 + tan( 44° − 10°)]
= 0.32 × sin 75° × 1.94 × 0.6745
= 0.40 mm

PROBLEM 4
By how much angle, the direction of chip flow will deviate from the orthogonal plane if a steel rod is
turned in a lathe by a tool of geometry: −10°, 0°, 6°, 7°, 10°, 90°, 0 (mm) in NRS at feed of 0.20 mm/rev
and depth of cut of 3.0 mm?
Solution: Given: f = 90°, f1 = 10°, t = 3.0 mm, so = 0.20 mm/rev and l = − 10°. We know that in
oblique cutting the chip flow direction deviates from the orthogonal plane by rc as

rc = y + l
where
sin(φ + φ1 )
tan ψ =
(2t/so sin φ ) + cos(φ + φ1 )

Here nose radius r = 0 and l = inclination angle of the principal cutting edge. Therefore,

sin 90°
tan ψ = = 0.0328
[(2 × 3)/0.2 sin 80°] + cos 90°
⇒ ψ = 1.88°

Hence,
rc = 1.88° + (−10°) = – 8.12°
(‘−’ sign means deviation away from the workpiece.)

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 Mechanism of Machining 117

PROBLEM 5
Under what condition of turning and tool geometry, the value of effective rake will be equal to the
orthogonal rake of the cutting tool?
Solution: We know that effective rake (ge) is expressed by
singe = cosl cosrc singn + sinl sin rc

Generally, rc = y + l where y is very small. Neglecting the value of y, we get

singe = cos2l singn + sin2l

We also know that tan gn = tan go cos l. Therefore, if appears that ge = go when l = 0. So, it can be said
that ge will be = go when
(a) Restricted cutting effect (RCE) is absent.
(b) Tool-nose radius is absent/negligible.
(c) Tool’s inclination angle l = 0.

SU M M A R Y
In machining, material removal in the form of chips inherently produce discontinuous chips but of regular
is caused by yielding and brittle fracture in case of size and shape depending upon the parametric com-
ductile materials and brittle materials, respectively. bination of the machining. Unlike turning, boring
Models and experimental studies established how and even milling, drilling produces much more com-
ductile chips are produced mainly by shearing. plex shaped chips like conical–helical shaped while
Machining different materials under different condi- making holes in ductile materials. Such complexities
tions produces different types of chips. The shape, with varying thickness occur due to very complex
size, thickening and colour characterize the chips. tool geometry, varying cutting velocities along the
Almost all the parameters associated with machining, cutting edges and adverse mechanism of material at
more or less, influence the mechanism of machining the chisel point of the conventional drills. All such
and form of the chips. Ductile chips are considered phenomena and aspects have been discussed here in
favourable as they provide desirable machinability detail.
without sacrificing productivity and product qual- The exact mechanism of formation and the vari-
ity. When the chips are less thickened and strained, ous features of the chips formed depending upon
it causes wider shear angle, moderate contact length the machining condition undertaken play substan-
and are free from built-up-edge formation. Oblique tial role on the mechanics of machining; where the
cutting not only governs the shape and direction of magnitude of the cutting forces is a major index of
flow of the chips but also influences the effective overall machinability. The next chapter deals with
rake angle. Shear plain and shear zone concepts have mechanics of machining.
been addressed. Plain milling as well as end milling

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 118 Machining and Machine Tools

MU LT I P L E CH O I C E QU E S T I O N S
[Answers are provided in the CD]
1. Chip thickness in continuous machining of 8. If, in any machining, the value of chip reduc-
steel does not depend upon tion coefficient becomes equal to 2.0 then the
(a) Cutting velocity ratio of chip velocity to cutting velocity will be
(b) Feed very close to
(c) Depth of cut (a) 0.5
(d) Any of the above (b) 1.0
2. Piispannen’s model explains (c) 2.0
(a) Machinability (d) 4.0
(b) Chip characterization 9. In absence of any friction at the chip–tool
(c) Chip formation mechanism interface, the shear angle will be
(d) Chip–tool contact length (a) 45°
3. Material separation in the form of chip in (b) 45° + (1/2) of tool rake angle
machining ductile metals is caused mainly by (c) 45° − (1/2) of tool rake angle
(a) Tensile stress (d) 90° + (1/2) of tool rake angle
(b) Compressive stress 10. In machining steel by an HSS tool, built-up-
(c) Shear stress edge forms on the cutting tool’s
(d) Combination of all the above stresses (a) Rake surface
4. In any machining, width of cut becomes equal (b) Principal clearance (or flank) surface
to depth of cut when the principal cutting (c) Auxiliary flank surface
edge angle is equal to (d) None of the above
(a) 0° 11. In machining, built-up-edge develops at the
(b) 30° chip tool interface mainly due to
(c) 60° (a) Abrasion
(d) 90° (b) Adhesion
5. The value of chip reduction coefficient depends (c) Diffusion
upon the tool’s (d) Cohesion
(a) Rake angle 12. Formation of built-up-edge in machining
(b) Clearance angle (a) Raises magnitude of cutting forces
(c) Inclination angle (b) Reduces tool life
(d) Auxiliary cutting edge angle (c) Increases surface roughness
6. Shear angle in chip formation is the angle of (d) All of the above
inclination of the shear plane from 13. The machining chips will be discontinuous
(a) Tool rake surface type and of irregular size and shape, if the
(b) Clearance (or flank) surface work material being machined in a lathe is
(c) Finished (machined) surface (a) Mild steel
(d) None of the above (b) Wrought iron
7. In orthogonal turning of a mild steel rod, the (c) Stainless steel
chip velocity becomes (d) Grey cast iron
(a) Lesser than the cutting velocity 14. High speed turning of mild steel jobs with a
(b) Equal to the cutting velocity carbide tool having a large positive rake at low
(c) Greater than cutting velocity feed using cutting fluid will produce chips of
(d) Any of the above (a) Discontinuous type with built-up-edge

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 Mechanism of Machining 119

(b) Discontinuous type without built-up-edge (c) Tool life

(c) Continuous type with built-up-edge (d) Surface finish
(d) Continuous type without built-up-edge 21. In turning mild steel rod, the chip−tool con-
15. Pattern of chips is least affected by tact length does not depend upon
(a) Cutting velocity (a) Cutting velocity
(b) Feed (b) Depth of cut
(c) Depth of cut (c) Feed
(d) Cutting fluid application (d) Any of the above
16. The direction of chip flow may deviate from 22. The value of chip reduction coefficient varies
the orthogonal plane due to along the main cutting edge of
(a) Restricted cutting effect (a) Turning tool
(b) Tool-nose radiusing (b) Shaping tool
(c) Presence of tool inclination angle (c) Drill
(d) Any of the above (d) Milling cutter
17. The tool angle which causes oblique cutting is 23. Plain milling of a mild steel plate produces
(a) Rake angle chips of
(b) Clearance angle (a) Discontinuous type and of regular size
(c) Inclination angle and shape
(d) Principal cutting edge angle (b) Discontinuous type and of irregular size
18. Effective rake of a turning tool is measured and shape
(a) Along the direction of chip flow (c) Continuous type and of uniform thickness
(b) Along the orthogonal plane (d) Continuous type and of varying thickness
(c) Along normal plane 24. The maximum chip thickness in plain milling
(d) Along cutting plane is governed by
19. In turning by a sharp tipped tool without (a) Cutter diameter
restricted cutting effect, the values of effective (b) Feed per tooth
rake and orthogonal rake will be same if the (c) Depth of cut
tool’s (d) All of the above
(a) Normal rake is zero 25. The surface finish in plain milling does not
(b) Inclination angle is zero depend upon
(c) Principal cutting edge angle is zero (a) Diameter of the cutter
(d) Clearance angle is zero (b) Depth of cut
20. The nature and length of chip–tool contact in (c) Worktable feed rate
machining does not significantly affect (d) Cutting velocity
(a) Magnitude of cutting forces
(b) Cutting temperature

R E V I E W QU E S T I O N S
1. Why do chips of ductile metal become thicker 3. What aspects and conditions of machining are
after machining? indicated or identified from the characteristic
2. On which factors do the size, form, colour, features of the machining chips?
etc. of the machining chips depend?

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 120 Machining and Machine Tools

4. Describe briefly with the help of a suitable dia- 16. Show graphically the pattern how the value
gram the basic principle or mechanism of chip of chip reduction coefficient varies with the
formation in machining ductile metals. increase of tool rake angle and decrease of coef-
5. Describe with the help of Piispannen’s model ficient of friction at the chip–tool interface.
how during formation of ductile chip, metal is 17. Show by a simple diagram, the shear angle
separated layer by layer by shear. associated with machining ductile metal. How
6. Describe briefly the experimental methods of is the value of that shear angle affected by
study of the deformation process during chip tool rake angle and chip thickness in a given
formation in machining. machining condition?
7. How experimentally it can be proved that the 18. Justify that the value of chip reduction coef-
chip formation in ductile metals is caused ficient as well as that of the shear angle can be
mainly by shear (stress)? used as index of machinability.
8. For close microscopic studies, how chip at its 19. With the help of a suitable diagram explain
actual forming stage can be frozen in turning what is meant by cutting strain. Based on
operation? that diagram derive an expression to visualize
9. Describe briefly how the chip at its actual the dependence of cutting strain on tool rake
forming state can be frozen while machining angle and shear angle in turning.
a mild steel bar in shaping machine. 20. What is meant by built-up-edge formation in
10. Describe how a turning chip can be frozen by machining ductile metals? What are the causes
a feasible drop tool device. and effects of formation of such built-up-
11. Show and describe how chips are formed edge?
during machining brittle material like grey 21. Classify the types of chips and also state under
cast iron. what conditions of machining those different
12. With the help of simple diagram visualize types of chips form.
(a) depth of cut 22. How is ‘shear zone theory’ different from
(b) tool’s rake and clearance angles ‘single shear plane theory’?
(c) chip thickness before and after cut 23. What are meant by ‘orthogonal’ cutting and
(d) width of chip before and after cut ‘oblique cutting’? State the causes why the
which are associated with formation of ductile direction of chip flow deviates from orthogo-
chips. nal plane.
13. Define ‘chip reduction coefficient’ and ‘cut- 24. How does presence of inclination angle in the
ting ratio’ related to chip thickness and explain cutting tool cause chip flow deviation in turn-
why the value of chip reduction coefficient is ing ductile materials?
generally greater than 1.0. 25. Explain how tool nose radius affects the chip
14. How can value of chip reduction coefficient be flow direction in turning.
determined from length of cut and length of 26. With the help of a suitable diagram, show
the chip? effective rake of a turning tool under machin-
15. With the help of a suitable diagram derive the ing condition and then define effective rake
expression angle.
⎛π ⎞ 27. What factors govern the type and length of
⎜ −γ ⎟⎠
ζ = e μ⎝ 2 chip–tool contact in machining ductile metals?
What are the possible effects of very small and
where z is the chip reduction coefficient, m
very large chip–tool contact length?
is the coefficient of friction at the chip–tool
28. How can chip–tool contact length be deter-
interface and g is the tool rake angle.
mined (a) analytically and (b) experimentally?

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 Mechanism of Machining 121

29. Why are the chip-form and its mechanism of 32. Derive an expression, with the help of a diagram,
formation very complex in drilling? to depict how average chip (uncut) thickness is
30. How is material removal accomplished at the related to feed per tooth, depth of cut and diam-
chisel point of twist drills? eter of the straight fluted cutter in plain milling.
31. Distinguish between ‘up-milling’ and ‘down- 33. Schematically and analytically show how the
milling’ in respect of tool–work motions and inherent surface roughness in plain milling is
chip-configuration. Explain by suitable dia- governed by feed per tooth and diameter of
grams. the cutter.

PR O B L E M S
With Answers
1. If a mild steel rod is turned at feed of 0.32 metals chip separation is caused mainly by
mm/rev by tool of geometry: 0°, 12°, 6°, 6°, shear.
20°, 45°, 0 (mm) and chip thickness becomes 2. What will be the value of average cutting strain
0.64 mm, then determine the expected values in case of orthogonal turning of a ductile rod,
of chip reduction coefficient and shear angle. if (a) feed = 0.24 mm/rev, (b) principal cutting
Ans: 2.828 and 20.45° edge angle = 90°, (c) orthogonal rake of the
2. Determine the expected value of surface rough- tool = 12° and (d) chip thickness = 0.6 mm.
ness that will be produced while plain milling 3. Determine the value of maximum and
a brass plate by a milling cutter of diameter average thickness of uncut chips that will be
60 mm and having 6 teeth at worktable feed- produced by plain milling of a C20 steel bar
rate of 240 mm/min and spindle speed of 80 by a 80 mm diameter HSS straight-toothed
rpm. milling cutter having eight teeth at worktable
Ans: 1.04 μm feed of 160 mm/min, speed of 200 rpm and
3. Why cannot the values of orthogonal rake and depth of 4.00 mm.
normal rake be same at any location and in 4. Determine approximately the value of surface
any reference system in case of twist drills? roughness that will be produced while plain
Ans: Inclination angle (l) in twist drill is milling a brass plate by a milling cutter of di-
never zero. ameter 60 mm having six teeth at worktable
4. How much will be the values of maximum feed of 240 mm/min and spindle (cutter)
uncut chip thickness and average uncut chip speed of 50 rpm.
thickness while milling by a straight-toothed 5. Determine the values of chip flow deviation
HSS plain milling cutter having 70 mm di- angle and effective toll rake for turning a steel
ameter and 8 teeth at cutting velocity of 44 rod by a turning tool of geometry: 10°, 5°, 8°,
m/min and worktable feed of 250 mm/min? 7°, 15°, 75°, 0 (mm) in NRS if feed = 0.24
Ans: 0.109 mm and 0.059 mm mm/rev and depth of cut = 2.4 mm.
6. Determine the value of inclination angle (lo)
in dynamic reference system of a 30 mm di-
Without Answers ameter twist drill at a radial distance of 12 mm
1. Using Levy–Lodes theorem and the pattern if the drill’s chisel edge diameter is 6 mm, cone
of deformation of the circular grids inscribed angle is 120° and helix angle is 33°.
on the chip, justify that in machining ductile

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MAMT_Chapter 3.indd 122 7/21/2011 10:18:01 AM
 4 Mechanics of Machining
Learning Objectives
The contents of this chapter would enable the readers to:
• Realize and express the benefits and needs • Analytically estimate the major cutting forces
of understanding and determining cutting in drilling and milling.
forces. • Realize and state the need for determining cut-
• Conceive the significant role of the cutting ting forces by direct measurement.
force components on machinability. • Design, develop and use several methods and
• Develop and use Merchant’s circle diagram equipments (such as dynamometers) for moni-
(MCD) to visualize and evaluate the different toring cutting forces in turning, drilling, mill-
forces associated with orthogonal cutting. ing and grinding.
• Develop and use equations for the estimation
of cutting force components in orthogonal
and oblique cutting using single-point tools.

4.1 Introduction
The removal of materials by conventional machining requires a reasonable amount of mechanical energy to
be expended through the tool and the job to accomplish chip-separation by shearing or brittle fracture. As a
result, forces develop and act on both the cutting tool and the workpiece at the cutting point. The mechanics
of machining deals primarily with the cutting forces that are associated with machining. This topic mainly
covers the sources, causes, effects, analysis and measurement of cutting forces.
The magnitude, direction and location of action and pattern (static or dynamic) of the cutting forces vary
widely depending upon the work material, tool geometry, levels of the process parameters and the machin-
ing environment. Attempts should be made to reduce the magnitude of the cutting forces as far as possible
because large cutting forces not only cause increase in power and energy consumption but also affect the
quality of the products as well as performance and life of the cutting tool and the machine tool. Therefore,
the mechanics of machining also deals with how to reduce the cutting forces without sacrificing productivity,
by controlling the different machining parameters and the conditions of machining.
Single-point cutting tools, which are used for turning, shaping, planing, slotting, boring, etc., are char-
acterized by having only one cutting force during machining. But that single force is conveniently resolved
into three components in mutually orthogonal directions. Multiple edged cutting tools like drills, milling
cutters, etc. produce a large number of forces which are vectorially added to determine resultant forces, such
as torque, power consumption, etc.

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 124 Machining and Machine Tools

4.2 Generation of Cutting Forces and the Effects of the

Cutting Forces in Machining
4.2.1 Development and Action of Cutting Forces
4.2.1.1 Cutting Forces in Turning and Shaping by a Single-Point Tool
Cutting Forces in Turning
Figure 4.1 visualizes how the single resultant cutting force R is resolved into three components Px, Py and Pz
acting axially (along x-axis), radially (along y-axis) and tangentially (along z-axis), respectively, on the cutting
tool at its tip. The components Px′, Py′ and Pz′ shown in Fig. 4.1 are the corresponding reaction forces acting
on the workpiece at its cutting point.
The resultant force is resolved as
Pz + Pxy = R = R ′ = Pz′+ Pxy′ (4.1)

and Px + Py = Pxy = Pxy′ = Px′ + Py′ (4.2)

where the equations

Pz + Pxy = R and Px + Py = Pxy
are associated with the tool, and the equations
R ′ = Pz′+ Pxy′ and Pxy′ = Px′ + Py′

P ′z
P ′x y

P ′y
Pxy
Pz
Py
Px P′x
Px
R f f

Pz Py
Pxy

Figure 4.1 Cutting force components in turning.

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 Mechanics of Machining 125

are associated with the workpiece. In Eqs. (4.1) and (4.2),

Px = Pxy sin f and Py = Pxy cos f
The significant cutting force components are:
1. Pz: It is called the main or major component. It is the largest in magnitude and is used for measuring
cutting power (PzVc) consumption.
2. Py: Though relatively small in magnitude, it affects dimensional accuracy and induces vibration.
3. Px: It is least harmful and hence least significant.
The development and action of the cutting force in boring is very similar to that in internal turning.

Cutting Forces in Shaping and Planing

The tool–work configuration and interaction at the cutting point are similar in shaping (the tool reciprocates)
and planing (the job reciprocates). Figure 4.2 shows how the single resultant cutting force R is resolved into
three orthogonal components Px, Py and Pz in the shaping (as well as planing) process.

4.2.1.2 Cutting Forces in Drilling

The removal of material in conventional drilling is accomplished by the two main sharp cutting edges and a
small chisel edge connecting them, as indicated in Fig. 4.3. In a conventional twist drill, the following forces
and their components develop and act on the drill at its cutting edges (Fig. 4.3):

Py R = Px + Py + Pz

Px

Pz

Figure 4.2 Cutting forces acting on the tool in shaping (and planing).

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 126 Machining and Machine Tools

Px2 Pxy2 Pxy1

Px1

Py1
Py2

P T1

Pxe
P T1
Pxy1
A

Main cutting edges

Section A –A
A

Chisel edge

P T2

Figure 4.3 Cutting force components acting in drilling.

1. A pair of tangential forces PT1 and PT2 which are equivalent to Pz in turning.
2. A pair of axial forces Px1 and Px2 on the main cutting edges.
3. A pair of radial forces Py1 and Py2 which act in opposite directions and nullify each other.
4. One additional large feed (axial) force Pxe at the chisel edge.
The tangential components PT1 and PT2 produce the drilling torque T and result in power consumption Pc,
given by
D
T = PT × (4.3)
2
and Pc = 2pTN (4.4)
where D is the drill diameter and N is the drilling speed (rpm). The total axial force PxT becomes
PxT = Px1 + Px2 + Pxe (4.5)

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 Mechanics of Machining 127

In drilling, PxT becomes very large mainly due to the force Pxe acting at the chisel edge. However, any radial
or transverse force does not appear in drilling unless the drill loses its geometrical symmetry.

4.2.1.3 Cutting Forces in Milling

Milling is characterized by intermittent cutting by multi-tooth action. There are different types of milling
cutters based on configuration, size, shape, geometry and even in some cases on the mechanism and mechan-
ics of chip formation.
Figure 4.4 shows the action of a straight-fluted plain or slab milling cutter and the cutting forces acting
on its tooth under the conditions of single-tooth engagement. In plain up-milling under single-tooth engage-
ment (Fig. 4.4), the following force components act on the working tooth:
1. Tangential force PT (equivalent to Pz in turning).
2. Radial or transverse force PR (equivalent to Pxy in turning).
  
3. Resultant (single) force R where R = PT + PR
  
4. Pz and Py as shown in Fig. 4.4 where R = Pz + P y and Z and Y are the two major axes of the milling
machine.
The aforesaid milling force components are quite significant because
1. PT governs the torque T on the cutter and the milling arbour, and the cutting power consumption
Pc, as seen from
D (4.6)
T = PT ×
2
and Pc = 2pTN (4.7)
where D is the diameter of the milling cutter and N is the rotating speed of the cutter (rpm).
2. PT , PR, Pz and Py are useful for the design of the machine–fixture–tool system.

w PT

PY
R
yl
yi

Pz

sm PR

Figure 4.4 Cutting forces in plain milling (with single-tooth engagement).

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 128 Machining and Machine Tools

In case of multi-tooth engagement, the total torque TT will be

TT = (D/2)Σ PTi (4.8)
i
where i stands for the number of the tooth engaged at angular position yi (Fig. 4.4). Similarly, the
total of the longitudinal and vertical forces under multi-tooth engagement will be
PzT = ΣPzi and PyT = ΣPyi (4.9)
One additional force Px will develop parallel to the cutter axis when the cutting flutes are helical.

4.2.2 Purposes of Determination of Cutting Forces

It becomes essential to know or determine the magnitude and other aspects of the cutting forces for differ-
ent machining operations and under different conditions to facilitate the following:
1. Assessment of cutting power consumption and selection of the power sources (motors, etc.) while
designing a machine tool.
2. Structural design of the machine-fixture-tool system.
3. Evaluation of the role of variation of the different machining parameters (Vc, so, t, tool material and
geometry and type and method of application of cutting fluid, etc.) on the cutting force.
4. Study of the behaviour and machinability characteristics of any work material under given machin-
ing conditions.
5. Condition monitoring of the cutting tools and machine tool.
The cutting forces for any machining work can be determined in the following two ways:
1. Analytical estimation – easier but approximate.
2. Experimental measurement – tedious and expensive but very accurate and more reliable.

4.3 Cutting Force Analysis and Estimation

4.3.1 Cutting Force Analysis for Machining by Single-Point Tools
The basic principle of machining, that is chip formation, is almost the same in all the machining operations
done by any cutting tool. But the behaviour and role of all single-point cutting tools in turning, shaping,
planing, slotting, boring, etc. are exactly the same based on the chip–tool configuration as well as the mecha-
nism and mechanics of chip formation.
While machining any ductile work material using a single-point cutting tool in ideal and stable condi-
tions, smooth, uniform and continuous type chips are formed and come out at a constant speed. Figure 4.5
schematically shows a turning chip segment at its stage of formation under stable conditions.
The chip segment (Fig. 4.5) is subjected to the following forces in its equilibrium state:
1. From the workpiece side
(a) Shear force Ps acting along the shear plane.
(b) Force Pn acting normal to the shear plane.
2. From the tool side
(a) Frictional force F acting along the rake surface.
(b) Normal force N perpendicular to the rake surface.

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 Mechanics of Machining 129

Pn
Shear plane
Ps

Chip
F

Vc N

Section A– A

Figure 4.5 Forces acting on a chip in equilibrium condition.

4.3.2 Analysis of Forces under Orthogonal Cutting and Use of Merchant’s

Circle Diagram (MCD)
It is already known that single-point tools remove chips either by orthogonal cutting when the chips flow
along the orthogonal plane or by oblique cutting when the chip flow direction deviates from the orthogonal
plane. Orthogonal cutting is ideal and easier to understand and analyse whereas oblique cutting is mostly
applied in industries.

4.3.2.1 Force Analysis using Merchant’s Circle Diagram (MCD)

The display and inter-relationship of the different force components in continuous chip formation under
orthogonal cutting is very easily visualized and established[1] by a simple diagram called the Merchant’s circle
diagram (MCD).

Construction of MCD
In orthogonal cutting, the chip flows along the orthogonal plane po and the cutting force (resultant) and
its major components Pz and Pxy remain in that plane. Figure 4.6 schematically presents the forces and
their components acting on a chip segment coming out from the shear zone at a constant speed and in the
equilibrium state. The forces acting (Fig. 4.6) on the chip-segment are

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 130 Machining and Machine Tools

1. From the workpiece side:

(a) Ps − Shear force which directly causes separation of the chip by shearing
(b) Pn − Force that acts normal to the shear plane
  
Here P s + Pn = R .
2. From the tool side:
(a) F − Frictional force at the chip tool interface
(b) N − 
Force
 acting normal to the
 rake
 surface and the force F
Here F + N = R1 (resultant) and R1 = R .
The resultant force R or R1 can be resolved further as
   
R = R1 = P z + P xy
where Pxy is the force component taken along the line of intersection of the reference plane pR and the
orthogonal plane po. Thus it clearly appears that
     
   (4.10)
P s + Pn = R = R1 = F + N = P z + P xy
It is to be noted in Fig. 4.6 that the circles drawn with R and R1 as diameter are identical and contain the pairs
of the resolved components Ps and Pn, F and N and Pz and Pxy, which are perpendicular to each other.
Those two circles with their contents (Fig. 4.6) when combined into a single circle produce an MCD as
shown in Fig. 4.7. MCD visualizes in it all the forces associated with the mechanics of formation of a machin-
ing chip and also the inter-relationships of those forces.
The significance and important roles of the forces involved in chip formation as displayed in MCD (Fig.
4.7) are:
1. Ps − It is the shear force which is mainly responsible for chip-separation from the parent body by
shearing and is used to determine the dynamic yield shear strength ts of the work material under the
specific cutting condition.
2. R − It is the force to be induced into the workpiece at the cutting point to provide the forces
especially Ps which is required for shearing the chip out.

bo
Pn

Chip
R Ps

F go
R1 N
Pz

Pxy

Figure 4.6 Development of Merchant’s circle diagram.

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 Mechanics of Machining 131

Pxy
h
Pn Pz
N Chip
R
Ps

F
bo

go

Figure 4.7 MCD displaying cutting forces.

3. R1 − It is the resultant force to be provided through the cutting edge to induce the force R in the
workpiece.
4. N and F − These are the components of R1 and they act normal and along the rake surface. The
frictional force F and the ratio of F and N depict the nature and extent of chip-tool interaction. F/N
is the coefficient of apparent friction.
5. Pz − It is the main cutting force component used as the index of machinability and for the evaluation
of cutting power consumption.
6. Pxy − It is used for the determination of Px and Py.
7. Ps and Pn − They act through the workpiece.
8. F and N − They act through the tool.
9. Pz and Pxy − They are usually obtained by direct measurement (experimental).
These forces, particularly Pz, Pxy , F and N, are also used while designing the machine tool components and
the cutting tool and its holders.

4.3.2.2 Advantages and Limitations of Use of MCD

Advantages of MCD
The major advantages of using MCD for cutting force analysis include
1. Easy, quick and reasonably accurate determination of magnitude and direction of the forces con-
cerned from the known or predetermined values of a few forces.
2. Easy and quick evaluation of the following which are used to assess or indicate the machinability
characteristics of the given tool–work combination.
(a) Frictional force.
(b) Apparent coefficient of friction occurring at the chip–tool interface.
(c) Yield shear strength of the work material under any cutting condition.
3. Derivation of mathematical expressions for the different force components.

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 132 Machining and Machine Tools

Limitations of MCD
The few limitations of MCD are
1. MCD is valid only for orthogonal cutting where all the forces are contained in the orthogonal plane.
2. The ratio F /N gives only the apparent (not actual) coefficient of friction.
3. MCD is applicable where chip formation is based on single shear plane theory.
4. MCD is applicable only for smooth, continuous chip formation in stable condition.

4.3.2.3 Method of the Use of MCD

The method and advantages of using MCD for the determination of different force components and some related
machining features in orthogonal cutting have been illustrated as follows: Suppose, in an orthogonal turning of
a ductile rod of diameter D by a tool of known geometry (go, f, r, etc.) with given speed (N), feed (so) and depth
of cut (t), the magnitude of the two cutting force components Pz and Px can be known by direct measurement.
MCD helps to easily determine the values of the following without using many equations and calculations:
1. Magnitude of the forces F, N, Ps and Pn.
2. Apparent coefficient of friction ma at the chip–tool interface.
3. Yield shear strength ts of the work material at that cutting condition.
To determine the values of F, N, Ps, Pn, ma and ts with the help of MCD:
1. Draw the tool and the chip segment in the orthogonal plane po taking the given value of go as shown
in Fig. 4.8(a).
2. Determine the value of Pxy from
Px = Pxy sin f
where the values of Px and f are given.
3. Select a suitable scale (e.g., 100 N = 1 cm)
 for presenting Pz and Pxy in cm.

4. Draw Pz and Pxy along and normal to Vc as indicated in Fig. 4.8(b).
5. Draw the resultant (R) of Pz and Pxy.
6. Draw the circle (Merchant’s circle) taking R as the diameter [Fig. 4.8(b)].
7. Obtain F and N as intercepts by extending the rake surface and then joining the tips of F and R as
indicated in Fig. 4.8(c).
8. Divide those intercepts F and N by the scale and get the values of F and N.
9. To determine the value of Ps (and Pn), the value of shear angle bo is to be evaluated from

cos γ o
tanβo =
ζ − sin γ o
where
a2 a2
ζ= =
a1 so sin φ

and the values of go, φ and feed so are known and the chip thickness a2 has to be measured simply
by a micrometer or slide calipers.
10. Draw the shear plane at an angle bo as shown in Fig. 4.8(c) and then draw the intercepts Ps and Pn
in the same figure.

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 Mechanics of Machining 133

Pxy Pxy

h
R Pn
Pz
pR N Ps
F
Chip bo

Job go
Tool
Vc

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 4.8 Method of use of MCD.

11. Obtain the value of Ps and Pn in N using the scale.

12. Obtain the values of the friction coefficient ma from the ratio ma = F/N and friction angle h from
tanh = ma or directly from the MCD drawn.
13. Obtain the value of the dynamic yield shear strength ts of the work material in the given cutting
condition using the simple relation

Ps
τs = (4.11)
As
where As is the shear area (Fig. 4.9), given by
a1b1 ts
As = = o
sin βo sin βo
where t and so are given and bo is already known.

4.3.2.4 Development of Mathematical Expressions for Cutting Forces Using MCD

The magnitude of the forces F, N, Ps and Pn as well as the values of ma and ts in orthogonal cutting can
be determined analytically also from the known values of Pz and Pxy using some equations only (without
the direct use of MCD). But these equations are again derived with the help of MCD. MCD also helps in
developing mathematical expressions for analytical estimation of the cutting force components Pz and Pxy in
orthogonal cutting.
1. Forces F and N and friction coefficient la: From the MCD in Fig. 4.10,
F = Pz sin go + Pxy cos go (4.12)
and N = Pz cos go − Pxy sin go (4.13)
Thus,
F Pz sin γ o + Pxy cos γ o
μa = =
N Pz cos γ o − Pxy sin γ o

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 134 Machining and Machine Tools

b1
a1 Shear area, As

bo

a2

go

Figure 4.9 Shear area in orthogonal cutting.

Pz tanγ o + Pxy
or ma = (4.14)
Pz − Pxy tanγ o

2. Forces Ps and Pn: From the MCD in Fig. 4.10,

Ps = Pz cos bo − Pxy sin bo (4.15)

and Pn = Pz sin bo + Pxy cos bo (4.16)

3. Forces Pz and Pxy (and also Px and Py ): It appears from the MCD in Fig. 4.10 that

Pz = R cos (h − go) (4.17)

and Ps = R cos (bo + h − go) (4.18)

By dividing Pz by Ps we get

Ps cos(η − γ o )
Pz = (4.19)
cos(βo + η − γ o )
Again, Ps = AS ts where

tso
AS = [from Eq. (4.11)]
sin βo
Thus,
tsoτ s cos(η − γ o )
Pz = (4.20)
sin βo cos(βo + η − γ o )

This Eq. (4.20) can be simplified for effective use by developing and incorporating a simple relation-
ship among bo, h and go. A few significant angle relationships which are available are discussed next.

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 Mechanics of Machining 135

Pxy Pz
Pn

h R
Ps
go h −go
bo
F
bo + h − go
go

go

Figure 4.10 Development of mathematical expressions of cutting forces using MCD.

Angle Relationship by Ernst and Merchant

Ernst and Merchant[2] developed an angle relationship considering the minimum energy principle and assum-
ing ts to be a constant. This approach begins from
dPz
=0
dβ o
Then, differentiating Eq. (4.20) w.r.t. bo, it becomes
cos bo cos (bo + h − go) − sin bo sin (bo + h − go) = 0

or cos (2bo + h − go) = 0 = cos (p/2)

Thus,
2bo + h − go = p /2 = 90° (4.21)
Combining Eqs. (4.20) and (4.21) we get
Pz = 2tsotscotbo (4.22)
Though this is a very simple equation, it is not very useful because ts cannot remain unchanged in case of
ductile materials and also bo cannot be easily obtained in case of brittle materials.

Modified Merchant’s Angle Relationship[3]

It was assumed for ductile materials that the value of ts linearly changes under compressive force sn as indi-
cated in Fig. 4.11. In this case
ts = to + ksn (4.23)
From MCD we obtain
Pn = Pstan(bo + h − go)

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 136 Machining and Machine Tools

Dividing by AS, we get

sn = tscot(bo + h − go) (4.24)
Combining Eqs. (4.23) and (4.24) we get

τo
τs = (4.25)
1 − k tan(βo + η − γ o )

Substituting Eq. (4.25) in Eq. (4.20) we get

tsoτ o cos(η − γ o )
Pz = (4.26)
sin βo cos(βo + η − γ o )[1 − k tan(βo + η − γ o )]

Now applying the principle of minimum energy

dPz
=0
dβ o
to Eq. (4.26), we get
2bo + h − go = cot−1 (k) = c (say) (4.27)

where c is termed as the machining constant. Generally, the value of c depends upon the type of work mate-
rial. For example, the value of c is around 0.7−0.8 for steels. Now, Eq. (4.26) becomes

Pz = tsots[cotbo + tan(c − bo)] (4.28)

A suitable and frequently used angle relationship for ductile work materials has been developed[4] employing
the slip line theory in chip formation. The simple expression is

bo + h − go = p/4 (4.29)

Substituting Eq. (4.29) in Eq. (4.20), the expression for Pz becomes

Pz = tsots(cotbo + 1) (4.30)

ts
tana = k

t0

dn

Figure 4.11 Dependence of ts on normal stress dn.

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 Mechanics of Machining 137

where
cos γ o
tan βo =
ζ − sin γ o
and z is the chip-reduction coefficient. Then
Pz = tsots(z − tan go + 1) (4.31)
(since cos go is close to 1.0). Equation (4.31) is very important and useful for R&D and in machining
industries for reliable evaluation of Pz. However, it needs proper assumption of the value of ts. An analytical
estimation or evaluation of the exact value of the yield shear strength (ts) of the work material, particularly
under the given machining condition, is not easy. Several attempts have been made to derive suitable relations
for assessment of ts for any work material under a specific machining condition. Some popular equations,
for example, are
ts = 0.175 BHN (4.32)

ts = 0.186 BHN (4.33)

and ts = 0.74 sue 0.6Δ (4.34)

where e is the cutting strain, Δ is the percentage elongation of the work and su is the ultimate tensile strength
of the work material.
Equations (4.32) and (4.33) have been proposed[5] for semi-ductile and ductile materials, respectively,
whereas, Eq. (4.34) has been developed[6] and popularly used for machining ductile metals. From MCD in
Fig. 4.10 we have
Pxy = Pz tan(h − go) (4.35)
Combining Eqs. (4.35), (4.20) and (4.31) we get
tsoτ s sin(η − γ o ) (4.36)
Pxy =
sin βo cos(β o + η − γ o )
Thus
Pxy = tsots(z − tango − 1) (4.37)
Then the values of Px and Py are determined from
Px = Pxy sinf = tsots(z − tan go − 1) sinf (4.38a)

and Py = Pxy cosf = tsots(z − tango − 1) cosf (4.38b)

4.4 Analysis and Estimation of Forces under Oblique Cutting

It has already been seen that in orthogonal cutting, the machining chips (if ductile and continuous) flow
along the orthogonal plane po. But in oblique cutting, the chip flow deviates from po. In orthogonal cutting,
all the associated force components Pz, Pxy, F, N, Ps and Pn remain in po and are contained within the con-
cerned MCD as can be seen in Fig. 4.10. However, in oblique cutting, an additional force develops along the
principal cutting edge. Hence, MCD is not applicable in the case of oblique cutting.

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 138 Machining and Machine Tools

However, in any machining by a single-point tool, actually only one force acts on the workpiece at the
cutting point and similarly only one force develops on the tool under both orthogonal and oblique cutting.
Figure 4.12 visualizes how the single (resultant) force R in oblique cutting is usually resolved into either Px,
Py or Pz which can be determined directly by dynamometer measurement and are used for the design of the
M-F-T system or Pl, Pm and Pn, which are useful for the purpose of the design and stress analysis of the tool
and for more accurate evaluation of chip–tool interaction factors like coefficient of friction, etc.
It is evident from Fig. 4.12 that the vector summation of the measured forces, Px, Py and Pz, provides the
actual magnitude and direction of the resultant single force R:
   
Px + Py + P z = R (4.39)

Again, the same force R is resolved into another set of forces in mutual orthogonal directions, that is
   
R = P l + Pm = Pn (4.40)
where Pl is along the principal cutting edge, Pm is along the orthogonal plane and Pn is normal to the cutting
edge, that is, along the Zn axis (Fig. 4.12). All these forces are displayed again in Fig. 4.13 for convenience of
analysis and inter-relating the forces.
The resultant single force R may be considered comprising two components
  
R = Rc + Rr
where Rc is taken in the cutting plane pc and Rr in the reference plane pR. It appears from Fig. 4.13, the forces
in pc are related as
Pn = Pz cos l − Ph sin l (4.41)

and P1 = Pz sin l + Ph cos l (4.42)

where Ph is an imaginary force taken along the Yo axis acting normal to the cutting edge and Pl is acting along
the cutting edge. Similarly, the forces in the pR plane (Fig. 4.13) are related as
Pm = Px sin f + Py cos f (4.43)

Zm
Zn
Vc
Px Pm
Yn Zo
Yo f
Ym Py
P1
Xo
(Xn) Xm
R
l
Pn

Pz

Figure 4.12 Resolving a single force into Px, Py and Pz and Pl, Pm and Pn in oblique cutting.

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 Mechanics of Machining 139

and Ph = − Px cos f + Py sin f (4.44)

where Pm is acting along Xo (= Xn) axis (Fig. 4.13). Combining Eqs. (4.41)–(4.44) the following expressions
are attained:
Pl = − Px cosφ cosλ + Py sinφ cosλ + Pz sinλ (4.45)

Pm = Px sinφ + Py cosφ (4.46)

and Pn = Px cosφ sinλ − Py sinφ sinλ + Pz cosλ (4.47)

Again the aforesaid three equations may be combined and expressed in matrix form as

⎛ Pl ⎞ ⎛ − cos φ cos λ sin φ cos λ sin λ ⎞ ⎛ Px ⎞

⎜P ⎟ = ⎜ sin φ cos φ 0 ⎟ ⎜ Py ⎟ (4.48)
⎜ m⎟ ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
⎝ Pn ⎠ ⎝ cos φ sin λ − sin φ sin λ cos λ ⎠ ⎜⎝ Pz ⎟⎠

Equation (4.48) is very important and is preferably used to determine the magnitude of the forces Pl, Pm and
Pn from the known or experimentally determined values of Px, Py and Pz in case of oblique cutting. Another
equation in a similar matrix form may also be derived, if required, by the inversion of Eq. (4.48) or directly
to enable the determination of the values of Px, Py and Pz from that of Pl, Pm and Pn, if known.
In oblique cutting which is more practical, the apparent coefficient of friction ma is to be evaluated from

F ′ F ′/cos ρc
μa = = (4.49)
N′ N′
where rc is chip flow deviation angle from po. The values of F ′ and N ′ are to be evaluated from Pm and Pn as

F ′ = Pn singn + Pm cosgn (4.50)

and N ′ = Pn cosgn − Pm singn (4.51)

Zo Yn Yo
Zn l

Ph Pn Ym Yo
l Pz
P1 Rc X0
Xm Px
Ph
f f Pm
po Py Rr

pR

Figure 4.13 Resolved components of the cutting force in oblique cutting.

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 140 Machining and Machine Tools

Therefore in oblique cutting, ma can be obtained from

Pn tan γ n + Pm
μa = (4.52)
cos ρc ( Pn − Pm tan γ n )

4.5 Mechanics and Estimation of Drilling and Milling Forces

The cutting force components associated with drilling are displayed in Fig. 4.3. The most significant drilling
forces are drilling torque and thrust force, both of which need to be determined both analytically and experi-
mentally for different purposes.
The total tangential force components PT1 and PT2 (which are equivalent to Pz in turning) acting on the
two main cutting edges (Fig. 4.3) constitute the drilling torque T. The contribution of the central small chisel
edge to the torque is very small. The main cutting edges provide axial forces Px1 and Px2 which are usually of
the same magnitude and act in the same direction. The chisel edge, though quite small, contributes substan-
tially to the total drilling thrust force PXT. The radial components of the drilling forces Py1and Py2 usually
nullify each other.

4.5.1 Estimation of Drilling Torque

In the case of simple orthogonal cutting of ductile metals by a single-point turning tool, the tangential force
component Pz appears to be (from MCD)
tsoτ s cos(η − γ o )
Pz =
sin βo cos(βo + η − γ o )

Using Lee and Shaffer’s[4] angle relationship for ductile work materials, it becomes
Pz = tsots(z − tango + 1)
In drilling, the tool geometry and chip formation mechanism are quite complex. The rake angles and cutting
velocity vary continuously and widely along the main cutting edges. The total drilling torque T is given by
T = Tc + Tch + Tf (4.53)
where Tc is the torque contributed by the two main cutting edges, Tch is the torque due to the action at the
chisel edge and Tf is the torque due to friction at the worn flank surfaces of the cutting edges. Tch is negligi-
bly small due to the small chisel edge radius rc.
For drilling, the tangential force dPzi due to a small portion dr on any of the main cutting edges at a radial
distance ri can be expressed as
dPzi = (dr )so /2[τ s (ζ ewi − tanγ ewi + 1)] (4.54)
where zewi is the effective chip-reduction coefficient at radial distance ri and gewi is the work effective rake
angle of the main cutting edges at distance ri. Then, the total torque Tc due to the cutting action of the two
cutting edges will be
r r

∫rc
∫
Tc = 2 dPziri = τ s so (ζ ewi − tan λewi + 1)ri dr
rc
(4.55)

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 Mechanics of Machining 141

The additional torque Tf due to friction will be

⎛ r − rc ⎞ ⎛ r + rc ⎞ r 2 − rc2
Tf = ⎜ k ⎜ ⎟ = k (4.56)
⎝ sin ρ ⎟⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
f f
sin ρ
where kf is the specific friction force which varies between 10 and 20 N/mm and 2r is the point angle (see
Chapter 2).[7] The values of gewi, zewi and ts need to be evaluated as indicated in Chapters 2 and 3.

4.5.2 Estimation of Drilling Thrust

The three axial forces that contribute towards the total drilling thrust force PxT are
PxT = PxC + Pxch + Pxf (4.57)
where PxC is the total thrust force due to cutting action of the main two cutting edges, Pxch is the thrust due
to the chisel edge action, and Pxf is the additional thrust due to friction. Almost half of the total thrust PxT
is contributed by the chisel edge alone for its adverse material removal action. The force PxC due to cutting
action by the two cutting edges can be evaluated from
r
so
∫
PxC = dr
rc
2
τ s (ζ ewi − tan γ ewi − 1)sin φ wi (4.58)

where fwi is the principal cutting edge angle at ri in work reference system. It is already known that due to
large negative rake and negligibly small cutting velocity the chisel edge removes material more by extrusion
or indentation rather than by ideal machining action. This results in a very large amplitude of thrust force in
drilling.
Considering wedging action of the chisel edge into the plasto-rigid material, an expression has been devel-
oped[8] for Pxch as
Pxch = 18.3σ u 60.6Δ so Lc = 24.73τ s so Lc (4.59)

where Lc is the length of the chisel edge. Assuming indentation by the entire length of the chisel edge, another
similar relationship has been proposed[9] as
Pxch = 13.56tssoLc (4.60)
Experiments have revealed that Eq. (4.59) provides the upper bound solution whereas Eq. (4.60) provides
the lower bound solution. Later, it was again reported[10] that a major portion of the chisel edge removes
material by machining, though adversely, and the remaining central portion of the chisel edge ΔLc by
indentation:
5so
ΔLc = (4.61)
π
Then Pxch is given by
Pxch = Pxch1 (due to cutting) + Pxch2 (due to indentation)

= ( Lc − ΔLc )( so /2 )τ s (1 + cotφc ) tan(η − γ wi ) + 13.56τ s so ΔLc (4.62)

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 142 Machining and Machine Tools

where fc is the average shear angle of chip formation at the chisel edge. The small force Pxf due to friction at
the cutting edge can be roughly evaluated from
2r − ΔLc
Pxf = kN (4.63)
sin ρ
where kN is the specific normal force due to friction at the work surfaces. It is in the range 40−80 N/mm.
Combining Eqs. (4.58)−(4.63), the drilling thrust under a given drilling condition can be approximately
estimated.
Based on basic analysis and experimental results, another set of simple empirical formulae were also sug-
gested[11] as
Drilling torque T = kt HB so0.8 d1.8 kg mm (4.64)

Drilling thrust PX = kX1 HB so0.8 d 0.8 + kX2 HBd2.0 kg (4.65)

where HB is Brinell hardness and kt, kX1 and kX2 are constants depending upon the work material. Empirical
formula have also been developed for the rough estimation of drilling forces as
T = CT d X soY kg mm (4.66)

PX = CX d X ′ soY ′ kg (4.67)
Table 4.1 shows the approximate values of the constants CT and CX and the exponents X, Y, X ′ and Y ′ for
some common Fe-based engineering materials.

Table 4.1 Drilling constants and exponents

Work material CT CX X Y X′ Y′
Plain carbon and low alloy steels 35–55 85–160 2.0 0.6–0.8 1.0 0.7
Cast iron BHN − 150–190 20–25 50 1.9 0.8 1.0 0.8

4.5.3 Mechanics of Milling and Estimation of Milling Forces

The mechanics of slab or plain milling and end milling are almost similar but that of face milling is a little dif-
ferent. Figure 4.14 shows the display of the major cutting force components Pz, Py and Px in plain milling.

4.5.3.1 Mechanics of Milling Using a Straight-Fluted Plain Milling Cutter

Figure 4.15 schematically visualizes the display of cutting force components in milling by using a straight-
fluted plain milling cutter under single-tooth engagement. At any angular position yi of the tooth, the mill-
ing force Ri can be resolved into a tangential component PTi and a radial component PRi. The same force Ri
can also be resolved into force components Pzi and Pyi as indicated in Fig. 4.15. Therefore,
    
R i = P Ti + R Ri = P zi + P yi (4.68)

The magnitudes of the forces PT and PR are useful for the determination of cutting torque and power require-
ment and for the design of the cutters, arbour, spindle, etc., whereas the magnitudes of the forces Pz and Py

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 Mechanics of Machining 143

Py

Px

Pz

Figure 4.14 Display of cutting forces in plain milling.

(and also Px where it exists) are essentially used for machine tool design. The relationships among these force
components can be derived from Fig. 4.15 as
(a) Pzi and Pyi = f ( PTi , PRi , ψ i )

Pzi = PTi cosψ i + PRi sinψ i (4.69)

and Pyi = PTi sinψ i − PRi cosψ i (4.70)

where yi is the angle of engagement of the ith tooth.
(b) PTi and PRi = f ( Pzi , Pyi , ψ i )

PTi = Pzi cosψ i + Pyi sinψ i (4.71)

and PRi = Pzi sinψ i − Pyi cosψ i (4.72)

Similarly, the forces and their relationships in down-milling are indicated in Fig. 4.16. From
Fig. 4.16, it is evident that in down-milling under single-toothed plain milling

w P T1

y Py1
R1
yi
yi

Pz1

sm PR1

Figure 4.15 Cutting forces in up-milling by straight-toothed plain milling cutter under single-tooth
engagement.

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 144 Machining and Machine Tools

y1

yi
PR1
PT1

Pyi
R1

Figure 4.16 Cutting forces in single-toothed down-milling.

(a)
Pzi = PTi cosψ i − PRi sinψ i (4.73)

and Pyi = PTi sinψ i + PRi cosψ i (4.74)

That is
⎛ Pzi ⎞ ⎛ cos ψ i − sin ψ i ⎞ ⎛ PTi ⎞
⎜⎝ P ⎟⎠ = ⎜⎝ sin ψ cos ψ i ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ PRi ⎟⎠
(4.75)
yi i
(b)

PTi = Pzi cos ψ i + Pyi sinψ i (4.76)

and PRi = − Pzi sinψ i + Pyi cosψ i (4.77)

That is
⎛ PTi ⎞ ⎛ cos ψ i sin ψ i ⎞ ⎛ Pzi ⎞
⎜⎝ P ⎟⎠ = ⎜⎝ − sin ψ cos ψ i ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ Pyi ⎟⎠
(4.78)
Ri i

4.5.3.2 Estimation of Forces in Plain Milling

Figure 4.17 shows the action of a single tooth in chip formation and the instantaneous tangential force PTi,
which is mathematically expressed as
PTi = ( Bai ) τ s f (4.79)
where B is the width of the job or length of contact between the flat job and the cylindrical tool, ai is the uncut
chip thickness at an angular position yi of the tooth, ts is the dynamic yield shear strength of the work mate-
rial, and f is the form factor depending upon the cutting edge geometry and the machining environment.

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 Mechanics of Machining 145

Equation (4.79) can be more simply expressed as

PTi = Ai ps (4.80)
where Ai is the cross-section of the chip, given by Bai, where ai = so sinyi and ps is the specific force = ts f
( f is the form factor depending upon tool rake and friction). From Fig. 4.17,

sinψ i = (1 − cos 2 ψ i )

[( D/2 ) − di ]
and cosψ i =
D/2

where D is the cutter diameter and d is the depth. So,

2
⎛d ⎞ ⎛d ⎞
ai = so sinψ i = 2so ⎜ i ⎟ − ⎜ i ⎟ (4.81)
⎝ D⎠ ⎝ D⎠

Then, the maximum uncut chip thickness am would be

2
⎛d⎞ ⎛d⎞
am = so sinψ = 2so ⎜ ⎟ − ⎜ ⎟ (4.82)
⎝ D⎠ ⎝ D⎠

PT1

y
so
y1

d1
am

a1

am
a1

y1
y

Figure 4.17 Chip formation and force PTi in single-toothed plain milling.

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 146 Machining and Machine Tools

Milling forces

0
0 y
Machining time, t, min

Figure 4.18 Fluctuation of cutting forces in plain milling in straight-toothed milling under single-tooth
engagement.

and PTmax = (Bam)Ps (4.83)

Specific force Ps for a given work material is also influenced by the uncut chip thickness as
Cv Cv
Ps = = (4.84)
m
( ai ) ( so sin ψ i )m

where Cv and m depend mainly upon the work material. The magnitude of the radial force components PRi
(equivalent to Pxy in turning) can be derived from PTi using the simple relation
PRi = PTi tan(h − gR) (4.85)
where h is the friction angle and gR is the radial rake (equivalent to go in turning tools). Straight-toothed plain
milling with a single-tooth engagement inherently suffers from the following problems
1. Large fluctuation in the cutting forces as indicated in Fig. 4.18.
2. Intensive vibration.
3. Poor surface finish.
The above problems can be substantially reduced by the following approaches
1. Multi-tooth engagement.
2. Use of helical-toothed milling cutter.

4.5.3.3 Multi-Tooth Engagement

The reduction of the degree of fluctuation in milling forces by multi-tooth engagement is shown as an exam-
ple in Fig. 4.19. It shows how the magnitudes of both Tmax (maximum torque) and ΔT (fluctuating torque)
substantially decreased under the same speed-feed-depth condition simply by doubling the number of cutter
teeth, which allows two cutting edges to be engaged. MRR in any plain milling is given by
MRR = Bsmd (4.86)

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 Mechanics of Machining 147

T max for
single-tooth
T max ΔT engagement ΔT
T max

y Time, min y y y
Time, min
(a) (b)

Figure 4.19 Reduced fluctuation in milling force by multi (two)-toothed engagement. (a) Single-tooth
engagement and (b) double-tooth engagement.

where sm is the feed in m/min, given by soZcN [Zc is the number of teeth and N is the speed (rpm)]. By keeping
MRR constant, the feed per tooth so can be reduced to half by doubling Zc. It is evident from Fig. 4.19 by engaging
two teeth in place of a single tooth, the magnitudes of both maximum force Tm and fluctuation ΔT have decreased
substantially. Figure 4.20 shows chip formation in straight-toothed plain milling with multi-tooth engagement.
Tangential force PTi for single-tooth engagement is

PTi = Chip load × Specific force = (Bsosiny1) × ps (4.87)

In case of multi-tooth engagement (Fig. 4.20), the total chip load AT will be

AT = Bso sinψ 1 + Bso sinψ 2 + Bso sinψ 3 + 

= Bso (sinψ 1 + sinψ 2 + sinψ 3 + ) (4.88)

= BsoΣsinyj

y1
y2
y3 1
2 d
3

a3 a2
a1

y3
y1

Figure 4.20 Straight-toothed plain milling with multi-tooth engagement.

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 148 Machining and Machine Tools

where y1, y2, etc. are the angles of engagement of the cutting edges and
(yi − yi−1) = e
Here
2π
ε = Angular pitch =
ZC
Thus,
D D
Total torque = ∑Ti × = [ Bso ps ∑ sin ψ j ] (4.89)
2 j 2
where j = 1, 2, 3 … and y1 is within y and y − e. Here,
⎛ [( D/2 ) − d ]⎞
ψ = cos −1 ⎜
⎝ D/2 ⎟⎠

4.5.3.4 Mechanics of Plain Milling by Helical-Fluted Milling Cutter

Chip Load Variation in Helical Milling
In plain milling with helical-fluted cutter, each cutting edge remains in contact with the workpiece over a
longer time and a wider angle of rotation. Figure 4.21 visualizes the configuration of helical-flute.
Under the same condition, if a straight-tooth remains engaged over a rotational angle y (Fig. 4.20), then
a helical-tooth will remain in contact with the blank over angle y + fb (Fig. 4.21), where fb is the offset angle
and
D
× φb = Lc tanθ
2
where Lc is the cutter length and q is the helix angle. The patterns of chip loading on a helical-flute or a cut-
ting edge with rotation of the plain milling cutter are shown under two specific conditions in Figs. 4.22 and
4.23, respectively.

Lc

fb

q
D

Straight tooth

Helical tooth
Figure 4.21 Configuration of a tooth in helical-fluted plain milling cutter.

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 Mechanics of Machining 149

2′
y

2 so

1R fi

1F ji d

Locations of the fb s o sin y = a m

ai
cutting edge –1(F) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
F (front)

q
Cutting
B
edge-2

R (rear)
fb y fb
e On cutting Resultant
edge-1
Chip load

On previous
cutting edge

fb fb
e=y

Figure 4.22 Chip load variation in helical milling under fb < y and e = y.

In a straight-tooth cutter (Fig. 4.20), the chip thickness changes with the angle of rotation of the cutter
but remains the same throughout the cutting edge length. On the other hand, in helical milling, for each tooth
(Figs. 4.22 and 4.23) the chip cross-section keeps on changing both in length and thickness as the cutter rotates.
It is evident from Fig. 4.22 that if a helical milling cutter is used, there is a substantial reduction in the
undesirable fluctuation in chip load[12] and hence in the milling force(s), due to the wider angular contact
of each cutting edge and the overlapped action of more than one cutting edge. This condition can improve
further and become the most favourable, that is, free from any chip load fluctuation if milling can be done
using a helical-fluted cutter with fb ≥ y and e = fb as shown in Fig. 4.23.[13]

4.5.3.4 Analytical Model of Cutting Forces in Helical Milling

Classical Method
In plain milling using a helical-fluted milling cutter, favourably more than one cutting edge remains simulta-
neously engaged with the workpiece. Figure 4.24 schematically shows the nature of variation of the chip load
by the action of each helical tooth.

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 150 Machining and Machine Tools

1R
fb
y
1F

Locations of the
F (front) cutting edge –1(F ) 1 2 3 4 5 6

R (rear)
fb y j
Resultant On preceeding
fb cutting edge
Chip load

On cutting
edge-1

Figure 4.23 Chip load variation in helical milling under fb > y and e = fb.

In Fig. 4.24, Fi and Ri represent the front and rear end of the ith helical flute. fb is the offset angle of that
flute. yi is the angle of engagement of the front end Fi at any instant. The magnitude of the tangential force
dPTi due to the elementary chip load db·aj (indicated in Fig. 4.24) can be expressed as
dPT i = (db × aj) ps (4.90)
where
aj = so sinyj (4.91)
yj is any angular position within yi. Since
b = (D/2)yi cot q

where D is the cutter diameter and q is the helix angle, we have

db = (D/2) cot q dyi (4.92)
Also ps is the specific force, given by
ps = Cv/(aj)m (4.93)
The torque dTi due to the elementary force dPTi will be
dTi = dPTi⋅(D/2) (4.94)

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 Mechanics of Machining 151

CM
fb

y yi
Ri
am
yj Fi db

FM

fb

ai b
db aj B
q

y i′ y i″

Figure 4.24 Chip load by single-tooth action in helical milling.

Combining Eqs. (4.90)−(4.94), we get

2
⎛ D⎞
dTi = C m ⎜ ⎟ cot θ( so sin ψ j )1−m dψ j (4.95)
⎝ 2⎠
Integrating Eq. (4.95), the magnitude of the total torque Ti due to the engagement of the ith cutting edge
becomes
2 ψ i′′
⎛ D⎞
Ti = C m ⎜ ⎟ cot θ so
⎝ 2⎠ ψ i′ ∫
sin x ψ j dψ j (4.96)

where ψ i′ and ψ i′′ are the extreme angular positions of the ith flute, and x = 1 − m. The values of Cm and
x are available in various textbooks and hand books. The magnitude of torque Ti will be maximum when
ψ i′ = 0 and ψ ii′ = y, where y is the angle of maximum engagement (Fig. 4.24). Hence, the total torque TT
due to multi-tooth engagement will be
n
TT = ∑T
i =1
i (4.97)

where n is the number of teeth simultaneously engaged.

Vulf’s Method of Milling Force Estimation

The general approach[14] used for estimation of average tangential force PTavg irrespective of the helix angle
and the number of teeth engaged is
Cv
PTavg = Aavg N (4.98)
( aavg )λ1

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 152 Machining and Machine Tools

where aavg is the average uncut chip thickness, given by

aavg = so sinψ avg = so d /D (4.99)

and Aavg is the average chip load, given by

Aavg = Bdsm/Vc

Again,
sm = soZcN mm/min

and Vc = pDN mm/min

where Zc is the number of cutting edges, D is the diameter of the milling cutter, and So is the feed per tooth
in mm/tooth. Then,
Bdso Z c
Aavg = (4.100)
πD
The values of the factors Cv and l1 depend mainly upon the work material. Table 4.2 provides the approxi-
mate values of Cv and l1 for some common metals. The average torque Tavg can be simply determined from

D
Tavg = PTavg Nm (4.101)
2 × 1000

and hence the cutting power requirement in plain milling can be approximately evaluated from
Cutting power = 2pTavg kW (4.102)
The other components of the milling forces are determined using their geometrical relations with the main tan-
gential force component. The cutting forces in end milling are also analytically estimated following the same pro-
cedure. The maximum and average cutting forces torque and power in face milling also are evaluated[15] from the
maximum and average chip load and specific force of the work material under the specific machining condition.

Table 4.2 Values of the constants of Vulf’s model for milling forces

Work material Cv l1
Alloy steel 210 0.28
Mild steel 140 0.28
Cast iron, brass 80 0.40

4.6 Measurement of Cutting Forces

4.6.1 Necessity of Measuring Cutting Forces
It is already realized that it is essentially required for several purposes to know or determine the cutting forces
that develop during machining and act on different parts of the machine–fixture–tool–work (M-F-T-W)

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 Mechanics of Machining 153

system. It is also stated that the cutting forces can be either analytically estimated approximately or by experi-
mental measurement quite accurately and precisely.
The people interested in and involved with R&D and application of machine tools, cutting tools and machin-
ing processes measure the cutting forces by appropriate and available instruments for the following reasons:
1. Determining the magnitude and pattern of the cutting forces accurately, precisely and reliably.
2. Directly getting the magnitude of the cutting forces when equations or mathematical models are not
available or the available models are not adequate.
3. Experimentally verifying any existing or newly proposed models of cutting forces.
4. Investigating and evaluating the role of variation in any machining parameters such as process param-
eters, tool parameters and environment parameters on cutting forces.
5. Developing an empirical model related to the magnitude of the cutting forces with the concerned
machining variables or parameters.
6. Studying and assessing machinability characteristics of any work material under various conditions.
7. Assessing directly the relative behaviour and performance of any new work material, tool (type,
material and geometry), type and method of application of cutting fluid and any special techniques
in respect of cutting forces.
8. Indirect but on-line monitoring of the condition of the cutting tool (wear, chipping, fracturing, plastic
deformation, etc.) and the machining process (temperature, vibration, dimensional deviation, etc.).

4.6.2 General Processes of Measuring Cutting Forces

Cutting forces can be measured generally in two ways:
1. Indirectly
(a) From cutting power consumption.
(b) By calorimetric method.
Such indirect ways are obviously less accurate and provide only average values and have limited appli-
cation possibilities but are suitable for complex machining conditions.
2. Directly: Using suitable tool–force dynamometers. Such measurements are more accurate, precise,
versatile and reliable and hence are widely employed in R&D work and in machining industries.

4.6.3 Basic Principle of Measurement of Cutting Forces

by Dynamometers
The existence and level of some physical variables like force, temperature, etc. cannot be detected and quanti-
fied directly but are done from their effects only. For instance, a force is neither visible nor can be gripped.
But that force may be detected and also quantified respectively by its effect(s) and the magnitude of such
effects (on some object) like elastic deflection, deformation, pressure, strain, etc. These effects, also called
signals, may need proper conditioning for easy, accurate and reliable detection and measurement. Figure 4.25
schematically shows the basic principle of measurement by any transducer or dynamometer.
The physical variables that are associated with machining and require measurement include cutting force,
cutting temperature, vibration and so on. Such variables which cannot be measured as such are converted
into another suitable physical variable called a raw signal which is mostly voltage through change in resistance,
capacitance, inductance, etc. with the help of an appropriate sensor or transducer. The raw signal produced by
the transducer needs amplification, rectification, filtering, stabilization, etc. for ease, accuracy and reliability

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 154 Machining and Machine Tools

Physical variable; force,

temperature, etc.

Conversion in another
suitable variable, Transducing stage (1)
deflection, expansion, etc.
Raw signal

Amplification, rectification
Conditioning stage (2)
filtration, etc.

Conditioned signal

Readout stage (3)

Reading or recording

Figure 4.25 Basic principle of measurement of force, temperature, etc. by transducer.

of measurement. Finally, the conditioned signal is read, visualized and stored in the readout unit which may
be of the following types:
1. Galvanometer type.
2. Oscilloscope.
3. Strip chart recorder.
4. Computer.

4.6.4 Working Principles of Tool Force Dynamometers (Transducers)

Measurement of cutting forces by tool force dynameters is based on three different principles
1. Measurement of elastic deflection of a member subjected to the cutting forces.
2. Measurement of elastic deformation, that is, strain induced by the force(s).
3. Measurement of pressure developed by the force.
The type of transducer depends upon how that deflection, strain or pressure is detected and quantified.

4.6.4.1 Determination of Cutting Forces Through Measurement of Elastic

Deflection
Elastic members like cutting tool shank, tool holder, workpiece holder, etc. undergo proportional elastic
deflection in different directions due to the action of the cutting forces. Figure 4.26 schematically shows how
a turning tool (or tool holder) elastically bends under the action of a large force component Pz. The amount
of deflection d of the tool-tip will be proportional to the force Pz as
⎡ L3 ⎤
δ = Pz ⎢ ⎥ (4.103)
⎣ 3 EI ⎦

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 Mechanics of Machining 155

L
Pz

Figure 4.26 Elastic deflection of turning tool due to Pz.

where L is the length of the cantilever tool, E is the young’s modulus of elasticity of the material of the tool
(or tool holder) and I is the plane moment of inertia of the beam section. For a given cutting tool, L, E and
I are fixed. So,
d ∝ Pz or d = kPz (4.104)
where k is a constant of proportionality.

4.6.4.2 Calibration to Correlate the Signal (c ) with the Response (Pz)

Equation (4.104) clearly depicts that the magnitude of the force Pz can be easily evaluated from the known
value of the deflection d provided the value of the constant k is known. The value of this constant k is prede-
termined or established by what is called calibration. A typical method of calibration is shown in Fig. 4.27 by
which the relation between d and Pz, that is, the value of k in Eq. (4.104) is established.
For the aforesaid calibration, for instance, some known loads are employed in the place of Pz and the cor-
responding amount of deflection d (Fig. 4.26) is monitored by some instrument or transducer. Then, the values
of W and d are plotted as shown in Fig. 4.27. The slope of the line provides the value of the constant (k) of pro-
portionality [Eq. (4.104)]. Then, for determining the actual value of the force (here Pz) while machining under
any specific condition, the value of the tool deflection (d *) is measured and the corresponding value of the force
Pz is obtained from the calibration curve as indicated in Fig. 4.27. For such force measurement in machining,
the elastic deflection is usually very small in magnitude and may be static or dynamic (pulsating).

250
Pz 200 a
150
Load, W

100 tan a = k

50
d*
0 2 4 6 8
Deflection, d, mm

Figure 4.27 Calibration for relating force with deflection.

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 156 Machining and Machine Tools

Pz Pz

Slider ri V
R E
V E
(a) (b)

Pz Pz

Fixed coil
Moving core

d
(c) (d)

Figure 4.28 Electrical transducers working based on deflection measurement: (a) Linear pot,
(b) circular pot, (c) capacitive pick up, and (d) LVDT.

The different methods and transducers used for monitoring the elastic deflection include
1. Mechanically: Using a dial gauge – applicable only for static deflection, that is, static forces.
2. Electrically: by using various types of transducers
(a) Potentiometer – linear or circular.
(b) Capacitive pick up.
(c) Inductive pick up.
(d) LVDT (linearly variable differential transformer).
3. Electronically: By using optoelectronic photocell, LDR (light dependent resistance), etc.
Applications of some electrical transducers for such purposes are schematically shown in Fig. 4.28. In the
system shown in Fig. 4.28(a), the voltage V will be proportional to the variable resistance ri as
Eri
V = (4.105)
R + ri
where ri is negligibly small compared to the set resistance R. In such case

⎛E⎞
ΔV = ⎜ ⎟ Δri (4.106)
⎝ R⎠

where Δri is the change in resistance due to deflection d of the slider which is fixed with the tool (or any elastic
member subjected to Pz). Thus, it can be concluded that ΔV is proportional to d , that is
ΔV = k1d (4.107)

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 Mechanics of Machining 157

The value of k1 is to be determined by pre-calibration (ΔV vs. W) as indicated in Fig. 4.27. Such measurements
become easier and more sensitive by using a circular potentiometer as schematically shown in Fig. 4.28(b). The
small rack fixed with the deflecting member (tool) rotates the spindle by a pinion and produces a proportional
change in resistance which is converted into ΔV. A simple calibration is to be done before the actual use.
Figure 4.28(c) schematically shows how the tool deflection is sensed in terms of change in capacitance C
by a capacitive pick up. The elastic deflection d due to the force concerned causes an equal amount of change
in the gap d resulting change in capacitance as
εA
C= (4.108)
3.6π d
where A is the overlapping area of the plates, e is the dielectric constant of the medium in between the plates
and d is the distance between the plates. Again, the change in capacitance C due to change in gap d is con-
verted into change in voltage ΔV. Finally, the output signal ΔV becomes proportional to the elastic deflec-
tion d. Thus after proper calibration, the magnitude of the working force (say Pz) can be determined using
the capacitive pick up and the associated circuitry. Another contactless, reliable and sensitive transducer for
monitoring both static and dynamic deflection is the LVDT which can also be used for accurate measurement
of cutting forces as has been indicated in Fig. 4.28(d). The core is fixed with the tool and moves within the
externally fixed coil tube according to the tool deflection caused by the force. With the linear travel of the
core, a proportional voltage is produced within a range as shown in Fig. 4.28(d). So, the magnitude of the
force (say Pz) can be easily, accurately and very reliably determined from the voltage output after calibration.
The deflection of an elastic member like the cutting tool body, tool holder or job holder may also be measured
by several electronic and optical sensors for detection of cutting forces.

4.6.4.3 Measurement of Cutting Forces Based on Elastic Strains

The sensitivity and accuracy of cutting force measurement may increase by increasing the elastic deflection of
the tool (Fig. 4.28). But a large deflection of the tool, if allowed, will affect the machining and dimensional
accuracy of the machined product. By restricting the tool deflection even to a very small amount, the magni-
tude of the cutting force can be quite accurately and precisely measured from the elastic strain caused by that
force as typically illustrated in Fig. 4.29.

Pz

L
AT

Strain gauges
A C
Y

BM diagram
Section A – A

Figure 4.29 Measuring cutting forces by strain gauge type dynamometer.

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 158 Machining and Machine Tools

Wire or foil
Basepaper

Leads

Strain gauge

Figure 4.30 Foil type metallic strain gauge.

The force (say Pz) produces proportional amounts of stresses as well as strains in an elastic member subjected
to that force (Fig. 4.29), as
σ M PL
ε= = = z = k3 Pz (4.109)
E ZE ( I /Y )E

where e is the strain, s is the stress, M is the bending moment, Z is the sectional modulus of the beam given
by I/Y, I is the plane moment of inertia of the tool section, Y is the distance of the surface (on which stress is
considered) from the neutral plane and k3 = L/ZE is the constant of proportionality for a given tool shank.
Equation (4.109) visualizes clearly that the force produces an amount of elastic strain directly proportional to
it. However, the value of that strain needs to be measured precisely and preferably in terms of voltage. Strain
gauges are generally used for this purpose.
When a strain gauge in the form of wire or foil is strained (see Fig. 4.30), its electrical resistance R changes
based on the simple relation
L
R=ρ (4.110)
A
where L is the length of the gauge (say wire), A is its cross-sectional area and r is the resistivity of the gauge
material. Differentiating Eq. (4.109), the ratio becomes
dR dρ
= + ε(1 + 2γ ′ ) (4.111)
R ρ
where e = dl/l, rate of change in length, and g ′ is Poisson’s ratio. Then,
ΔR/R 1 ⎛ dρ ⎞
= + 1 + 2γ ′ (4.112)
ε ε ⎜⎝ ρ ⎟⎠
where the ratio (ΔR/R)/e is known as Gauge factor (G) which depends upon the physical properties of the
gauge material. The value of G of electrically conductive strain gauges (whose resistivity r is constant, i.e.,
dr = 0) is given by
G = 1 + 2g ′ ≅ 2.0 (4.113)
The gauge factor G of semiconductor type strain gauges is very high and may be even more than 100. Con-
ductive strain gauges in the form of fine folded wire or eroded foil (Fig. 4.30) are widely used due to their
ease of handling and low cost.
The principle of the use of strain gauges for measuring cutting force is typically shown in Fig. 4.31. Due
to the vertical force Pz, the two upper gauges T1 and T2 sense tensile strain and the gauges C1 and C2 at the
bottom surface sense compressive strain. However, all the four gauges are usually identical and attain the same
magnitude of strain (tensile or compressive). These four strain gauges (of resistance say R1, R2, R3 and R4) are
connected in the form of a Wheatstone bridge as shown in Fig. 4.32.

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 Mechanics of Machining 159

Pz A Pz
T1
T2

Px

Px
C1 C2
A
Section A – A

Figure 4.31 Mounting of strain gauges in a typical turning dynamometer.

RB
R1(T1) R2(C1)

ΔV

R4(C2) R3(T2)

Figure 4.32 Electrical circuit with strain gauges.

Under null or balanced condition of the Wheatstone bridge

R1 R4
= (in Fig. 4.32)
R2 R3

For such balancing, if necessary, an additional variable resistance RB is used. The change in resistance due to
straining of the strain gauges produces a voltage output ΔV under the condition
R1 R4
≠
R2 R3
as
ΔV = ksEG(e1 − e2 + e3 − e4) (4.114)
where e1 and e3 are in tension and e2 and e4 are in compression and ks is a constant. So, ideally when all the
four gauges are identical and subjected to strains of the same magnitude, ΔV becomes
ΔV = 4ksEGe (4.115)
Thus, ΔV becomes directly proportional to the strain in each gauge and also directly proportional to the stress
as well as the concerned cutting force. Similarly, another set of four strain gauges is to be used for the other
force Px (Fig. 4.31). The gauge connection may be
1. Full bridge with all four gauges active, giving maximum sensitivity.

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 160 Machining and Machine Tools

2. Half bridge with only two gauges active, giving half sensitivity.
3. Quarter bridge with only one gauge, giving one-fourth sensitivity.
The small output voltage ΔV is amplified and then visualized in any suitable read out unit.

4.6.4.4 Measuring Cutting Forces Using Pressure caused by the Forces

These types of transducers function in two ways
1. The force creates hydraulic pressure (through a diaphragm or piston) which is monitored directly by
pressure gauge.
2. The force presses a piezoelectric crystal and produces a proportional electromotive force (e.m.f.) as
indicated in Fig. 4.33 and by relation
e.m.f. = ltp (4.116)
where l is the voltage sensitivity of the crystal, t is the thickness of the crystal and p is the pressure
exerted by the force.

4.7 Design Considerations for Tool–Force Dynamometers

The major factors that are essentially considered during the design and manufacture of tool–force dynamo-
meters are
1. Sensitivity: the dynamometer needs to be sufficiently sensitive to enable precision measurement.
2. Rigidity: the dynamometer should be quite strong and rigid to withstand the forces without causing
much deflection or deformation, as these may affect the machining condition.
3. Cross-sensitivity: the dynamometer should be free from cross-sensitivity such that a force (say Pz)
does not affect the measurement of other forces (say Px and Py).
4. Stability: against humidity and temperature.
5. Time response: the transducer should quickly respond to physical variables (like force, etc.) and
produce output signals without delay as indicated in Fig. 4.34.
6. Frequency response: needs to be high enough so that the measurement or the readings are not
affected by vibration within a reasonably wide range of working frequencies.
7. Consistency: reliable functioning over long a service life.
8. Economy: needs to be compact and inexpensive.

Force or pressure

t e.m.f.

Figure 4.33 Piezoelectric transducer for measuring pressure or force.

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 Mechanics of Machining 161

Response time
Input
Output signal

Response
Time

Figure 4.34 Time–response of transducers.

4.8 Construction of Typical Tool–Force Dynamometers

and Their Functioning
For measuring cutting forces reasonably, accurately and precisely (both static and dynamic characteristics),
dynamometers preferred presently are either strain gauge type or piezoelectric crystal type. Piezoelectric type
dynamometers measure forces more accurately and precisely as well as more reliably and consistently but such
dynamometers are very expensive due to high material cost and stringent construction. On the other hand,
strain gauge type dynamometers may not perform so well but are very simple in design and construction and
quite inexpensive. Therefore, strain gauges are still widely used.

4.8.1 Turning Dynamometers

Both strain gauge and piezoelectric turning dynamometers of 2-D and 3-D type are available and used to
measure the force components Pz, Pxand Py. Strain gauge type 2-D turning dynamometers are popularly used
for their simple construction and low cost.
Figure 4.35 shows the construction of a typical 2-D turning dynamometer having two full bridges com-
prising four live strain gauges for Pz and another four for Px. The two channels of Pz and Px from the dyna-
mometer are connected to the strain measuring bridge (SMB). Before it is used for actual measurement, the
output voltages shown by the SMB need to be calibrated with known loads.
Figure 4.36 visualizes the photograph of such a strain gauge type 2-D turning dynamometer. Due to the
cutting force Pz or Px, all the four strain gauges in each channel are strained in either tension or compres-
sion, causing changes in electrical resistance. The four terminals from the corners of the Wheatstone bridge
Loose cover Pz
T1

T2

Px
Tool C2 C1
holder

Dynamometer Shank T1 C1
Gauges
Strain ΔV
C2 T2
E

Figure 4.35 Schematic view of a strain gauge type 2-D turning dynamometer.

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 162 Machining and Machine Tools

Figure 4.36 Strain gauge type 2-D turning dynamometer (courtesy: IIT Kharagpur).

(Fig. 4.35) are connected to an SMB for the input voltage E and amplification and reading of the output
voltage ΔV. Before measuring, all the channels for Pz, Px, etc. are calibrated by known loads (dead weights or
proving rings).
Strain gauge type 3-D turning dynamometers have also been designed[16] for monitoring Pz, Px and Py
simultaneously. Figure 4.37 shows the configuration, mounting and use of a piezoelectric type sophisticated
3-D turning dynamometer (KISTLER).
Several rings of piezoelectric crystal are properly mounted and connected within the solid and rigid stain-
less steel casing. The pressures created by the individual forces are directly converted into e.m.f. which is

Figure 4.37 Piezoelectric type 3-D turning dynamometer (courtesy: KISTLER).

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 Mechanics of Machining 163

P
(a) (b)

Figure 4.38 Generation of e.m.f. in piezoelectric sensors by (a) longitudinal effect and (b) shear force
effect.

desirably conditioned by charge amplifiers and recorded in an oscilloscope or PC through a data acquisition
system. Such dynamometers are highly sensitive, robust and reliable but quite expensive.

4.8.2 Basic Working Principle and Construction of Piezoelectric Type 3-D

Dynamometer (Turning)
Piezoelectric crystals, especially quartz possess several important and useful properties. The most significant prop-
erty useful for making multi-component tool force dynamometers is the generation of e.m.f. proportionally with
1. Longitudinal compressive force.
2. Shear force in the preferential direction as schematically shown in Fig. 4.38.
The amount of deformation of the crystals due to the forces remains within a few microns. Crystalline
quartz is anisotropic and hence its properties like sensitivity to forces are different in different directions.
The sensing plates cut from a quartz crystal in different orientations respond to the force acting in particu-
lar directions only. Figure 4.39 schematically shows how the quartz discs are mounted coaxially, enabling

Resultant force, F

X Px Force components measured

Pz X

Z Y

Z
Py

Figure 4.39 Working principle and stacking of quartz dice in a 3-D dynamometer.

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 164 Machining and Machine Tools

Top plate Thermal insulation

3-D force sensors Base plate Connector

Threaded
holes

Figure 4.40 Construction and configuration of a piezoelectric type 3-D turning dynamometer.

measurement of the force components Pz, Px and Py in turning by generating electrical signals under those
forces in definite directions.
Six plates are stacked coaxially in layers with the electrodes inside to pick up the e.m.f. produced by the
individual force components. Though the same force F acts equally on all the discs, e.m.f. is produced in dif-
ferent directions depending upon the orientation of those discs. The strong and rigid dynamometer is firmly
fixed on the cross slide of the lathe and the tool holder is rigidly clamped on the dynamometer by a number
of machine screws.

4.8.3 Drilling Dynamometer

Various transducer-based dynamometers ranging from the very simple mechanical type to the modern
sophisticated piezoelectric type are being used to measure the drilling torque and thrust since a very long

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 Mechanics of Machining 165

Px

Dial gauge

Workpiece

Spring balance

(b)

(a)

Figure 4.41 Scheme of mechanical measurement of drilling thrust and torque: (a) Measuring thrust
force Px and (b) measuring torque T.

time. Figure 4.41 schematically shows a typical construction and method of working of a primitive simple
mechanical type 2-D drilling dynamometer.
The deflection of the beam against a tension spring due to the force Px may be detected by a dial gauge,
and the torque T is detected by two spring balances. This crude but simple method could measure Px and T
very roughly and without their dynamic characteristics. Some hydraulic type simple drilling dynamometers
were also designed and used earlier. Strain gauge type drilling dynamometers have been popularly used for a
long time for the dynamic measurement of the drilling torque and thrust reasonably, accurately and reliably.
Figure 4.42 schematically shows the constructional features of such a dynamometer.
The main or transducing ring is fitted in between the job holder and the base plate. Four strain gauges are
fixed on the upper and lower surfaces of the two opposite ribs for Px. Similarly, another four gauges are mounted
on the other two ribs for the torque. Figure 4.43 shows the different components of the dynamometer.
The four gauges of each channel are joined in the form of a Wheatstone bridge which is connected to an
SMB or a PC or an oscilloscope through a charge amplifier and a data acquisition system. However, before
actual use, the dynamometer has to be calibrated for both torque and thrust. The drilling forces and their
dynamic characteristics can be measured highly accurately, precisely and reliably by a piezoelectric type drill-
ing dynamometer. Figure 4.44 visualizes the configuration of such a dynamometer (KISTLER). The wide use
of piezoelectric type drilling dynamometers is restrained by its high cost.

4.8.4 Milling Dynamometer

In milling, the cutting tool rotates in a fixed position and the worktable travels slowly at desired feed rates.
Generally, sensors or transducers are mounted on the slow-moving part. In milling, the workpiece is clamped
on the dynamometer. Unlike in turning and drilling, in milling the cutting or loading point keeps on shifting
w.r.t. the workpiece and the dynamometer.

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 166 Machining and Machine Tools

Strain gauges
Strain gauges for torque
for thrust Job

Job holder

Transducing part
Gauge for thrust

Base

Figure 4.42 Schematic view of construction of a strain gauge type drilling dynamometer.

Figure 4.43 A typical strain gauge type 2-D drilling dynamometer (courtesy: IIT Kharagpur).

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 Mechanics of Machining 167

Figure 4.44 Piezoelectric type 2-D drilling dynamometer (courtesy: KISTLER).

Pz

Px
X3 (C ) X1 (T )
Py

Z2 (T ) Z3 (C ) Z1 (T )
Z4 (C )
Px
X4 (C) X2 (T )

(b)

Pz
Px

(a) (c)

Figure 4.45 Schematic view of a typical strain gauge type 3-D milling dynamometers: (a) Four O–rings
for Px, Py and Pz, (b) octagonal ring and (c) extended O–ring.

In a strain gauge type milling dynamometer, schematically shown in Fig. 4.45, the top plate holding the
workpiece is symmetrically mounted on four identical O-rings or octagonal rings.
The strain gauges mounted on each octagonal ring enable measurement of part of Pz and part of Px or
Py. Figure 4.45(b) visualizes how the two sets of four gauges are fixed on a ring. Altogether, sixteen gauges
mounted on these four rings are used to measure the total force Pz. For measuring Px and Py, two separate

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 168 Machining and Machine Tools

Figure 4.46 Strain gauge type 3-D milling dynamometer (courtesy: IIT Kharagpur).

sets of eight strain gauges are mounted on the diagonally opposite rings ‘A and C’ and ‘B and D’, respectively.
However, three individual Wheatstone bridges are formed with the respective gauges for each of Pz, Px and Py.
Figure 4.46 shows the actual configuration, mounting and use of such a milling dynamometer.
Piezoelectric type 2-D and 3-D milling dynamometers have also come up and are being used. Though
costly, they are used for accurate, precise and reliable measurement of milling forces including their dynamic
characteristics in plain milling, end milling and also face milling.

4.8.5 Grinding Dynamometer

Grinding is almost similar to milling with respect to tool–work motions and cutting force components.
Both 2-D and 3-D grinding dynamometers have been designed and used. Simple and strain gauge type
dynamometers are being used since long for measuring the components Pz, Px and Py of the grinding force.
Figure 4.47 shows the construction and use of a typical strain gauge type 2-D grinding dynamometer.
Two sets of strain gauges are fixed on the proper surfaces of the extended O-ring as shown in Fig.
4.45(c). Four gauges are for the tangential force and four gauges for the normal force. Piezoelectric type
grinding dynamometers, though quite expensive are now-a-days being widely used for precise and reliable
measurement of grinding forces. Though piezoelectric type grinding dynamometers look similar to milling
and turning dynamometers, they are more sensitive as forces in grinding are much lesser. Figure 4.48 visu-
alizes the configuration and use of a piezoelectric type dynamometer for monitoring the forces in surface
grinding.
Versatile piezoelectric type tool–force dynamometers having a combination of drilling, milling and grind-
ing transducers in one robust body have come up for convenient use in R&D laboratories to measure dif-
ferent machining forces. But, obviously such dynamometers are very expensive for general users. Suitable
dynamometers also need to be developed for measuring cutting forces in gear hobbing, gear shaping, broach-
ing and other machining work to facilitate R&D in those directions.

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 Mechanics of Machining 169

Figure 4.47 Strain gauge type 2-D grinding dynamometer (courtesy: IIT Kharagpur).

Dynamometer

Figure 4.48 Piezoelectric type 2-D grinding dynamometer (courtesy: KISTLER).

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 170 Machining and Machine Tools

4.9 Solved Problems

PROBLEM 1

During pure orthogonal turning of a metal rod by a tool of the following geometry – inclination angle (l)
= 0, orthogonal rake (go) = 0 and principal cutting edge angle (f ) = 90° − it was noted that the magnitudes
of the tangential component (Pz) and the axial component (Px) of the cutting force are 600 N and 200
N, respectively, and the value of chip-reduction coefficient (z ) is 1.732. Using MCD (Merchant’s circle
diagram), determine the magnitude of the shear force Ps and the frictional force F for the above condition.

Solution: Given that go = 0, f = 90°, Pz = 600 N, Px = 200 N. Now

Px 200
Pxy = = = 200 N
sin θ sin 90°
The scale is chosen as 200 N = 1 cm
Then,
600 200
Pz = = 3 cm and Pxy = = 1 cm
200 200
Now, with go = 0°, Pz = 3 cm and Pxy = 1 cm, the Merchant’s circle is drawn as in Fig. 4.49. From the
MCD, friction force, F = Pxy = 1 cm and shear force Ps is along the shear plane. We know that

cos γ o
tan βo =
ζ − sin γ o
Since go = 0° and z = 1.732 (given) we get
1
tan βo = ⇒ βo = 30°
1.732

Pxy
bo

Shear plane
Pn

Ps
F
go = 0

Figure 4.49

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 Mechanics of Machining 171

From the intercept along the shear plane,

Ps = 2 cm = 2 × 200 N

Therefore, the desired values are F = 200 N and Ps = 400 N.

PROBLEM 2

While turning a metal rod of diameter 100 mm at speed of 625 rpm, feed of 0.4 mm/rev and 5 mm
depth of cut by a carbide tool of geometry 0°, − 12°, 6°, 6°, 30°, 60°, 0 (mm), the following observations
were made: Tangential force (Pz) = 1200 N, axial force (Px) = 400 N and chip thickness (a2) = 1.0 mm.
Determine the yield shear strength (ts) of the work material under the aforesaid condition.

Solution: Since l = 0, it is orthogonal cutting. It is given that Pz = 1200 N, t = 5.0 mm, so = 0.4
mm/rev, go = − 12° and a2 = 1.0 mm. We know that

Pz = tsots(z − tango + 1)

1200 = 5 × 0.4 × ts (z + tan 12° + 1)

Chip-reduction coefficient
a2 a2
ζ= =
a1 so sin φ
Since f = 60° (given),
1
ζ= = 2.886
0.4 × sin 60°
Therefore,
1200 = 2 × ts (2.886 + 0.212 + 1)
Hence,
1200
τs = = 146.4 MPa
2 × 4.098

PROBLEM 3

In an orthogonal turning by a tool having go = 0° and f = 90°, the magnitudes of the cutting force
components Pz and Px were found to be 800 N and 400 N, respectively. Determine the value of the
apparent coefficient of friction (ma) that will occur at the chip–tool interface under the above-mentioned
condition.

Solution: It is orthogonal cutting, therefore MCD is valid. Since f = 90° and Px = Pxy sinf, we get

Pxy = Px = 400 N

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 172 Machining and Machine Tools

We know from MCD that when the rake angle go is 0°, the friction force is
F = Pxy = 400 N
and the normal force is
N = Pz = 800 N
Therefore
F 400
μs = = = 0.50
N 800

PROBLEM 4

During the turning of a steel rod of 150 mm diameter, at a speed of 560 rpm, feed of 0.32 mm/rev. and
4.0 mm depth of cut by a tool of geometry 0°, − 12°, 8°, 7°, 30°, 60°, 0 (mm), it was observed that
Pz = 1000 N, Py = 200 N and chip thickness, a2 = 0.80 mm. Determine without using MCD, for the
above-mentioned condition, the values of F, N, ma, Ps, Pn, ts and cutting power consumption.

Solution: To determine F, N and ma: We know from MCD that for orthogonal cutting
F = Pz sin γ o + Pxy cos γ o

and N = Pz cosgo − Pxy singo

Here, it is given that Pz = 1000 N, Py = 200 N, go = −12° and f = 60°. Therefore
Py 200
Pxy = = = 400 N
cos φ cos 60°
Hence
F = 1000 sin(−12°) + 400 cos(−12°) = 183 N
Also
N = 1000 cos (−12°) − 400 sin (−12°) = 1808 N
Hence, the coefficient of friction of the chip–tool interface is
F 183
μa = = = 0.10
N 1808
To determine Ps and Pn: The shear angle bo is to be known. We know that
cos γ o
tan βo =
ζ − sin γ o
where

a2
ζ=
so sin φ

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 Mechanics of Machining 173

Here,
0.80
ζ= = 2.886
0.32 sin 60°
Therefore,
cos( −12°)
tan βo = = 0.316
2.8686 − sin( −12°)

Hence bo = 17.53° We know that

Ps = Pz cosbo − Pxy sinbo

⇒ Ps = 1000 cos(17.53°) − 400 sin(17.53°) = 830 N

Pn = Pz sinbo + Pxy cosbo

⇒ Pn = 1000 sin(17.53°) + 400 cos(17.53°) = 682 N

To determine ts and cutting power consumption: We know that
Pz = tsots(z − tango + 1)
Therefore,
Pz
τs =
tso (ζ − tan γ o + 1)
1000
=
4 × 0.32(2.886 + tan 12° + 1)
1000
= = 190.6 MPa
1.28(3.886 + 2125)

Cutting power consumption Pc is evaluated from,

Pc = PzVc + PxVf
Usually Px < Pz and feed velocity Vf <<Vc. Thus PxVf is neglected. Therefore Pc = PzVc N m/min. Here,
cutting velocity,
π DN
Vc = m/mm
1000
It is given that D = 150 mm and N = 500 rpm. Then,
π × 150 × 500
Vc = = 235.5 m/mm
1000
Therefore, cutting power Pc = 1000 × 235.5 N m/min = 3.925 kW.

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 174 Machining and Machine Tools

PROBLEM 5
Analytically estimate the magnitude of Pz expected to develop while turning a ductile rod at feed of 0.20
mm/rev and 3 mm depth of cut by a tool of l = 0°, go = −10° using the following conditions:
ts = to + Ksn
to = 400 N/mm2(MPa)
2bo + h − go = cot−1(K)

K = 0.18 and z = 2.5

Solution: Merchant’s second solution is given by

Pz = tsoto[tan(C − bo) + cotbo)]
It is given that t = 3.0 mm, so = 0.20 mm/rev, K = 0.18, z = 2.5 and go = −10°.
C = cot−1 (K) = cot−1(0.18) = 80°

and cotbo = z − tango = 2.5 − tan(−10°) = 2.676

or bo = 20.5°
Therefore,
Pz = 3 × 0.2 × 400[tan(80° − 20.5°) + 2.676] = 1058 N

PROBLEM 6

When measured by a dynamometer, Pz and Py were found to be 400 N and 160 N, respectively, in plain
milling by a straight-fluted slab milling cutter of diameter 100 mm at speed of 224 rpm and depth of 25
mm. Determine the values of maximum torque that will act on the milling arbour and the corresponding
power consumption. Assume single-tooth engagement.

Solution: We know that the power component or the tangential component of the cutting force in plain
milling is obtained from the measured values of Pz and Py using
PT = Pz cosyi + Pysinfi

where fi is the angle of engagement. From Fig. 4.50,

D/2 − d 2d
cos φi = = 1−
D/2 D
It is given that d = 25 mm and D = 100 mm. Hence
2 × 25
cos φi = 1 − = 0.5
100

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 Mechanics of Machining 175

PT
Py

D yi
yi
Pz
d

Figure 4.50

and sin φi = 1 − cos 2 φi = 0.866

Therefore
PT = 4000 × 0.5 + 160 × 0.866 = 338 N
We know that torque T = PT(D/2) and cutting power = 2pTN. Therefore

100
T = 338 × = 33.8 Nm
1000
and cutting power is given by
2p × 33.8 × 224 N m/min = 0.792 kW

PROBLEM 7

In drilling a C20 steel plate by a HSS drill, by how much (in percentage) will the drilling torque change
if the drill diameter is doubled and feed rate is also increased by 50%?

Solution: We use the simple empirical relation proposed by Shaw and Oxford,

T = KHBD1.8so0.8

where T is the drilling torque, K is a constant, HB is the brindle hardness of the work material, D is
the drill diameter in mm and so is the feed in mm/rev. Let the initial and final torques be T1 and T2,
respectively. Then

T1 = KHB(D)1.8(so)0.8

and T2 = KHB(2D)1.8(1.5so)0.8

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 176 Machining and Machine Tools

Dividing T2 by T1, we get

T2
= 21.8 × (1.5)0.8 = 3.48 × 1.38 = 4.8
T1
Therefore, the drilling torque will increase by
T2 − T1 ⎡⎛ T ⎞ ⎤
× 100% = ⎢⎜ 2 ⎟ − 1⎥ 100 = 380%
T1 ⎣⎝ T1 ⎠ ⎦

PROBLEM 8

Using Vulf ’s equation and assuming Cv = 140 and l = 0.28, analytically estimate the values of average
tangential force (PTavg) for plain milling a 50 mm wide steel plate by a helical-fluted slab milling cutter of
10 teeth, 60 mm diameter at speed of 160 rpm, worktable feed of 80 cm/min and depth of 10 mm.

Solution: We know from Vulf ’s equation that the average tangential force
CP
PT avg = ⋅ Aavg kg
( aavg )λ
It is given that the values of the constants are CP = 140 and l = 0.28. Aavg is the average uncut chip
thickness given by
d
aavg = so
D
where it is given that sm = 80 cm/min, depth d = 10 mm and diameter, D = 60 mm. Now
sm = sozcN
with so being the feed per tooth, that is
sm 800
so = = = 0.5 mm
Z c N 10 × 160
Hence,
d 10
aavg = so = 0.5 = 0.4
D 160
Again,
Bsm d 50 × 800 × 10
Aavg = = = 12.6 mm 2
π DN π × 60 × 160
Therefore,
140
PT avg = × 12.6 = 2280 kg
(0.4 )0.28

This is very large because a very large value of sm has been taken.

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 Mechanics of Machining 177

SU M M A R Y
The mechanics of machining deals with the forces chapter. Accurate determination of the magnitude of
and their components that develop at the cutting the major force components and also monitoring of
point(s). All those force components play more or their dynamic characteristics in turning, drilling, mill-
less significant roles on the machinability, energy ing and grinding by actual measurement using proper
consumption and design of the machine tool– methods and equipments is essential and possible. The
fixture–tool–work system. The development and design, construction and method of use of several dyna-
use of MCD for visualizing the cutting force com- mometers using various sensors have been reasonably
ponents with their geometrical relationships and covered in this chapter for the benefit of the readers
the direct as well as indirect use of MCD for evalua- and professionals in R&D and machining industries.
tion of those forces in orthogonal cutting have been The cutting forces consume lots of energy which
described with examples. The major cutting forces is converted into heat and cutting temperature at the
in simple machining by single-point tools as well cutting zone. This high cutting temperature plays
as drilling and plain milling can be analytically esti- a vital role in machining. These aspects have been
mated using the relevant equations as shown in this addressed in the next chapter.

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

[Answers are provided in the CD]
1. The magnitudes of the cutting forces need to (c) Tangential force
be known or evaluated for the purpose of (d) Any of the above
(a) Assessment of machinability of the work 5. The magnitudes of the cutting forces fluctuate
material at regular frequencies in
(b) Estimation of cutting power requirement (a) Taper turning
(c) Design of the machine tool (b) Drilling
(d) All of the above (c) Milling
2. The component of the cutting force which is (d) Boring
used to evaluate the cutting power consump- 6. In plain milling operation, the arbour is sub-
tion in straight turning is jected to torque due to the
(a) Axial component (force) (a) Tangential component (force)
(b) Radial or transverse component (force) (b) Axial component (force)
(c) Tangential component (force) (c) Radial component (force)
(d) None of the above (d) All of the above
3. During any machining operation, cutting 7. In machining, Merchant’s circle diagram deals
forces act on with
(a) The chip (a) Machining forces
(b) The cutting tool (b) Cutting temperature
(c) The workpiece (c) Tool life
(d) All of the above (d) Product quality
4. During drilling by HSS twist drill, the drill is 8. The diameter of the Merchant’s circle diagram
not subjected to represents the magnitude of the
(a) Axial force (a) Main or tangential component (force)
(b) Transverse force (b) Frictional force

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 178 Machining and Machine Tools

(c) Normal force (c) More difficult and less accurate

(d) Resultant cutting force (d) Easier and more accurate
9. During the turning of mild steel, the chip seg- 16. The main (w.r.t. the power component) cut-
ment is subjected to ting force in machining can be directly or
(a) Shear force only indirectly measured
(b) Friction force only (a) From actual cutting power consumption
(c) Shear force and normal force only (b) By calorimetric method
(d) All of the above (c) Using proper dynamometer
10. Merchant’s circle diagram is valid for (d) All of the above
(a) Orthogonal cutting only 17. Measurement of cutting forces by tool–force
(b) Oblique cutting only dynamometers cannot be based on
(c) Both of the above (a) Elastic deflection
(d) None of the above (b) Elastic strain
11. While drilling in mild steel jobs using an HSS (c) Change in temperature
twist drill, the large thrust force is caused (d) Rise in pressure
mainly by the drill’s 18. The elastic deflection of the turning tool or its
(a) Two main cutting edges holder under the action of any cutting force is
(b) Chisel edge not measured by
(c) Two margins (a) LVDT
(d) None of the above (b) Solenoid
12. In the expression for drilling torque, T = Kd xsy (c) Capacitive pick up
where d is the drill diameter and s is the feed, (d) Induction pick up
the value of the exponent x is close to 19. It is possible to detect any cutting force com-
(a) 0.5 ponent by using
(b) 1.0 (a) Only one strain gauge
(c) 2.0 (b) Only two strain gauges
(d) 4.0 (c) Four strain gauges
13. The maximum value of the tangential force (d) Any of the above
per tooth in plain milling decreases with the 20. The value of gauge factor of metallic strain
increase of gauges which are used in tool–force dyna-
(a) Feed per tooth mometers is close to
(b) Depth of cut (a) 1.0
(c) Width of the cutter (b) 2.0
(d) Diameter of the cutter (c) 3.0
14. In plain milling, the vibration due to fluctua- (d) 4.0
tion of the cutting forces can be reduced by 21. Tool–force dynamometers need to have
(a) Incorporating multi-tooth engagement (a) High sensitivity
only (b) High stability
(b) Using helical-toothed cutter only (c) Free from cross sensitivity
(c) Both of the above (d) All of the above
(d) None of the above 22. Strain gauges are mounted on the four octago-
15. For the purpose of determining the values of nal rings in
the machining forces, compared to analytical (a) Turning dynamometers
evaluation, experimental measurement is (b) Drilling dynamometers
(a) More difficult but more accurate (c) Milling dynamometers
(b) Easier but less accurate (d) All of the above

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 Mechanics of Machining 179

23. Piezoelectric crystals can be used in 24. The known value of cutting power consump-
(a) Turning dynamometers tion in turning enables evaluation of the mag-
(b) Drilling dynamometers nitude of the
(c) Grinding dynamometers (a) Tangential component of the cutting force
(d) All of the above (b) Axial component of the cutting force
(c) Radial component of the cutting force
(d) All of the above

R E V I E W QU E S T I O N S
1. State the purposes of determining the magni- (resultant); Ps is the shear force; Pn is the
tude and other characteristics of the cutting force normal to Ps; F is the frictional force at
forces that develop during various kinds of the rake surface; N is force normal to F; go is
machining work. orthogonal rake and bo is shear angle.
2. In turning, the single (resultant) cutting force 10. With the help of an MCD, prove that
is resolved into three orthogonal (all at right
angles) components for analysis and measure- Pz tan γ o + Pxy
ment. Name and schematically show those μa =
Pz − Pxy tan γ o
force components and state their significance
(roles). where Pz and Pxy are, respectively, the tangen-
3. Schematically visualize the three force compo- tial force and the thrust force that develop
nents, Px, Py and Pz , in case of shaping and in orthogonal turning and go is the tool rake
planing using a single-point tool. angle.
4. Briefly describe with the help of suitable 11. With the help of an MCD, prove the follow-
sketches how torque and thrust forces are ing equation for the tangential force Pz in
developed in drilling by an HSS twist drill. orthogonal turning
5. How is torque developed on the arbour during
plain milling? Explain by using a suitable dia- tsoτ s cos(η − γ o )
Pz =
gram. sin βo cos(βo + η − γ o )
6. State the advantages and limitations of (a)
analytical estimation and (b) experimental where so and t are feed and depth of cut, res-
measurement aiming determination of cutting pectively; h and bo are the friction angle and
forces. shear angle and ts is the dynamic yield shear
7. Draw a Merchant’s circle diagram (MCD) and strength of the work material.
visualize in it the various cutting force compo- 12. Derive using MCD, a simple expression for
nents that arise during orthogonal turning. the main cutting force component Pz (in
8. Schematically draw a Merchant’s circle dia- orthogonal turning) as a function of depth of
gram (MCD) and state its advantages, uses cut, feed, shear strength of the work material
and limitations. and shear angle only. State the limitation of
9. Derive, with the help of MCD, simple expres- this model (equation).
sions for 13. Based on the relevant machining condition
(a) Ps and Pn as functions of Px, Pz, go and bo and type of work material, deduce the follow-
(b) F and N as functions of Py and Pz and go ing expression
where Px, Py and Pz are the axial, radial and Pz = tsots[cotbo + tan (c − bo)]
tangential components of the cutting force

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 180 Machining and Machine Tools

where Pz is the tangential force in orthogonal the progress (time) of plain milling operation
turning; t and so are the depth of cut and feed; under (a) single straight-tooth engagement,
ts is the yield shear strength of the work mate- (b) two straight-teeth engagement and (c) two
rial; bo is the shear angle; c is a constant = 2bo helical-teeth engagement.
+h − go and h and go are friction angle and 21. How can the values of the average (a) tan-
tool rake angle, respectively. gential force, (b) torque on the milling cutter
14. Deduce starting from MCD, the following and (c) cutting power consumption be simply
expression for the tangential force component but approximately estimated for plain milling
Pz under orthogonal turning of ductile metal under a given condition and irrespective of the
rod helix angle of number of teeth engaged?
22. State the purposes of measurement, that is,
Pz = tsots(z − tango + 1)
experimental determination of cutting forces
where t and so are depth of cut and feed respec- in machining.
tively; ts is the yield shear strength of the work 23. Describe briefly the basic principle of mea-
material; z is chip-reduction coefficient and go surement of machining forces by any dyna-
is the tool orthogonal rake. mometer.
15. How will you analytically determine (a) the 24. State the three basic methods of transducing
values of the axial component Px and (b) the cutting forces of tool–force dynamometers.
the transverse component Py which develop 25. Describe briefly with the help of a suitable dia-
in orthogonal turning of a mild steel rod of gram, the method of detection of magnitude
known shear strength at given values of depth of cutting forces using the elastic deflection of
of cut and feed by a turning tool of known the cutting tool or cutting tool holder.
orthogonal rake and principal cutting edge 26. Describe how the elastic deflection of the cut-
angle, if the value of the chip-reduction coef- ting tool is used to measure the cutting force
ficient is also known? during machining like turning, shaping, plan-
16. From the experimentally known values of the ing, etc.
axial (Px), radial (Py) and tangential (Pz) com- 27. Illustrate the feasible and commonly used
ponents of the cutting force during an oblique methods of converting the elastic deflection of
cutting (turning), how will you assess the value the tool under any cutting force into propor-
of the cutting force component which will act tional voltage.
along the principal cutting edge? 28. Why and how are the tool–force dynamom-
17. Describe briefly how the drilling torque and eters calibrated?
thrust force can be analytically estimated 29. Describe briefly how simple potentiometer,
under any given condition of drilling. capacitive pick up and LVDT can be used for
18. Why do the cutting force components in plain transducing cutting forces.
milling fluctuate? How is such unfavourable 30. Why and how is the arc of the cutting force
fluctuation and hence vibration controlled or measured based on elastic strain instead of
reduced in plain milling? elastic deflection caused by the force on the
19. How can one analytically estimate the values tool or tool holder?
of torque and bending moment that will act 31. Describe how cutting forces are monitored
on the arbour while plain milling under given by tool–force dynamometer using strain
machining conditions by a straight-fluted gauges.
milling cutter? 32. Describe briefly the physical construction and
20. Visualize schematically the pattern of variation working principle of any 2-D strain gauge
of the maximum tangential force Tmax with type dynamometer.

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 Mechanics of Machining 181

33. What factors need to be considered while 35. Describe the construction and working
designing any dynamometer for measurement method of any strain gauge type 3-D milling
of cutting forces? dynamometer.
34. Describe the construction and working prin- 36. Describe briefly how the torque and thrust
ciple of piezoelectric type 3-D turning dyna- force in drilling can be measured in a strain
mometer. gauge type dynamometer.

PR O B L E M S
With Answers
1. A ductile metal rod of 120 mm diameter is 4. In plain milling of a 65 mm wide metal plate
turned at a speed of 320 rpm, feed of 0.24 by a straight-fluted slab milling cutter of 70
mm/rev. and 3.00 mm depth of cut by a tool mm diameter, 75 mm length and 10 teeth the
of the following geometry: 0°, 10°, 8°, 6°, specific force (p) at speed of 120 rpm, feed of
20°, 70°, 0 (mm). The following observations 60 cm/min and depth of 12 mm, determine
were made: Tangential force (Pz) = 750 N; the cutting power consumption at its maxi-
transverse force (Py) = 200 N; chip thickness mum or peak value if the specific machining
(a2) = 0.7 mm. Using MCD, determine the force of the work material is 1000 N/mm2.
approximate values of Ans: 1.06 kW
(a) Friction force (at rake face), F 5. Roughly estimate the magnitude of thrust
(b) Normal force (at rake face), N force (due to the chisel edge only) that will
(c) Shear force, Ps develop while drilling a hole of diameter 20
(d) Cutting power consumption, Pc mm at feed of 0.16 mm/rev. Assume that the
(e) Dynamic yield shear strength (ts) of the ultimate tensile strength and percentage elon-
work, gation of the work material = 400 MPa and
Ans: (a) F = 500 N, (b) N = 700 N, (c) Ps = 0.20, respectively, and chisel edge diameter =
530 N, (d) Pc = 1.6 kW, (e) ts = 265 MPa 3 mm.
2. If, in an orthogonal turning operation by a Ans: 2178 N
tool having go = 12° and f = 60°, it is found
that Pz = 800 N and z (chip-reduction coef-
ficient) = 3.0, what would be the values of Px Without Answers
and Py? Assume that bo + h − go = p/4, where 1. During the orthogonal turning of a rod it was
bo is shear angle and h is friction angle. observed that
Ans: Px = 323 N; Py = 186 N
3. During plain milling on a 50 mm wide metal Pz = Pxy = Px = F = N
plate by a slab milling cutter of 75 mm diam- and Pn = 2Ps
eter, 80 mm length and 12 teeth at speed of where Pz is the tangential force, Px is the axial
320 rpm, feed of 24 cm/min and at depth of force, Pxy is the resultant of Px and Py, Py is the
12 mm, Pz and Py were measured to be 360 radial or transverse force, F and N are frictio-
N and 100 N, respectively. Assuming, single- nal and normal forces at the rake face, Ps is
tooth action, determine specific force p re- the shear force and Pn is the force normal to
quired to machine that work material under Ps. Draw the MCD and determine the pos-
the given milling operation. sible values of the tool orthogonal rake (go),
Ans: 50.22 N/mm2

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 182 Machining and Machine Tools

principal cutting edge angle (f) and shear an- during plain milling, under single-tooth ac-
gle (bo) for the above condition. tion, on a long plate of 60 mm width by a 80
2. Determine, without using MCD, the values of mm diameter, 100 mm long straight-fluted
the shear force Ps and the force Pn normal to slab milling cutter having 8 teeth, at a speed
the shear plane under the following observed of 224 rpm, 15 mm depth and table feed of
conditions: Pz = 1000 N, Px = 400 N, Py = 20 cm/min, if the specific force p required is
200 N, go = 15°, z = 2.0, where z is the chip- 400 N/mm2? Also determine the values of Pz
reduction coefficient. and Py when the torque is at its maximum.
3. How much cutting power will be consumed in Assume that the radial force PR is half of the
turning a rod of diameter 100 mm at a speed tangential force PT.
of 625 rpm, feed of 0.24 mm/rev. and 2.5 mm 6. A 50 mm wide mild steel plate is undergoing
depth of cut by a tool of geometry 0°, −10°, plain milling by a HSS straight-fluted slab
6°, 7°, 15°, 75°, 0 (mm)? Assume the angle milling cutter of 65 mm diameter, 75 mm
relationship: 2bo + h − go = p /2 (where bo is length, 12 teeth at a speed of 240 rpm, table
shear angle and h is friction angle) Given that feed of 80 cm/min and depth of 15 mm. De-
the BNH of the work material is 200. termine the total maximum possible torque
4. During plain milling over a metal plate by a on the milling arbour and the corresponding
straight-fluted slab milling cutter of 80 mm Pz and Py, assuming that the specific force p of
diameter at 200 rpm at a depth of 20 mm, the the work material is 500 N/mm2 and there is
following were observed under single-tooth multi-tooth engagement.
engagement. 7. Write the procedural steps to be followed in
(a) Maximum cutting power required = 1.0 sequence to determine the magnitude of the
kW thrust force, caused only by the chisel edge, in
(b) Radial component is always half of the drilling a hole in a steel plate.
tangential component of the cutting 8. How much cutting power, on average, will be
force consumed in plain milling on a 40 mm wide
Determine the values of Pz (horizontal) and Py cast iron plate by a helical-fluted slab milling
(vertical) at the moment when PT (tangential cutter of 50 mm diameter and 8 teeth at speed
force component) is maximum. of 112 rpm, a table feed of 50 cm/min and
5. How much maximum torque will work on depth of 8 mm? Use the Vulf equation and as-
the milling arbour (or the milling cutter) sume Cv = 80 and l = 0.4.

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 5 Heat Generation and Cutting
Temperature in Machining
Learning Objectives
The contents of this chapter would enable the readers to:
• Be aware of and address the sources and • Understand and visualize the role of variation
causes of development of high temperature of the various machining parameters on cut-
at the cutting zone. ting temperature and then develop empirical
• Learn and state the unfavourable effects of relations.
the high cutting temperature on the quality • Identify, suggest and implement effective ways
of the machined products and tool life. of controlling cutting temperature and its
• Analytically estimate the average cutting effects.
temperature at the chip–tool and work–tool • State the purposes of employing and the way of
interfaces. functioning of cutting fluid in machining.
• Design, develop and employ different tech- • Understand appropriate selection and proper
niques and methods for precisely measur- method of application of cutting fluid depend-
ing cutting temperature in turning, drilling, ing upon the machining requirements.
milling and grinding.

5.1 Introduction
Machining is inherently associated with generation of heat and high cutting temperature at the cutting
zone. The major portion of the mechanical energy expended for chip-separation gets converted into heat
which is shared mainly by the flowing chips and partly by the cutting tool and the workpiece. However,
the high cutting temperature may impair the dimensional accuracy through thermal distortion and expan-
sion–contraction of the workpiece. The high cutting temperature also damages the cutting tool and reduces
its functional life by plastic deformation and accelerated wear at the cutting edges. Besides this, the localized
high cutting temperature causes deterioration in the surface integrity of the machined surfaces by oxidation,
corrosion and induction of tensile residual stresses and micro and sub-micro cracks. Therefore, it should
always be attempted to reduce the cutting temperature and its consequences but without sacrificing produc-
tivity. For this purpose, it is essential to know which factors govern cutting temperature and how. It is also
necessary to assess the possible level of the cutting temperature either by analytical estimation, if feasible and
suitable equations are available, or directly by measurement using appropriate transducers and techniques.

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 184 Machining and Machine Tools

Based on such knowledge and experience, the material and geometry of the tool are properly selected and the
speed–feed combination is optimized to minimize heat generation or cutting temperature for given material
removal rate (MRR). Even after that the cutting zone needs to be cooled by proper selection and applica-
tion of cutting fluid, which also helps by lubricating at the chip–tool interfaces, washing away the chip and
debris from the cutting zone, and protecting of the nascent machined surface from contamination by the
atmospheric gases.

5.2 Location and Causes of Heat Generation in Machining

Development of high cutting temperature and its effects, causes, estimation, measurement and control are
a major concern in machining. Figure 5.1 schematically shows the sources of heat generation at the cutting
zone during machining:
1. Primary shear zone where the major part of the mechanical energy is converted into heat.
2. Secondary deformation zone covers the rake surface where further heat is generated due to rubbing
at the chip–tool interface.
3. Flank wear zone where heat is also generated due to rubbing of the flank surfaces of the worn tool
against the machined surface.
The mechanical deformation energy at the primary shear zone almost entirely gets converted into heat.
Hardly 1−5% of that energy remains frozen in the chips as residual strain.[1] The heat generated at the cutting
zone is shared by the chip, cutting tool and the workpiece as indicated in Fig. 5.2(a).
Figure 5.2(b) roughly helps visualize the relative sharing of heat by the chip, tool and the job. The
apportionment of sharing that heat depends upon the configuration, size and thermal conductivity of the
tool and job, and the conditions of machining and the cutting edges. The major portion of the total heat is
carried away by the flowing chips. About 5−15% of the total heat goes into the cutting tool and some heat
is absorbed in the job or workpiece. With the increase in cutting velocity, the chip shares heat increasingly.
However, the heat received by the chips, tool and the workpiece raises their temperature significantly.

Vf
Primary shear zone Chip

Flank wear zone Secondary

deformation zone
Job Tool

Vc

Figure 5.1 Sources of generation of heat in machining.

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 Heat Generation and Cutting Temperature in Machining 185

100%
Job

Chip Tool
Job

Chip

Sharing heat
Tool

Vc
Cutting velocity (Vc )

(a) (b)

Figure 5.2 (a) Sharing of heat amongst chip, tool and job. (b) Apportionment of heat going into chip,
tool and job.

5.3 Effects of Cutting Temperature on Job and Tool

The immense heat and the high cutting temperature generated at the cutting zone are very detrimental.
Fortunately, a large portion of heat is carried away by the chips which are thrown out. However, the remain-
ing heat is harmful for both the job or product and the cutting tool.

5.3.1 Effects of High Cutting Temperature on Product Quality

1. Dimensional inaccuracy of the product due to thermal distortion as well as expansion and contrac-
tion during and after machining.
2. Damage of the machined surface by oxidation, rapid corrosion, burning, etc.
3. Development of tensile residual stresses and micro-cracks at the surfaces and sub-surfaces.

5.3.2 Effects of High Cutting Temperature on Cutting Tools

1. Reduction of tool life by rapid tool wear.
2. Rapid failure of the cutting edges and tool tip by plastic deformation if the tool material is not
enough hot hard and hot strong.
3. Thermal flaking and fracturing at the cutting edges due to thermal shocks.
4. Built-up-edge (BUE) formation.

5.3.3 Possible Favourable Effects of High Cutting Temperature

The high cutting temperature may also often help in reducing the magnitude of the cutting forces and cutting
power consumption to some extent by locally softening or reducing the yield shear strength of the work mate-
rial at the cutting zone. To attain and enhance this benefit, particularly while machining difficult-to-machine
hot strong and heat-resistive materials, the work material in front of the tool is deliberately additionally

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 186 Machining and Machine Tools

heated externally. Such special technique, called hot machining, is often favourably used to machine some
inherently difficult-to-machine materials like Ni-base super-alloys, Ni-hard steel, Hadfield steel, etc.

5.4 Determination of Cutting Temperature

5.4.1 Purpose of Determination of Cutting Temperature
The magnitude and distribution of cutting temperature needs to be known or evaluated to facilitate:
1. Assessment of machinability which, for a given work–tool combination, is judged mainly by the
magnitude of cutting forces and cutting temperature.
2. Design, selection and use of cutting tools.
3. Evaluation of the role of variation of the different machining parameters on cutting temperature.
4. Analysis of the distribution of temperature and thermal stresses in the tool, job and chip.
The significant temperatures of interest include
1. Average overall cutting zone temperature.
2. Average shear zone temperature.
3. Average and maximum chip–tool interface temperature.
4. Average temperature at the work–tool interfaces.
5. Pattern of distribution of temperature in the tool, job and chip.
Cutting temperature can be determined in two ways:
1. Analytically: using mathematical models (equations) if they are available or can be developed;
such analytical methods are relatively simple, quick and inexpensive but less accurate and are not
detailed.
2. Experimentally: these methods are more accurate and reliable but more difficult and expensive.
Distribution of temperature in tool, chip and workpiece at the cutting zone can be determined in detail
and precisely in both two and three dimensions by computational methods, finite element methods (FEM),
boundary element technique, etc.[2–4]

5.4.2 Analytical Methods of Evaluation of Cutting Temperature

There are several methods and approaches[5,6] developed and used for approximate estimation of cutting
temperature. Some of those feasible methods have been presented here.

5.4.2.1 Analytical Estimation of Average Temperature at Primary Shear Zone

The magnitude of cutting temperature varies within the cutting zone including the small primary shear zone.
However, the average shear zone temperature, q s, can be evaluated by simple methods.[7] One such approach
is based on energy balance at the shear zone as follows. The amount of energy, Em, expended mechanically per
unit time at the cutting zone in turning by a sharp tool may be expressed as
Em = PzVc + PxVfeed (5.1)

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 Heat Generation and Cutting Temperature in Machining 187

Usually, PxVfeed is very small compared to PzVc , and can be neglected. The cutting energy PzVc gets used to
accomplish the primary shear (deformation) and to overcome friction at the chip–tool interface as
PzVc = PsVs + FVf (5.2)
where Ps is the shear force, Vs is the average shear velocity, F is the friction force at the rake surface, and Vf is
the chip velocity. Therefore, the mechanical energy input at the primary shear zone is
PsVs = PzVc − FVf (5.3)
Equating amount of heat received by the chip in one minute from the shear zone and the heat contained by
that amount of chip, it appears that

Aq1( PzVc − FVf ) ⎛ ab ⎞

= c v ⎜ 1 1 ⎟ Vc (θs − θa ) (5.4)
J ⎝ sin βo ⎠
where A is the fraction of shear energy that is converted into heat, q1 is the fraction of heat that goes to the
chip from the primary shear zone, J is the mechanical equivalent of heat, cv is the volume specific heat of chip
material, q a is the ambient temperature, a1b1 is the cross-sectional area of the uncut chip = tso. From Eq.
(5.4) it appears that

Aq1[ PzVc − FVf ] Aq1[ Pz − F /ζ ]sin βo

θs = + θa ≅ (5.5)
JtsoVc cosecβo Ja1b1

Generally the value of A varies within 0.95 to 1.0 and that of q1 from 0.7 to 0.9 in machining such as turning.

5.4.2.2 Estimation of Average Chip–Tool Interface Temperature

A number of analytical models are available[8–10] for estimation of temperature distribution at the chip–tool
interface.
Following Buckingham’s theorem, a simple expression has been derived[7] by dimensional analysis. The
dimensionless parameters Q 1 and Q 2 are defined and related as follows:
c vθ i
Q1 = (5.6)
Ec

c vVc a1
Q2 = (5.7)
λ

and Q1 = C1(Q2)n (5.8)

where q i is the average chip–tool interface temperature, Ec is the specific cutting energy (the amount of
energy required to remove a unit volume of work material), l is the thermal conductivity of the chip material,
C1 is a constant, and n is an index close to 0.25. Combining Eqs. (5.6)–(5.8), we have

Vc a1
θi = C1E c (5.9)
λc v

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 188 Machining and Machine Tools

Equation (5.9) indicates that the value of chip–tool interface temperature is governed by machining
characteristics of the tool–work (Ec), levels of the process parameters, Vc and so, and on the thermal properties
(l and cv) of the chip material.

5.4.2.3 Other Simple Methods of Estimation of Cutting Temperature

The cutting temperature or machining temperature generally refers to the average chip–tool interface tem-
perature, as it affects the tool-wear rate and thus, the tool life. Other than average cutting temperature, other
temperatures which are worth mentioning are the primary shear zone temperature, the work temperature and
the chip temperature.
The average chip–tool interface temperature can be thought of as the rise in temperature due to heat
sources present at the shear plane and at the chip–tool interface assuming the cutting tool to be fresh (no
flank or crater wear).
Figure 5.3 schematically shows chip formation in orthogonal cutting with a fresh cutting tool. It also
identifi
. es the zones of heat generation during machining. The rate of energy consumption at the shear plane
(E s ) can be estimated as the dot product of shear force (Ps) and average shear velocity (Vs):
Es = Ps ⋅Vs (5.10)
where Vs can be estimated as
  
V c +V s = V f (5.11)

where Vc is the cutting velocity and Vf is the chip velocity. The rate of heat generation at the shear plane is
directly proportional to Es . The proportionality constant (h) is very near to 1. Only a small fraction of energy
is not converted to heat as that small fraction remains frozen in the form of residual strain in the chip. It may
be mentioned here that the energy Es is used to deform the work material at the primary shear zone. The rate
of energy consumption at the chip–tool interface ( Ef ) can be estimated as
Ef = FVf (5.12)

Workpiece

Primary shear zone

Chip

Chip–tool interface
Cutting tool

Figure 5.3 Schematic representation of chip formation in orthogonal machining identifying the heat
sources in machining.

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 Heat Generation and Cutting Temperature in Machining 189

where F is the friction force. Energy Ef is consumed in overcoming the frictional force between the bottom
surface of the chip and the rake surface of the cutting tool, as the chip slides over the rake face with an aver-
age chip velocity of Vf . The rise in temperature of the workpiece (q s) as it crosses the primary shear zone can
be very easily estimated using energy balance. If it is assumed that the flowing chip takes away all the heat
generated at the primary shear plane then

( a1bVc )ρw c wθs = ηEs = ηPV

s s (5.13)
Hence,
ηPV
θs = s s
(5.14)
ρw c w a1bVc
where r w is the density of the work material and cw is the specific heat of the work material. The total rate of
energy consumption ( E T ) in machining can be expressed as

E T = PzVc + PxVfeed

Now, typically the feed velocity in turning is much less compared to cutting velocity; thus, the contribution
of the term P xVfeed is much less compared to the term PzVc and so it may be neglected to provide E T as

E T = PzVc
Again,
E T = Es + Ef

PzVc = PsVs + FVf

Thus,
PsVs = PzVc − FVf
Hence, qs can be simplified as
η( PzVc − FVf )
θs = (5.15)
a1bVc ρw c w

But all the heat generated at the primary shear plane is not taken away by the chip alone as heat conduction allows
a part of heat to enter the work piece. This fraction ( Γ) can be estimated as per Boothroyd and Knight[11] as
Γ = 0.7 − 0.06 R tanb o
where
cos γ o
tan βo =
ζ − sin γ o
and
ρw c wVc a1
R = Thermal number = (5.16)
kw
where kw is the thermal conductivity of the work material. Note that if R tanb o ≥ 10, then Γ = 0.1.

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 190 Machining and Machine Tools

The average chip–tool interface temperature (q c) can be estimated as

q c = q s + q m + q am
where qs is the rise in work material temperature as it crosses or flows through the primary shear zone, qm is
the rise in temperature of the chip due to the heat source present at chip–tool interface, qam is the ambient
temperature. Estimation of qm is much more significant as compared to the estimation of qs.[11,12] The heat
generated at the chip–tool interface is apportioned between the cutting tool and the flowing chip. The frac-
tion of heat entering the cutting tool (Γ1) is a function of the thermal conductivities of the tool and work
material. Also as the thermal conductivity of the tool material decreases, more heat enters the chip. This is
quite evident from practical machining experience. Hence, while employing alumina cutting tool inserts
(kalumina = 15 W/mK as compared to kWC = 100 W/mK), both high chip temperature and cutting tempera-
ture are observed. Further, the apportionment coefficient Γ1 is a function of the contact geometry between
the chip and the – tool, the chip velocity and the thermal properties of the work material and it is given as
1
Γ1 = (5.17)
1 +[0.745(kT /kw )/ A L ]
where kT is the thermal conductivity of the tool material, kw is the thermal conductivity of the work material, A
is the characteristic of the chip–tool contact geometry[12] given by

2 ⎧ ⎛ 2b ⎞ 1 l c 1 ⎫
A= ⎨l n + + ⎬ (5.18)
π ⎩ ⎜⎝ l c ⎟⎠ 3 b 2 ⎭

where lc is the contact length given by a2{1 + tan ( b − g )} and finally

Vf l c
L=
4α w
where
kw
αw =
ρw c w
Now, qm has been expressed as[11–13]
FVf
θm = 1.13 Γ1 R − l 0
a1bVc ρw c w
where
lc
l0 = = [1 + tan(βo − γ o )]
a2

5.4.3 Measurement of Cutting Temperature

Analytical methods for determination of cutting temperature are usually simple and inexpensive; however,
they are approximate. The roles of all the parameters that are involved in machining and influence the cutting
temperature cannot be incorporated in the mathematical models. This deficiency can be overcome by actual
measurement of the cutting temperature through experiments. Measurements provide quite an accurate and
precise determination but generally are more tedious, often difficult and expensive.

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 Heat Generation and Cutting Temperature in Machining 191

Several methods and techniques have been developed and are used[12–15] to measure cutting temperature
in both simple machining like turning and more geometrically complex machining like drilling, milling,
grinding, etc.
Experimental methods generally provide the average or maximum values of the temperature at different
zones of shear deformation and rubbing or at the total cutting zone. However, some experimental methods
also enable direct determination of the pattern and degree of distribution of temperature over a zone. Using
these limited experimental results, the temperature distribution throughout the tool, chip and workpiece are
evaluated accurately and in detail using suitable computational methods. Some feasible and popularly used
experimental methods of measurement of cutting temperature have been presented here.

5.4.3.1 Use of De-Colourising Agent[16]

Some paint or tape, which changes colour with variation in temperature, is pasted on the tool or workpiece
near the cutting zone. Before actual measurement by this crude but simple technique, the resulting colours of
such paint or tape are pre-calibrated over the ranges of temperature concerned.

5.4.3.2 Calorimetric Method [17]

This method is also quite simple and inexpensive but not accurate enough and gives only the average tempera-
ture. However, this method is very useful in some stringent machining conditions.
Figure 5.4 schematically shows the calorimetric method of measurement and apportionment of (a) total
heat generated, (b) heat absorbed by chips only and (c) heat shared by the tool (drill) only. From the amount
of measured heat in the tool, chip and overall, their average temperatures are roughly evaluated using the
volume and thermal properties of the chips and tool materials.
For instance, the average temperature of the chips, qchip, can be determined approximately from

nchip rchip (qchip − qw) = nw rw (qw − qa) (5.19)

Thermometer

Chips Drill

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 5.4 Calorimetric method of measurement of heat and temperature in drilling: (a) Total heat;
(b) chips, (c) tool.

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 192 Machining and Machine Tools

where nchip is the volume of chip collected; rchip is the specific heat of chip material; qw is the maximum
temperature of the water (or the fluid used) produced by the hot chips; nw is the volume of water, heated; rw
is the specific heat of water (or liquid); qa is the ambient temperature of water.

5.4.3.3 Using Thermocouple Principle

The feasible applications of thermocouple for measuring cutting temperature lead to some effective tech-
niques and methods as follows:
1. Tool–work thermocouple technique.
2. Moving thermocouple technique.
3. Embedded thermocouple technique.
4. Compound rake tool method.
These techniques are briefly described.

Tool–Work Thermocouple Technique[18,19]

Figure 5.5 schematically shows this method. Both the tool and work materials have to be electrically and
thermally conductive for this technique.
In a thermocouple, two dissimilar but electrically conductive metals are connected to form two junctions.
When one of the junctions is heated, the difference in temperature between the hot and relatively cold junc-
tions produces a proportional voltage which is detected or measured in terms of volts by a millivolt meter.
In machining like turning, the tool and the job constitute dissimilar metals and the cutting zone acts as the
hot junction. Before actual measurement, proper calibration is required. Figure 5.6 schematically shows the
typical methods of such calibration.
Two thin bars or rods of the tool material and the work material are to be prepared and strongly bonded at one
end by welding or brazing to form a junction. The junction is heated in a hot bath[20] or by flame or electrically[21]
as indicated in Fig. 5.6.
The actual temperature at the hot junction of the tool–work material strips corresponding to the voltage (in
mV) recorded is determined from the reference thermocouple whose mV–temperature relation is already known.
During the actual machining experiment, the average cutting zone temperature is obtained from the mV records

Insulated

Copper brush

Insulated

Lead

mV

Figure 5.5 Measuring cutting temperature by tool–work thermocouple technique.

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 Heat Generation and Cutting Temperature in Machining 193

and then using the calibration curve (mV–temperature) initially prepared for the tool–work materials undertaken.
The calibration curve (usually a straight line) is experimentally prepared by joining the points obtained by noting
the mV corresponding to the actual temperature recorded by the reference or standard thermocouple. The reason-
ably less hot junction between the lead and the tool or insert (Fig. 5.5) may provide a parasitic emf and hamper
measurement. This can be avoided by using a suitably designed compensation circuit[22] as indicated in Fig. 5.7.

mV

Tool–work material
V
Hot bath

(a)

Tool–work
material V
Tool material Reference
thermocouple

Work material
Copper
plate V
mV Reference
thermocouple mV
(b) (c)

Figure 5.6 Methods of calibration for tool–work thermocouple: (a) Heating junction in hot bath;
(b) heating by flame; (c) electrical heating junction.

Brush
Main hot
junction

Main emf
e1
e2

Constantan
Ra Rb Copper

R2 + Ra R3 + Rb
e2 and e2 ⇒ parasitic emfs

Figure 5.7 Error compensation in tool–work thermocouple method.

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 194 Machining and Machine Tools

Moving Thermocouple Technique[23]

This simple method is quite useful for a preliminary study of the gradual rise in temperature of continuous
chips at low and moderate cutting velocities. Figure 5.8 shows the scheme.
The temperature of the continuous chip before, during and immediately after its formation can be mea-
sured. A bead of standard thermocouple like chrome-alumel is brazed on the side surface of the layer to be
removed from the work specimen and the temperature is attained through the mV reading.

Embedded Thermocouple Technique

The tool–work thermocouple technique and the moving thermocouple technique are obviously not applicable
in cases of operations like milling and grinding, especially for intermittent cutting in milling and non-con-
ductivity of grinding wheels as well as very low depth of cut in grinding. In milling and surface grinding,
embedded thermocouple techniques are used[24–26] for measuring average cutting-zone temperature. Figure 5.9
shows schematically the method of use of an embedded thermocouple. A suitable standard thermocouple moni-
tors the job temperature at a certain depth hi from the machining surface. The value of the temperature is con-
tinuously recorded by an oscilloscope or strip-chart recorder or in a PC. The observed temperature appears to

V
Standard
thermocouple
Planing tool

Vc

Figure 5.8 Measuring temperature of flowing chips by moving thermocouple.

hi
Extrapolated point
Thermocouple bead
qm
log q m

Experimental
points
qm
0
0 hi log h i

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 5.9 Embedded thermocouple technique.

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 Heat Generation and Cutting Temperature in Machining 195

be maximum (qm) when the thermocouple bead comes very near (slightly offset) to the grinding as indicated in
Fig. 5.9. With the progress of grinding, the depth hi gradually decreases after each grinding pass and the value
of qm also rises (Fig. 5.8). Then qm is plotted against hi as indicated in Fig. 5.9(b) or (c). Thereafter the value of
qm at the grinding surface, when hi is zero or close to zero, is attained by extending the qm−hi curve as shown in
Figs. 5.9(b) and (c). Two other possible similar methods are shown[27] in Figs. 5.10(a) and (b).
A stiff constantan wire is embedded inside the blank through a hole. The constantan wire and the blank
constitute (if feasible) the thermocouple. The surface temperature at the machining or grinding zone would
be obtained (a) in steps or (b) directly where the constantan wire tip gets welded with the blank under high
grinding temperature.

Compound Rake Tool Method

Another simple but quite effective method has been developed to measure the chip–tool interface tempera-
ture qi along the rake surface by thermocouple technique as schematically shown in Fig. 5.11. This method is
also called compound rake tool method.[28,29] The chip and the constantan wire form the thermocouple.

Workpiece

Brass rod hi

Insulators
Constantan
wire

mV Leaf spring mV
(a) (b)

Figure 5.10 Simple semi-embedded thermocouple.

Li
Conductor

Non-conductor

Brush
mV

Figure 5.11 Compound rake used for measuring cutting temperature along rake surface.

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 196 Machining and Machine Tools

In this method, a conducting (carbide) tool piece is embedded in a non-conducting (ceramic) tool. The
conducting piece and the job form the tool–work thermocouple as shown in Fig. 5.11, and they detect a
temperature qi at the location (Li) of the carbide strip. Thus qi can be measured along the entire chip–tool
contact length by gradually reducing Li by grinding the tool flank. Before that, calibration has to be done
as usual.

5.4.3.4 Measurement of Cutting Temperature by Photocell

Suitable types of thermally sensitive photocells can be used to measure cutting temperature in different
machining operations. One of such unique techniques used[30] for reasonably accurate measurement of the
shear zone temperature and tool flank of single point tools is illustrated in Fig. 5.12.
The electrical resistance of the photo-cell (e.g., PbS cell), changes when it is exposed to any heat radiation.
The amount of change in the resistance depends upon the temperature of the heat radiating source and is
measured in terms of voltage, which is calibrated with the source temperature. It is evident from Fig. 5.12 that
the cell starts receiving radiation through the small hole only when it enters the shear zone where the hole at
the upper end faces the hot surface. Receiving radiation and measurement of temperature continues until the
hole passes through the entire shear zone and then the tool flank.

5.4.3.5 Infrared Photographic Technique

In this method,[30–32] the temperature is measured by capturing the infrared radiation emitted from hot
surfaces. This modern and powerful method is based on taking an infrared photograph of the hot surfaces
of the tool, chip and/or job, thus obtaining temperature distribution at those surfaces. Proper calibration is
to be done before that. This way the temperature profiles can be recorded in a PC as indicated in Fig. 5.13.
The fringe pattern readily changes with the change in any machining parameter which affects the cutting
temperature.

Vf

Vc

mV

Figure 5.12 Cutting temperature measurement by photocell.

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 Heat Generation and Cutting Temperature in Machining 197

Highest temperature

Auxiliary flank
Lowest temperature

Figure 5.13 Temperature distribution at the tool tip detected by infrared photographic technique.

5.4.4 Role of Variation of Different Machining Parameters on

Cutting Temperature
Almost all the variables associated with machining play more or less significant roles on the magnitude
and distribution of the cutting temperature. The following parameters play a predominant role on cutting
temperature:
1. Work material:
(a) Specific energy requirement.
(b) Ductility, that is, chip form.
(c) Thermal properties, mainly conductivity and diffusivity.
2. Cutting tool material:
(a) Thermal properties.
(b) Chemical stability.
(c) Wear resistance.
3. Process parameters:
(a) Cutting velocity.
(b) Feed rate.
4. Tool geometry:
(a) Rake angle.
(b) Cutting edge angles.
(c) Clearance angle.
(d) Nose radius.
5. Environment:
(a) Thermal properties of the cutting fluid.
(b) Lubrication property.
(c) Method of application.
Ample research has been carried out [33] to investigate the role of the major machining parameters on cutting
temperature. Equation (5.20) shows a general empirical relation to depict how the average cutting zone tem-
perature (qc), for a given tool–work combination, is influenced by the process parameters:

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 198 Machining and Machine Tools

Cθ (Vc )0.4 ( so sin φ )0.24 (t )0.105

θc = (5.20)
(t/so )0.086 r 0.11(tso )0.054
where Cq is the factor depending upon the tool–work combination and machining environment. It appears
from Eq. (5.20) that cutting temperature is maximum affected by change in cutting velocity (Vc) and mini-
mum by change in depth of cut (t) as also schematically shown in Fig. 5.14.
The magnitude of the cutting forces increases proportionally with increase in both feed and depth of cut.
So, increase in both feed and depth of cut are reasonably likely to raise equally the cutting temperature. But
increased depth of cut also causes distribution of the heat generated over a wider cutting edge length. As
a result, increased depth of cut does not raise cutting temperature significantly. However, increase in nose
radius reduces cutting temperature to some extent expectedly due to involvement of longer cutting edge
length for same MRR. Tool geometry also plays quite a significant role on cutting temperature for given
tool–work materials and MRR (Fig. 5.15), as follows:

Vc

qc so

Vc or so or t

Figure 5.14 Relative role of variation in Vc, so and t on cutting temperatures.

Average cutting temperature Cutting temperature

Temperature (q )

Temperature (q )

Average tool temperature

Tool temperature

−10° −5° 0° +5° +10° 0° 5° 10° 15° 20°

Tool rake angle (g ) Tool clearance angle (a )
Cutting temperature (qc )
Cutting temperature (qc )

qc

Tool temperature

10° 30° 50° 70° 90° 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1

Cutting edge angle (f ) Nose radius (r mm)
Figure 5.15 Trends of change in cutting and tool temperature with change in the geometrical features
of cutting tool (single point).

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 Heat Generation and Cutting Temperature in Machining 199

1. Large positive rake helps in reducing the cutting forces and hence in reducing the amount of heat
generation but also tends to raise tool temperature due to faster heat dissipation in the narrowed
wedge angle.
2. Reasonable increase in clearance angles reduces generation of additional heat and overall cutting
temperature by reducing rubbing at the work–tool interfaces but too much increase in clearance
angle again raises tool temperature for narrowing the wedge angle.
3. Reduction of principal cutting edge angle (f ) helps reduce cutting temperature by reducing the
energy input per unit cutting edge length.
4. Wider plan angle [p − (f1 + f2)] results in lesser tool temperature.
5. Negative inclination angle (l) also reduces tool temperature.

5.5 Control of Cutting Temperature and Application of

Cutting Fluid
5.5.1 General Methods of Reduction of Cutting Temperature
It is already realized that cutting temperature needs to be reduced as far as possible, but without sacrificing
productivity (MRR), because high cutting temperature is detrimental to both the cutting tool (performance
and life) and the products (accuracy and surface integrity).
Cutting temperature can be controlled or reduced in varying extent by the following methods:
1. Proper selection of material and geometry of the cutting tools.
2. Optimum selection of cutting velocity and feed combination without sacrificing MRR.
3. Proper selection and application of cutting fluid.
4. Application of special techniques, if required and feasible.

5.5.1.1 Selection of Material and Geometry of Cutting Tool for Reducing

Cutting Temperature
Cutting tool materials may play a significant role on reduction of cutting temperature depending upon the
work material. For example,
1. Physical vapour deposition (PVD) or chemical vapour deposition (CVD) coating of high speed steel
(HSS) and carbide tools helps reduce cutting temperature by reducing friction at the chip–tool and
work–tool interfaces.
2. In high speed machining of steels, lesser heat and cutting temperature develop if machined by cBN
(cubic boron nitride) tools, as they produce lesser cutting forces by retaining their sharp geometry
due to their extreme hardness and high chemical stability.
3. The cutting tool temperature of ceramic tools decreases further if the thermal conductivity of such
tools is enhanced (by adding thermally conductive materials like metals, carbides, etc. in an Al2O3 or
Si3N4 matrix).
Cutting temperature can also be sizably controlled by proper selection of tool geometry in the following ways:
1. Large positive tool-rake helps in reducing heat and temperature generation by reducing the cutting
forces, but too much increase in rake mechanically and thermally weakens the cutting edges.

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 200 Machining and Machine Tools

2. Compound rake, preferably with a chip-breaker, also enables reduction of heat and temperature
through reduction in cutting forces and friction.
3. For the same amount of heat generation, the cutting temperature decreases with the decrease in the
principal cutting edge angle f as

qc ∝ [Vc0.5 (so sinf)0.25] (5.21)

5.5.1.2 Selection of Cutting Velocity and Feed

Cutting temperature can also be controlled to some extent, even without sacrificing MRR, by optimum selec-
tion of the cutting velocity and feed within their feasible ranges. The rate of heat generation and hence cutting
temperature are governed by the amount of cutting power consumption (PC) which is given by

PC = PzVc = tsot s f Vc (5.22)

So apparently, increase in both so and Vc raises heat generation proportionately. But though increase in Vc
further enhances heat generation due to faster rubbing action, it substantially reduces cutting forces and
hence heat generation by reducing t s and also the form factor f. The overall relative effects of the variation
of Vc and so on cutting temperature will depend upon other machining conditions. Hence, depending upon
the situation, the cutting temperature can be controlled significantly by an optimum combination of Vc and
so for a given MRR.

5.5.1.3 Control of Cutting Temperature by Application of Cutting Fluid

Cutting fluid, if properly employed, reduces cutting temperature directly by taking away the heat from the
cutting zone and also indirectly by reducing generation of heat by reducing cutting forces.

5.5.2 Application of Cutting Fluids in Machining

5.5.2.1 Purposes of Application of Cutting Fluid in Machining and Grinding
The basic purposes of cutting fluid application are:
1. Cooling of the job and the tool to reduce the detrimental effects of cutting temperature on the job
and the tool.
2. Lubrication at the chip–tool interface and the tool flanks to reduce cutting forces and friction and
thus the amount of heat generation.
3. Cleaning the machining zone by washing away the chip particles and debris which, if present, spoil
the finished surface and accelerate damage of the cutting edges.
4. Protection of the nascent finished surface – a thin layer of the cutting fluid sticks to the machined
surface and thus prevents its harmful contamination by the gases like SO2, O2, H2S and NxOy
present in the atmosphere.
However, the main aim of application of cutting fluid is to improve machinability through reduction of cut-
ting forces and temperature, improvement of surface integrity and enhancement of tool life.

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 Heat Generation and Cutting Temperature in Machining 201

5.5.2.2 Essential Properties of Cutting Fluids

To enable the cutting fluids fulfill their functional requirements without harming the machine–fixture–tool–
work (M-F-T-W) system and the operators, the cutting fluid should possess the following properties:
1. For cooling:
(a) High specific heat, thermal conductivity and film coefficient for heat transfer.
(b) Spreading and wetting ability.
2. For lubrication:
(a) High lubricity without gumming and foaming.
(b) Wetting and spreading.
(c) High film boiling point.
(d) Friction reduction at extreme pressure (EP) and temperature.
3. Chemical stability: should be non-corrosive to the materials of the M-F-T-W system.
4. Less volatility and high flash point.
5. High resistance to bacterial growth.
6. Odorlessness and preferably colourlessness.
7. Non-toxicity in both liquid and gaseous stages.
8. Easy availability and low cost.

5.5.2.3 Principles of Cutting Fluid Action

The chip–tool contact zone usually comprises two parts, plastic or bulk contact zone and elastic contact zone
as indicated in Fig. 5.16. The cutting fluid cannot penetrate or reach the plastic contact zone (Cp) but enters
in the elastic contact zone (Ce) by capillary effect. With the increase in cutting velocity, the fraction of plastic
contact zone gradually increases and covers almost the entire chip–tool contact zone (Cn) as indicated in Fig.
5.17. Therefore, at high speed machining, the cutting fluid is not able to lubricate but cools the tool and the
job only by bulk external cooling.
Chemicals like chloride, phosphate or sulphide present in the cutting fluid chemically react with the work
material at the chip–tool interface under high pressure and temperature and form a thin layer of the reaction
product. The low shear strength of that reaction layer helps in reducing friction.

Thin layer of low

shear strength
Cutting fluid
Cp Ce
Cn

Vc

Figure 5.16 Cutting fluid action in machining.

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 202 Machining and Machine Tools

100%

Cp /C n
Cutting velocity (Vc )

Figure 5.17 Apportionment of plastic and elastic contact zone with increase in cutting velocity.

To form such a solid lubricating layer under high pressure and temperature some extreme pressure additive
(EPA) is deliberately added in reasonable amount in the mineral oil or soluble oil. For extreme pressure, chlo-
ride-, phosphate- or sulphide-type EPA is used depending upon the working temperature, that is, moderate
(200–350°C), high (350–500°C) and very high (500–800°C), respectively.

5.5.2.4 Types of Cutting Fluids and Their Selection

Generally cutting fluids are usually employed in liquid form but they are occasionally also employed in
gaseous form. Often solid lubricants are also employed in machining and grinding, but only for lubricating
purposes. The cutting fluids commonly used are:
1. Air blast or compressed air only: Machining of some materials like grey cast iron becomes inconve-
nient or difficult if any cutting fluid is employed in liquid form. In such case only air blast is recom-
mended for cooling and cleaning.
2. Water: For its good wetting and spreading properties and very high specific heat, water is considered
as the best coolant and hence employed where cooling is most urgent.
3. Soluble oil: Water acts as the best coolant but does not lubricate. Besides, use of only water may
impair the M-F-T-W system by rusting. So oil containing some emulsifying agent and additive like
EPA, together called cutting compound, is mixed with water in a suitable ratio (1–2 in 20–50). This
milk-like white emulsion, called soluble oil, is very common and widely used in machining and
grinding
4. Cutting oils: Cutting oils are generally compounds of mineral oil to which the desired type and
amount of vegetable, animal or marine oils are added for improving spreading, wetting and lubricat-
ing properties. As and when required, some EP additive is also mixed to reduce friction, adhesion
and BUE formation in heavy cuts.
5. Chemical fluids: These are occasionally used fluids which are water based where some organic and/
or inorganic materials are dissolved in water to enable desired cutting fluid action. There are two
types of such cutting fluid:
(a) Chemically inactive type – high cooling, anti-rusting and wetting but less lubricating.
(b) Active (surface) type – moderate cooling and lubricating.
6. Solid or semi-solid lubricant: Pastes, waxes, soaps, graphite, Moly-disulphide (MoS2) are also often
used, either applied directly to the workpiece or as an impregnate in the tool to reduce friction and
thus cutting forces, temperature and tool wear.

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 Heat Generation and Cutting Temperature in Machining 203

7. Cryogenic cutting fluid: Extremely cold (cryogenic) fluids (often in the form of gases) like liquid
CO2 or N2 are used in some special cases for effective cooling without creating much environment
pollution and health hazards.

Selection of Cutting Fluid

The benefits of application of cutting fluids largely depend upon proper selection of the type of the cutting
fluid depending upon the work material, tool material and the machining condition. For example, for high
speed machining of not-difficult-to-machine materials, cooling fluids are preferred and for low speed machin-
ing of both conventional and difficult-to-machine materials, lubricating fluid is preferred. We now discuss the
properties due to which various cutting fluids are selected for machining some common engineering materials
and operations:
1. Grey cast iron:
(a) Generally dry due to its self-lubricating property.
(b) Air blast for cooling and flushing chips.
(c) Soluble oil for cooling and flushing chips in high speed machining and grinding.
2. Steels:
(a) If machined by HSS tools, soluble oil (1:20–30) for low carbon and alloy steel and neat oil with
EPA for heavy cuts.
(b) If machined by carbide tools, thinner soluble oil for low strength steel, thicker soluble oil
(1:10–20) for stronger steels, straight sulphurized oil for heavy and low speed cuts and EP
cutting oil for high alloy steel,
(c) Often steels are machined dry by carbide tools for preventing thermal shocks.
3. Aluminium and its alloys:
(a) Preferably machined dry.
(b) Light but oily soluble oil.
(c) Straight neat oil or kerosene oil for stringent cuts.
4. Copper and its alloys:
(a) Water-based fluids are generally used.
(b) Oil with or without inactive EPA for tougher grades of Cu-alloys.
5. Stainless steels and heat-resistant alloys:
(a) High performance soluble oil or neat oil with high concentration with chlorinated EP additive.
Brittle ceramics and cermets (tools) should be used either under dry condition or light neat oil in case of fine
finishing. Grinding at high speed needs cooling by soluble oil (1:50–100). For finish grinding of metals and
alloys low viscosity neat oil is also used.

5.5.2.5 Methods of Application of Cutting Fluid

The effectiveness and expense of cutting fluid application significantly depends also on how it is applied in
respect of flow rate and direction of application. In machining, depending upon the requirement and facilities
available, cutting fluid is generally employed in the following ways:
1. Drop-by-drop under gravity.
2. Flood under gravity.
3. In the form of liquid jet(s).

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 204 Machining and Machine Tools

Grinding fluid

Workpiece

Figure 5.18 Z−Z method of cutting fluid application in grinding.

Cutting fluid

Figure 5.19 Application of cutting fluid at high pressure through the hole in the tool.

4. Mist (atomized oil) with compressed air.

5. Z-Z method – centrifugal through the grinding wheels (pores) as indicated in Fig. 5.18.
The direction of application also significantly governs the effectiveness of the cutting fluid in respect of reach-
ing at or near the chip–tool and work–tool interfaces. Depending upon the requirement and accessibility, the
cutting fluid is applied from top or side(s). In operations like deep hole drilling, the pressurized fluid is often
sent through the axial or inner spiral hole(s) of the drill.
For effective cooling and lubrication in high speed machining of ductile metals having wide and plastic
chip–tool contact, cutting fluid may be pushed at high pressure to the chip–tool interface through hole(s) in
the cutting tool, as schematically shown in Fig. 5.19.

5.6 Solved Problems

PROBLEM 1
A medium carbon steel bar of diameter 200 mm is being turned at a cutting velocity of 120 m/min
at a feed of 0.2 mm/rev. The observed main cutting force and axial feed force are 800 N and 450 N,
respectively. Calculate the machining power and comment on contribution of axial feed force on the
same.

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 Heat Generation and Cutting Temperature in Machining 205

Solution: Given that so = feed = 0.2 mm/rev, d = workpiece diameter = 200 mm, Vc = cutting velocity =
120 m/min, n = spindle speed, we have
π dn
Vc = m/min
1000
1000Vc 100 × 120
⇒n= =  191 rpm
πd π × 200
Again
Vfeed = Feed velocity = nso

⇒ Vfeed = 191 × 0.2 = 38.2 mm/min = 0.038 m/min

Thus, the total machining power is given by

E T = PzVc + PxVfeed
0.038
E T = 800 N × 2m/s + 450 N × m/s = 1600 W + 0.2865 W
60
E T  1600 W
Thus, we can very easily see that the contribution of axial feed force on machining power is truly negligible.

PROBLEM 2
A low carbon steel bar is being turned at a cutting velocity of 120 m/min, a feed of 0.2 mm/rev. and
a depth of cut of 2 mm. The principal cutting edge angle and rake angle are 90° and 0°, respectively.
The chip thickness is 0.4 mm. The main cutting force and the resultant thrust force are 700 N and
400 N, respectively. Calculate the rise in shear zone temperature. The density, specific heat and thermal
conductivity of the work material are 7800 kg/m3, 485 kJ/kg K and 52 W/m K.
Solution: As f = 90°, a1 = s = 0.2 mm, Vc = 120 m/min = 2 m/s, we have

ρw c w a1Vc 7800 × 485 × 0.2 ×10 −3 × 2

R= = = 29.1
kw 52

as R > 10, we have Γ = 0.1. Let us assume that 95% of the energy consumed at the primary shear plane
is converted to heat and thus h = 0.95. As g 0 = 0°, F = Pxy = 400 N, Pz = 700 N, and

Vc 2 m/s 2
Vf = = = = 1 m/s
ζ a2 /a1 0.4/0.2
Therefore

η(1 − Γ){ PzVc − FVf } η(1 − Γ){ PzVc − FVf }

θs = =
a1bVc ρw c w tsoVc ρw c w

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 206 Machining and Machine Tools

0.95 × 0.9 × {700 × 2 − 400 × 1}

θs =
2 × 10 −3 × 0.2 × 10 −3 × 2 × 7800 × 485

θs  283 K or 283°C

PROBLEM 3
Refer to Problem 2. The thermal conductivity of the cutting tool material is 100 W/mK. Estimate
average chip–tool interface temperature.
Solution: We have f = 90°, b = t = 2 mm,

lc = a2 [1 + tan(b o − g o)]
= a2 [1 + tan b o ] (since g o = 0)

⎡ 1⎤ ⎛ cos γ o ⎞
= a2 ⎢1 + ⎥ ⎜⎝ since γ o = 0, tan βo = ζ − sin γ ⎟⎠
⎣ ζ⎦ o

Therefore
⎡ 1⎤
l c = 0.4 ⎢1 + ⎥ = 0.6
⎣ 2⎦
Now
lc
l0 = = 1.5
a2
2 ⎧ ⎛ 2b ⎞ 1 l c 1 ⎫
A= ⎨l n + + ⎬
π ⎩ ⎜⎝ l c ⎟⎠ 3 b 2 ⎭

2 ⎧ ⎛ 2 × 2 ⎞ 1 0.6 1 ⎫
= ⎨l n ⎜ ⎟+ × + ⎬
π ⎩ ⎝ 0.6 ⎠ 3 2 2 ⎭
A  1.6
Also

Vf l c 1 × 0.6 × 10 −3
L= = = 3.3
4α w 4 × [52/(7800 × 485)]
1
Γ=
1 + [(0.785 kT /kW )/ A L ]

1
=
1 + [(0.785 × 100 /52 )/1.5 × 3 ]
Γ1  0.63

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 Heat Generation and Cutting Temperature in Machining 207

Therefore
FVf
θm = 1.13 × 0.63 × 29.1 − 1.5 ×
tsoVc ρw c w
400 × 1
= 1.13 × 0.63 × 27.6 × −3
2 × 10 × 0.2 × 10 −3 × 2 × 7800 × 485
θm  492 K
So
qc = Average chip–tool interface temperature
= qs + qm + qam

= 283 + 492 + 25 (assuming qam = 25°C)

= 800°C

PROBLEM 4
In a given turning operation, by how much percentage will the average cutting zone temperature increase if
(a) Only the cutting velocity is doubled?
(b) Only the tool-feed rate is doubled?
(c) Only the depth of cut is doubled?
(d) All those variables are doubled simultaneously?

Solution: It has been experimentally established that amongst the process parameters, cutting veloc-
ity plays the most significant role and depth of cut t is the least significant, which is approximately
depicted by
qavg ∝ (Vc)0.4(so)0.24(t)0.1
Therefore,
(a) If Vc is doubled, average temperature qavg will increase by

1 − (2)0.4 = 1 − 1.319 = 0.319

which in about 32%.

(b) If feed so is doubled, then qavg will increase by

1 − (2)0.24 = 1 − 1.181 = 0.181

which is equivalent to rise by 18.1%.

(c) If depth of cut t is doubled, then qavg will increase by

1 − 20.1 = 1 − 1.0718 = 0.0718

which means increase by 7.18%.

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 208 Machining and Machine Tools

(d) If all the parameters Vc, so and t are doubled, the total increase in qavg in % will be

(1 − 20.4 + 0.24 + 0.1) 100 = (1 −20.74) 100 = (1 −1.67) 100 = 67%

PROBLEM 5
Under a given condition of plain turning of a mild steel rod by an HSS tool, the average cutting zone
temperature was measured to be around 600°C. What will be the value of that temperature if only the
principal cutting edge angle is changed from 90° to 30°?
Solution: We know that the average cutting zone temperature qavg is proportional to

qavg ∝ (a1)0.24

where a1 = so sinf ; f being the principal cutting edge angle. Therefore,

qavg1 = K1 (so sin 90°)0.24 = 600°C

and qavg2 = K1 (so sin 30°)0.24

Therefore, the changed value of qavg2 will be

(sin 30°)0.24
θavg 2 = × 600°C = 522°C
(sin 90°)0.24

PROBLEM 6
Two rods of yield shear strength 400 MPa and 200 MPa, respectively, are turned under identical
conditions but at cutting velocity of 100 m/min and 200 m/min, respectively. What will be the ratio of
the values of average chip–tool interface temperature in machining these rods?
Solution: Let the materials be marked ‘A’ and ‘B’ and the corresponding average chip–tool interface
temperatures be qia and qib. We know that the heat generation and cutting temperatures are propor-
tional to the rate of mechanical energy expended. Therefore,

qia ∝ Pza × Vca

and qib ∝ Pzb × Vcb

Again, we know that Pz ∝ ts, where ts is yield shear strength of the work material. Therefore,

θ i b ⎛ τ sb ⎞ ⎛ Vcb ⎞ ⎛ 200 ⎞ ⎛ 200 ⎞

= =⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ =1
θ i a ⎜⎝ τ sa ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ Vca ⎟⎠ ⎝ 400 ⎠ ⎝ 100 ⎠
Thus, the ratio will be 1.0 that is qi will remain unaltered.

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 Heat Generation and Cutting Temperature in Machining 209

PROBLEM 7
Analytically estimate the average shear zone temperature (qs) for plain turning a mild steel rod of diameter
100 mm by a carbide tool of geometry: −6°, −6°, 6°, 6°, 15°, 75°, 1.2 (mm) – NRS at speed 400 rpm,
feed 0.12 mm/rev and depth of cut 2 mm under dry condition when the following were noted:
• main cutting force, Pz = 2000 N
• frictional force, F = 500 N
• chip thickness, a2 = 0.60 mm
Assume:
• 80% of mechanical energy is converted into heat
• 90% of the heat generated of the shear zone goes into the chips
• mechanical equivalent of heat, J = 4.2 J/cal
• volume specific heat of chip material, rv = 825 Kcal/m3/°C

Solution: Given: A = 0.8, q1 = 0.9, t = 2 mm, J = 4.2 J/cal = 4200 N mm/cal, so = 0.12 mm/rev and
rv = 825 Kcal/m3°C. We know that the average shear zone temperature qs can be evaluated from the
expression

Aq1( Pz − F /ζ )sin βo
θs = + θambient
J ρv a1b1
Here,
a1b1 = tso = 2 × 0.12
Now
cot bo = ζ − tan g n
where
a2 a2 0.6
ζ= = = = 5 ⋅176
a1 so sin φ 0.12 sin 75°

and tan g s = tan(−6°) = −0.105

Therefore,
cot bo = 5.176 + 0.105 = 5.281 ⇒ bo = 10.7°
This gives
sin bo = 0.1856
Therefore,

0.8 × 0.9( 2000 − 500 /5.176 )0.1856

θs = + 25°C
4200 × 825 × 10 −6 × 2 × 0.12

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 210 Machining and Machine Tools

0.72(1903.4 )0.1856 × 106

=
4200 × 825 × 0.24

= 340°C

PROBLEM 8
From dimensional analysis, two dimensionless parameters, Q1 and Q2 are found to be related as follows:

2
ρ vθ i ⎛ρV a ⎞
Q1 = ; Q2 = ⎜ v c 1 ⎟
Ec ⎝ λ ⎠

If a work material ‘A’ when turned at 150 m/min, feed of 0.2 mm/rev., produces an average chip–tool
interface temperature (qi) of 500°C, then determine qi for another work material,‘B’ under identical
machining conditions, where the properties of materials ‘A’ and ‘B’ are given as follows:

Work Material

‘A’ ‘B’
Thermal conductivity l (Kcal/m°Csec) 40 60
3
Volume specific heat rv (Kcal/m °C) 800 725
2
Ultimate tensile strength s u (kg/mm ) 40 60
Percentage elongation, Δ 0.2 0.1
Chip reduction coefficient, ζ 2.5 2.75

Solution: We know that

Vc a1
θi = C1E c
λ ρv

where Q1 is the chip–tool interface temperature; C1 is a constant; Ec is the specific energy; Vc is the
cutting velocity; a1 is uncut chip thickness; l is thermal conductivity; rv = volume specific heat. Let qi
and θi′ be the temperature for material A and material B, respectively. Then

Vc ⋅ a1
θi = C1 E c (5.23)
λ ⋅ ρv

Vc′ ⋅ a1′
and θi′ = C1 E c′ (5.24)
λ ′ ⋅ ρv ′

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 Heat Generation and Cutting Temperature in Machining 211

Dividing Eq. (5.24) by Eq. (5.23) we get

θi ′ E c′ (Vc′/Vc )( a1′/a1 )
=
θi E c ( λ ′/λ )( ρv′/ρv )

Here Vc and a1 are unaltered. Therefore

⎛ E′⎞ ⎛ λ ⎞ ⎛ ρ ⎞
θi′ = θi ⎜ c ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ v ⎟
⎝ E c ⎠ ⎝ λ ′ ⎠ ⎝ ρv′ ⎠
Again,
PzVc Pz tsoτ s f
Ec = = = = τs f
Vctso tso tso

where f is the form factor = ζ − tan a + 1 and ts = 0.74 s u 60.6Δ (Δ = % elongation). Therefore,

E c′ 0.74σ u′ 60.6 ×0.1 (ζ ′ − tan γ + 1)

=
E c 0.74σ u 60.6 ×0.2 (ζ − tan γ + 1)

Assuming, tan g to be negligible, we get

E c′ ⎛ 60 ⎞ ⎛ 1.13 ⎞ ⎛ 3.75 ⎞
=⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ = 1.46
E c ⎝ 40 ⎠ ⎝ 1.24 ⎠ ⎝ 3.5 ⎠
Therefore,

⎛ 40 ⎞ ⎛ 800 ⎞
θi ′ = θi × 1.46 ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ = 500 × 1.46 × 0.857 = 625°C
⎝ 60 ⎠ ⎝ 725 ⎟⎠

Hence, the chip–tool interface temperature during turning the rod of material B, under identical
condition, will be 625°C.

PROBLEM 9
Determine the ratio of chip–tool interface temperature that will develop during turning two steel rods
of same size but having ts = 400 MPa and 450 MPa, respectively, and producing chips of ζ = 2.5 and
3.0, respectively, under same cutting velocity and feed rate and by same type of tools. Assume: Thermal
properties are same for both the steels.
Solution: Let the temperature be qi and θi′. We know that

Vc a1
θi = C1Ec
λ ρv

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 212 Machining and Machine Tools

Then
θi E c τ s (ζ − tan γ + 1)
= =
θi′ E c′ τ s′(ζ − tan γ + 1)
Neglecting the value of tan g we get

θi ⎛ τ s ⎞ ⎛ ζ + 1 ⎞ ⎛ 400 ⎞ ⎛ 3.5 ⎞
= =⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ = 0.78
θi′ ⎜⎝ τ s′ ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ ζ ′ + 1⎟⎠ ⎝ 450 ⎠ ⎝ 4.0 ⎠
Therefore, the desired temperature ratio is 0.78.

SU M M A R Y
The major portion of the mechanical energy that ferent approaches, models and techniques which
is expended in machining to accomplish primary have been presented in this chapter. Online moni-
shear deformation at the shear zone, secondary toring of cutting temperature in turning, drilling,
deformation at the chip–tool interface and to over- milling and grinding by various methods has been
come friction due to rubbing at the flank surfaces described with illustrations. Here the different pos-
gets converted into heat and raises the temperature sible ways of controlling cutting temperature have
at the cutting zone. The high cutting temperature been indicated. The purposes of employing cutting
affects product quality and life of the cutting tool. fluid in machining and grinding, the essential prop-
The machining temperature for any given work erties of cutting fluid, the criteria of its selection
material and MRR is governed by almost all the tool and the various methods of its application have also
processes and environmental parameters in different been addressed in detail. Development and use of
patterns and to different extents. advanced cutting tool materials plays a vital role in
The relationships between the machining countering the consequences of such high cutting
parameters and temperature have been explored temperature. These have been covered in the next
both analytically and experimentally using dif- chapter.

MU LT I P L E CH O I C E QU E S T I O N S
[Answers are provided in the CD]
1. Within the cutting zone during machining, (c) Chip
heat is generated at the (d) None of the above
(a) Primary shear zone 3. Increase in cutting velocity raises the tempera-
(b) Chip–tool interface ture of
(c) Work–tool interface (a) Chips
(d) All of the above (b) Cutting tool
2. The maximum amount of heat that is generated (c) Work surface
at the cutting zone during machining goes to the (d) All of the above
(a) Cutting tool 4. High cutting temperature causes
(b) Workpiece (a) Dimensional inaccuracy of machined part

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 Heat Generation and Cutting Temperature in Machining 213

(b) Damage of the machined surface (a) Average cutting zone temperature
(c) Tensile residual stresses at the machined (b) Average temperature of the chips
surface (c) Average temperature of the tool
(d) All of the above (d) All of the above
5. High cutting temperature does not affect 11. An additional error-compensation circuit
(a) Tool life is used for reliably accurate measurement of
(b) Built-up-edge formation average cutting temperature by
(c) Machine tool vibration (a) Using any decolourizing agent
(d) Magnitudes of cutting forces (b) Calorimetric method
6. The magnitudes and distribution of cutting (c) Tool–work thermocouple technique
temperature need to be known or determined (d) Moving thermocouple technique
for evaluation/assessment of 12. The cutting temperature in surface milling
(a) Machinability and surface grinding can be experimentally
(b) Role of variation of machining parameters determined by
on cutting temperature (a) Tool–work thermocouple technique
(c) Performance of tool geometry (b) Moving thermocouple technique
(d) All of the above (c) Embedded thermocouple technique
7. The least significant temperature in machining (d) None of the above
is 13. During turning steel rod by ceramic insert, the
(a) Average overall cutting zone temperature cutting temperature along the tool-rake sur-
(b) Average workpiece temperature face can be determined by
(c) Average shear zone temperature (a) Moving thermocouple technique
(d) Average chip–tool interface temperature (b) Compound rake tool system
8. For determination of cutting temperature, (c) Calorimetric method
compared to analytical methods, experimental (d) All of the above
methods are 14. The distribution of temperature at the rake
(a) More difficult and expensive but more and flank surfaces of a carbide turning insert
accurate can be detected and recorded on-line by
(b) More easy and inexpensive and more (a) Tool–work thermocouple method
accurate (b) Using photocells
(c) More difficult and expensive and less (c) Using CCD camera
accurate (d) None of the above
(d) More easy and inexpensive but less 15. The properties of the work material that influ-
accurate ence cutting temperature are
9. If in turning a steel rod, the cutting velocity is (a) Specific energy(machining) requirement
increased by four times, the chip–tool inter- (b) Ductility
face temperature will increase approximately (c) Thermal conductivity
by (d) All of the above
(a) 50% 16. The property of the cutting tool material
(b) 100% which does not influence tool temperature
(c) 200% during machining is
(d) 300% (a) Fracture toughness
10. In turning of steel rod by a carbide insert (b) Thermal conductivity
tool–work thermocouple technique enables (c) Chemical stability
determination of (d) All of the above

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 214 Machining and Machine Tools

17. The geometrical feature of cutting tool which (a) Cooling

does not influence cutting temperature, is (b) Lubricating
(a) Rake angle (c) Cleaning the machining zone
(b) Clearance angle (d) All of the above
(c) Cutting edge angle 22. The cutting fluid used in machining cast iron
(d) Inclination angle jobs is
(e) None of the above (a) Air-blast
18. Increase in cutting temperature in turning is (b) Water
most susceptible to increase in (c) Soluble oil
(a) Cutting velocity (d) Mineral oil
(b) Feed rate 23. Z–Z method of cutting fluid application is
(c) Depth of cut done in
(d) Width of cut (a) Turning
19. Cutting temperature does not depend upon (b) Milling
the proper selection and application of (c) Broaching
(a) Material and geometry of cutting tool (d) Grinding
(b) Cutting velocity and feed 24. Soluble oil is employed as cutting fluid in
(c) The machine tool (a) Drilling in mild steel plates
(d) Cutting fluid (b) Milling of low carbon steel jobs
20. In machining any hard steel under a given (c) Surface grinding of HSS by alumina wheel
condition, the cutting temperature will be (d) All of the above
minimum if the turning is done by 25. Cutting fluid is selected based on
(a) Alumina ceramic tool inserts (a) The work material
(b) Coated sintered carbide inserts (b) The cutting tool material
(c) cBN inserts (c) The type of machining operation
(d) High speed steel tool (d) All of the above
21. The main purpose of application of cutting
fluid is

R E V I E W QU E S T I O N S
1. Why do the chip and the tool-tip become very 6. Why is it necessary to know or determine
hot during machining metal jobs? the cutting zone temperature under different
2. In the cutting (machining) zone, where and machining conditions?
why is heat generated? 7. State the relative advantages and limitations of
3. How is the heat generated at the cutting zone analytical estimation and experimental deter-
shared amongst the chip, tool and the work- mination of cutting temperature.
piece while machining? How and why does the 8. Describe briefly a method of analytical esti-
apportionment of heat change with increase in mation of average shear-zone temperature in
cutting velocity? a plain turning operation.
4. What are the favourable and unfavourable 9. Briefly describe a suitable method of estima-
effects of high cutting temperature? tion of average chip–tool-interface temperature
5. How does high cutting temperature affect the in a turning operation.
cutting tool performance and quality of the 10. When and why does it become necessary to
machined product? experimentally determine the magnitude and

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 Heat Generation and Cutting Temperature in Machining 215

distribution of cutting temperature? 18. When, why and how is the chip–tool interface
11. Mention the various feasible methods of deter- temperature along the tool-rake surface mea-
mining cutting temperature experimentally. sured by compound rake (tool) system?
12. Describe briefly with the help of suitable 19. Describe, with the help of suitable example,
sketches the calorimetric method of experi- the method of measuring cutting temperature
mental determination of average temperature distribution by using photocell.
of (a) the chips and (b) the drill-tip during 20. Describe how the distribution of cutting tem-
drilling mild steel job by HSS twist drill. perature over the rake and flank surfaces at the
13. With the help of a suitable diagram briefly turning tool tips is determined and recorded
explain the method of experimental deter- on-line while machining.
mination of average cutting temperature in 21. State and show the role of variation in the
turning of steel a rod using tool–work thermo- different machining parameters on cutting
couple technique by carbide insert. temperature.
14. Why and how is the tool–work thermocouple 22. Why and how cutting temperature increases
calibrated? with the increase in cutting velocity, feed and
15. Why do some significant errors or parasitic emf depth of cut?
develop in measurement of cutting temperature 23. How can the magnitude of cutting tempera-
by tool–work thermocouple technique while ture be reduced (or favourably controlled) in
turning steel rods by carbide inserts? How can machining without sacrificing productivity or
such errors be reduced or compensated? MRR and product quality?
16. How can the temperature along the shear 24. How can proper selection of tool material and
plane and the flank of the tool be determined geometry help in reducing cutting tempera-
by moving thermocouple technique in opera- ture?
tions like shaping and planing? 25. State the purpose of application of cutting
17. Describe with the help of suitable sketches fluid in machining.
the method of experimental determination 26. What properties should cutting fluids possess
of average cutting temperature in milling and for desired functioning?
surface grinding by embedded thermocouple 27. Mention the different types of cutting fluids
technique. and state their various methods of application.

PR O B L E M S
With Answers
1. Determine the expected amount of reduction, temperature only if the tool-feed rate (so) is
in percentage, in average cutting zone temper- doubled and the principal cutting edge angle
ature due to simultaneous increase in cutting is changed from 75° to 45°?
velocity (Vc) by 50%, decrease in feed (so) by Ans: 847°C
40% and increase in depth of cut by 100% in 3. Two steel rods of same thermal properties but
a plain turning process. having yield shear strength of 500 MPa and
Ans: 1.109 300 MPa are turned in a lathe under identical
2. Under a given condition of dry turning a condition but at cutting velocity of 300 m/min
metal rod, the average cutting temperature and 400 m/min, respectively. If the average cut-
appears to be 700°C. How much will be that ting zone temperature of the first rod is 600°C,

MAMT_Chapter 5.indd 215 7/21/2011 10:27:26 AM

 216 Machining and Machine Tools

then determine that in case of the second rod. geometry: 0°, 6°, 6°, 6°, 15°, 75°, 0.8 (mm)
Ans: 415°C at 320 rpm, feed of 0.20 mm/rev and depth of
4. A brass rod in turned by a tool of geometry cut of 2.5 mm under dry condition when the
0°, 10°, 8°, 6°, 15°, 90°, 0 (mm) at feed of following were noted:
0.16 mm/rev and depth of cut of 2.5 mm un- • main cutting force, Pz = 800 N
der dry conditions. The following were noted • friction force, F = 500 N
during machining: Pz = 2000 N; b 0 = 20°; • chip thickness = 0.5 mm
F = 400 N; ζ = 2.0. Determine the expected Assume:
value of the average shear zone temperature qs • 90% of mechanical energy is converted
Assume the following: into heat
• 90% mechanical energy is converted into heat • 90% of heat generated goes into the chips
• 95% of heat goes into the chips • mechanical equivalent of heat, J =
• mechanical equivalent of heat, J = 4.2 J/Cal
4.2 J/cal • Volume (chips) specific heat, rv =
• volume specific heat, rv = 825 Kcal/m3°C 800 Kcal/m3°C
Ans: 380°C 4. A rod of material ‘A’ that is turned at cutting
velocity of 200 m/min and feed of 0.25 mm/
rev produced average chip–tool interface tem-
Without Answers perature qi of 600°C. Determine the value of
1. In plain turning of a given job by a given tool, qi when another rod of same dimensions but
if only the tool-nose radius is increased from different material is turned under the identical
0.5 mm to 0.8 mm then by how much, in per- condition. The properties of the two metals ‘A’
centage, will the value of the average cutting and ‘B’ are as given in Table 5.1.
zone temperature will change? 5. Determine the ratio of the values of chip–tool
2. How much change, in percentage, in the value interface temperature that will develop dur-
of the average cutting zone temperature is ex- ing dry turning of two steel rods of yield shear
pected to occur if, in a given turning opera- strength of 300 MPa and 400 MPa at cutting
tion, the depth of cut is doubled? velocity of 300 m/min and 250 m/min, respec-
3. Analytically estimate the value of the average tively. Assume: other machining condition to
shear zone temperature q s for plain turning of be the same. Thermal properties of both the
a steel rod of 120 mm diameter by a tool of steel rods are also same.

Table 5.1 Problem 4

Characteristics Material ‘A’ Material ‘B’

Thermal conductivity l (Kcal/m°Csec) 60 40
3
Volume specific heat rv (Kcal/m °Csec) 600 750
Yield shear strength ts (MPa) 400 450
Chip reduction coefficient (ζ) 2.5 3.0

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 6 Failure, Life and Materials
of Cutting Tools
Learning Objectives
The contents of this chapter would enable the readers to:
• Be aware of the causes and the general modes of • Know the chronological developments of
failure of cutting tools. cutting tool materials and the characteristics
• Illustrate the mechanisms and pattern of wear of HSS, carbides and plain ceramic tools.
of tools. • Acquire knowledge about the development
• Ascertain the essential properties of cutting tool of the modern cutting tools, coated carbides,
materials. high performance ceramics, cBN and dia-
• Define and assess tool life. mond tools of different grades and forms.
• Visualize the role of variation of the different • Select cutting tool material appropriate for
machining parameters on tool life. the work materials and machining condi-
• Develop and use Taylor’s tool life equation. tions and the desired objectives.

6.1 Introduction
The material of the cutting tool and also its geometry play substantial role on effectiveness, efficiency and
overall economy of machining. The oldest materials used to make tools for cutting and machining were stones
which were given desired shape and sharpness manually. There had been several breakthroughs, especially in
the last 10 decades, in the development and use of cutting tool materials. Like other things, cutting tools
also are not immortal. After some time, all the tools fail, functionally being unable to continue the desired
performance. Cutting tools fail occasionally due to mechanical breakage or rapid plastic deformation at their
cutting edges and mostly due to gradual wear. Failure by sudden breakage and rapid plastic deformation are
extremely harmful and undesirable. Long R&D work could be remarkable in reducing the chances of tool-
failure by these two modes. However, though failure by wear cannot be prevented, it can be delayed through
spectacular development in both material and geometry of cutting tools. The pattern and extent of tool wear
and hence tool life are significantly dependent upon the work material, cutting velocity, feed-rate and the
machining environment. Therefore, along with the other parameters, tool material should be selected appro-
priately based on the machining requirements.
In this chapter we will discuss the methods for determining the wear and life of cutting tools. The useful
chemical, physical and mechanical characteristics of the commonly used tool materials, both conventional

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 218 Machining and Machine Tools

and advanced categories, and their reasonable applications will also be provided in detail for the benefit of the
readers including students, teachers, people involved in R&D and practicing engineers.

6.2 Major Causes and Modes of Failure of Cutting Tools

Material and geometry of cutting tools as well as their proper use play substantial role in productivity, product
quality and overall economy of machining. Smooth, safe and economic machining necessitates
1. Prevention of premature, random and catastrophic failure of the cutting tools.
2. Reduction of rate of wearing of tools to prolong their service life.
For successful accomplishment of the aforesaid objectives, we first need to understand how cutting tools fail.
It has been observed that cutting tools generally fail by
1. Mechanical breakage of the cutting tool at its cutting edges or tip due to intensive stresses and
shocks. Such mode of tool-failure is random and catastrophic in nature and hence is extremely
harmful.
2. Rapid dulling of the tool tip or cutting edges of the tool by plastic deformation due to intensive
stress and temperature. This mode of tool-failure is also highly detrimental.
3. Gradual wear of the cutting tool at its working surfaces near the tool tip.
Figure 6.1 schematically shows the aforesaid three modes of failure of cutting tools at their tips and edges.
Both random and rapid total failures of the tool-tip by mechanical breakage or plastic deformation are very
harmful not only for the cutting tool and the product but also for the machine tool and its accessories.
Therefore, attempts are made to minimize the chances of such kind of tool failure, if not totally prevent it,
by selecting and using tools of the appropriate type, material and geometry depending upon the machining
requirements. However, wear is a natural and inevitable phenomenon. Gradual wearing of tools and their
ultimate failure by wear cannot be prevented but can be retarded or delayed, enabling longer service life of
the tool and improved overall machining economy.
When a tool (or its cutting edge) fails, the on-going machining is stopped and the tool is withdrawn or
changed immediately. If imminent failure of the tool is correctly identified, the tool may be withdrawn or
changed just before it is going to fail totally. To take such action appropriately, one must be able to notice or

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 6.1 General modes of cutting tool failure by (a) tool breakage, (b) plastic deformation and
(c) tool wear.

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 Failure, Life and Materials of Cutting Tools 219

understand that the tool has failed or is just going to fail. The following conditions are generally observed to
identify whether the cutting tool has failed:

A. In R&D laboratories
1. When the cutting edges or the tool-tip(s) totally deform by
(a) Mechanical breakage.
(b) Extensive plastic deformation.
(c) Massive chipping and fracturing.
2. When the cutting forces and/or vibration become abnormally high.
3. When the flank and/or crater wear of the tool become excessive, that is, beyond their stipulated
limits.
B. In machining shops or industries
1. When the current or power drawn becomes suddenly excessively high or abnormally low while
machining.
2. If and when excessive vibration (chatter) and sound develop during machining.
3. When the tool-tip undergoes total breakage or severe plastic deformation.
4. If and when the machined surface(s) attain or begins to attain excessive dimensional
deviation.
5. When the machined surface shows rapid worsening of surface finish.
6. If and when the form of the chips become abnormally adverse.

6.3 Wear of Cutting Tools

6.3.1 Mechanisms of Cutting Tool Wear
It is already stated that wear cannot be prevented or avoided but the rate of growth of tool wear can be
reduced. This necessitates studying and knowing the basic mechanisms of wear that the cutting tool under-
goes in different machining conditions. The usual mechanisms of cutting tool wear are as follows:
1. Mechanical wear: It can be again divided into two categories:
(a) Thermally insensitive type, such as
• Abrasion by attrition, scratching, ploughing and fatigue fracture of the high points of
asperities at the tool surface.
• Chipping at the sharp cutting edges.
• Delamination.
• Microfracturing.
(b) Thermally sensitive type, such as
• Adhesion.
• Thermal fracturing.
• Grain pull out and flaking.
2. Thermo-chemical wear: It is basically diffusion wear which may be
(a) Macro-diffusion by mass dissolution.
(b) Micro-diffusion by atomic migration.
In cutting tool wear by diffusion, the material from the tool at the rubbing surfaces of the cutting
tool continuously transfer or migrate in bulk or atom by atom towards the flowing chips. The chip

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 220 Machining and Machine Tools

material like Fe may also diffuse into the tool material, which weakens the bond strength of the tool
material and accelerates tool wear further. Cutting tools undergo intensive diffusion wear when
(a) The tool–work materials have mutual affinity or solid solubility.
(b) Chip–tool contact is intimate and continuous.
(c) Cutting temperature at the interfaces is quite high for intensive cutting forces and high cutting
velocity.
3. Chemical wear: Chemical wearing is mainly responsible for development of grooving wear and also
for aggravating notching wear (Fig. 6.2). Cutting tools attain substantial chemical wear when the
tool material is not enough chemically stable against the work material, cutting fluid or the atmo-
spheric gases.
4. Galvanic wear: It is based on electrochemical dissolution and occurs generally very slowly, when:
(a) Both the tool–work materials are electrically conductive.
(b) The cutting zone temperature is reasonably high.
(c) The cutting fluid acts as an electrolyte.

6.3.2 General Pattern and Index of Tool Wear

Figure 6.2 schematically shows the usual pattern or geometry of wear that develops at the rake surface and the
flank surfaces of single-point cutting tools or inserts with the continuation of machining. With the progress
of machining, the tool at its working tip attains (Fig. 6.2) the following:
1. Crater wear at the rake surface: This cavity or small pond-like wear is caused by abrasion, adhe-
sion and diffusion in different degrees depending upon the tool–work materials and the machining

KB KT
Notch
KM
Vsm
VS

Auxiliary flank
Section A-A

A A
VM Crater
wear
Flank VB
wear Grooving wear
VN

Notch Grooving wear

Principal flank Rake surface

Figure 6.2 General pattern and features of turning tool.

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 Failure, Life and Materials of Cutting Tools 221

condition. The extent or amount of crater wear is specified by depth (KT), width (KB) and location
(KM) of the crater as indicated in Fig. 6.2. Crater wearing is often influenced also by plastic deforma-
tion and pull out of grains due to intensive friction at the chip–tool interface.
2. Principal flank wear: This wear occurs more or less uniformly at the principal flank mainly by abra-
sion and adhesion. Diffusion may also occur to some extent while machining at high cutting velocity
and without cutting fluid. Flank wear at the principal flank is designated by its average width (VB)
and often also by maximum width (VM) as indicated in Fig. 6.2.
3. Auxiliary flank wear: Like the principal flank, the auxiliary flank also attains mechanical wear which
is designated by its average width (VS) and also often by maximum width (Vsm).
4. Notching wear: A deep and wide groove (VN), called notching wear, is often found to develop
on the principal flank at the outer end of the main cutting edge (Fig. 6.2). Such notch is caused
mechanically by the sharp and hardened work surface in contact with the outer end of the main
cutting edge.
5. Grooving wear: Two grooves of different size may also develop due to chemical wear aggravated by
rubbing.
Figure 6.3 typically shows the relative values and rates of growth of the major wear parameters with machin-
ing time. Figure 6.4 visualizes a typical pattern of actual tool wear in a carbide turning insert. Figure 6.5(a)
schematically shows the pattern of flank wear observed in used-up face milling multiple edged carbide inserts.
Figure 6.5(b) shows schematically the pattern of flank wear that develops at the cutting edges of drills. Both
flank wear (VB) and crater wear (KT) become maximum in drills at their periphery [Fig. 6.5(b)] due to maxi-
mum cutting velocity at that region.

0.5
VB

0.4
KM
Magnitude of wear, mm

0.3

0.2

KT
0.1

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Machining time, min

Figure 6.3 Relative amount and growth rate of the major wear parameters of cutting tools versus
machining time.

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 222 Machining and Machine Tools

Figure 6.4 Pattern of actual wear of carbide insert.

Intermediate edge Main cutting edge

average wear (V B2) average wear (V B )
1

Planishing edge
average wear (VB3)

(a)

Crater
wear

Flank
wear
V Bmax

(b)

Figure 6.5 (a) Pattern of wear in face milling carbide inserts. (b) Pattern of flank wear in drills.

6.3.3 Measurement of Tool Wear

Development and growth of tool wear not only causes ultimate failure of that tool or tool-tip but also affects
several other machinability aspects as follows:
1. Increase in magnitude of cutting forces through loss of sharpness of the cutting edges and rubbing at
the tool-flanks.
2. Increase in cutting power consumption.
3. Dimensional inaccuracy due to wear of the tool-tip and increased cutting forces.

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 Failure, Life and Materials of Cutting Tools 223

4. Development of odd sound and vibration.

5. Deterioration of surface quality of the product for wear at the nose and auxiliary cutting edge and
for vibration.
The nature and degree of the harmful effects of tool wear depend upon the pattern and extent of the tool
wear. It is very often required to monitor or measure the amount of tool wear (VB, VM, VN, VS, KT, KM, etc.),
particularly VB, KT and VS for evaluation of tool life and assessment of status of the tool (wear) and its pos-
sible detrimental effects.
Tool wear can be monitored and assessed directly as well as indirectly and off-line as well as on-line.
However, the magnitude of wear and its distribution over the surfaces or along the cutting edges of tools are
directly and off-line measured generally by the following methods:
1. From loss of volume or weight: This method is crude and is applicable for grinding wheels, honing
sticks, etc.
2. By grooving or indentation method: In this approximate method, the depth of wear is determined
from the difference in length of the grooves or indentations taken outside and inside the worn area.[1]
3. Using low magnification optical microscope: This method is quite simple but effective and hence
is very commonly used.
4. Observing the worn zones under scanning electron microscope (SEM): This method is used
generally for detailed study both quantitatively and qualitatively.
5. Using profilometer or talysurf especially for crater wear.
6. Radio-activity[2] method was found to be quite useful under complex situation but has been unpop-
ular for likely health hazards.

6.4 Tool Life

6.4.1 Definition and Evaluation of Tool Life
Now-a-days, cutting tools or tool tips are hardly allowed to fail by the extremely harmful rapid, random and
catastrophic failure through mechanical breakage or bulk plastic deformation of cutting tools. So presently,
cutting tools are considered to fail mostly by systematic time-dependant wearing process.
Tool life is generally defined by the span of actual uninterrupted machining time through which the tool
or tool-tip renders desired service and satisfactory performance and after which that tool needs replacement
or regrinding or indexing.
Since the word “satisfactory” is a qualitative term, the level of satisfaction has essentially been quantified
and standardized. Whenever, a significant parameter or index of tool wear reaches its stipulated value, the
tool-tip is declared to have failed and the corresponding span of machining time is considered to be the tool
life. It is almost globally standardized that when the value of average flank wear (VB) reaches 0.30 mm, the
tool-tip would be considered to have failed. Figure 6.6 schematically indicates such procedure. A drill fails
when its flank wear at the outer ends of the main cutting edges reach 0.3 mm.
Figure 6.6 shows that the tool wear, like VB, grows systematically with machining time. Such systematic
wear passes through three stages: (a) rapid break-in wear initiated by attrition, (b) longer span of slowly and
uniformly growing mechanical wear and (c) again rapid wear accelerated by diffusion, grain pull out, fractur-
ing, flaking, etc.
The rate of growth of tool wear and hence tool life obviously depends upon the tool and work materials
and the cutting condition. The levels of the process parameters more or less influence the growth of wear.

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 224 Machining and Machine Tools

Point of inflexion
0.4

Average flank wear, VB, mm

Tool life, T
0.3 VB* = 0.30 mm

Break-in
0.2 wear Rapid wear
Mechanical wear

0.1

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Actual machining time, T, min

Figure 6.6 Pattern of growth of flank wear (VB) with machining time.

Cutting velocity plays the most significant role. Application of cutting fluid also plays substantial role on
control of tool wear and improvement in tool life.

6.4.1.1 Assessment of Tool Life

Tool life may be assessed and expressed in different ways. For R&D purposes, tool life is almost always
expressed by span of machining time in minutes. However, in industries, besides machining time in minutes,
some other means are also used, depending upon the situation, to assess tool life, such as
1. number of pieces of jobs machined,
2. volume of material removed,
3. total length of cut,
before the tool fails.

6.4.2 Taylor’s Tool Life Equation

Cutting tool wear, like any other sliding wear, occurs gradually and systematically with time. The rate of
growth of tool-wear increases sharply with the increase in cutting velocity and moderately with increase of
feed. Increase in depth of cut, if not excessive, generally does not influence tool wear (VB, etc.) and tool life
significantly. Figure 6.7 schematically shows the role of increase in cutting velocity (Vc) on rate of growth of
tool wear and the values of tool life being evaluated based on limiting value of flank wear VB. It also indicates
that under a given condition of machining with fixed feed and depth of cut, the values of tool life decreases
from T1 to T4 due to increase in cutting velocity from V1 to V4. The change in tool life has a simple and
distinct relationship with that of cutting velocity as indicated in Fig. 6.8. The curve, tool life versus cutting
velocity in Fig. 6.8 becomes straight line when plotted in log–log scale as shown in Fig. 6.9.
Based on Fig. 6.9, a simple but very important and useful equation has been derived[3] as
VT n = C [or Vc (TL)n = C ] (6.1)

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 Failure, Life and Materials of Cutting Tools 225

VC 4 VC 3 > VC2 VC 2 > VC1 VC 1

VB* = 0.30 mm
0.3

Flank wear, VB , (mm)

T4 T3 T2 T1
Machining time, T, min
Tool life, TL, min for VC1

Figure 6.7 Role of increase in cutting velocity on growth of flank wear (VB ) and tool life.
Cutting velocity, V
(m/min)

VC1
T4 T3 T2 T1
Tool life in min (T )

Figure 6.8 Nature of variation in tool life with the increase in cutting velocity.

V4T4
tan a = n
a V3T3
log (Vc)

C V2T2
V1T1

log (T )

Figure 6.9 Tool life versus cutting velocity in log–log scale.

where V is the cutting velocity (Vc) in m/min; T is the tool life in min (TL); n, C are constants (Taylor’s expo-
nent and Taylor’s constant). The values of the Taylor’s constants, n and C, depend upon the following:
1. Work material and tool material.
2. Maximum permissible value of VB (i.e., 0.3, 0.4, 0.6 mm, etc.).
3. Type and method of application of cutting fluid.
4. Levels of feed so and also depth of cut t to some extent.

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 226 Machining and Machine Tools

The values of the Taylor exponents can be experimentally determined (in shorter time)
1. Approximately but economically by
(a) Facing tests.[4]
(b) Taper turning tests.[5]
2. Economically and reasonably accurately by variable speed machining.[3]
Numerous examples on the use of Taylor’s tool life equation are given in “Solved Problems” section.

6.4.2.1 Modified Taylor’s Tool Life Equation

In Taylor’s tool life equation, only the effect of variation of Vc on tool life has been considered. Practically, the
variation in feed (so) and depth of cut (t) also play role on tool life to some extent. Taking into account the
effects of all these parameters, Taylor’s tool life equation has been modified as

Cv
TL = (6.2)
Vc s o y t z
x

where TL is the tool life in min; Cv is a constant depending mainly upon the tool–work materials and the
limiting value of VB undertaken; x, y and z are exponents, so-called tool-life exponents, depending upon the
tool–work materials and the machining environment. Generally, x > y > z as Vc affects tool life maximum and
t the minimum. The values of the constants − Cv, x, y and z − are available in Machining Data Handbooks or
can be evaluated by machining tests.

6.4.3 Role of Different Machining Parameters on Tool Life

Almost all the parameters and factors, both quantitative and qualitative, associated with machining play sig-
nificant roles, though in different degrees, on tool life. The major factors and their role in tool life are briefly
stated as follows:
1. Work material: The metallurgical, mechanical and thermal properties of the work material substan-
tially affect tool life.
(a) The significant metallurgical factors that affect tool life include type (composition) of the work
material, its microstructure, chemical affinity and chemical aggressiveness towards the tool
material; the latter two, if intensive, reduce tool life.
(b) Amongst the mechanical properties of work material, high strength, hardness and work hard-
enability as well as too much softness cause reduction in tool life.
(c) Tool life decreases with more heat resistivity of the work material.
2. Tool material: For a given work material, the tool material plays the most significant role on tool life.
The chemical (composition), metallurgical (microstructure, etc.), mechanical and thermal properties
of the material of tool more or less significantly affect tool life as follows:
(a) Tools that are chemically inert or stable against the work material, atmospheric gases and cut-
ting fluids, undergo lesser and slower damages and provide longer tool life.
(b) Finer and refined microstructure of the tool material renders improvement in tool life.
(c) Among the mechanical properties of the tool material, its strength and hot strength, high hard-
ness and hot hardness, as well as high fracture toughness enhance tool life.

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 Failure, Life and Materials of Cutting Tools 227

(d) A cutting tool (material) having low thermal conductivity at the surfaces but high thermal
conductivity at its core, if feasible, is ideal for prolonging tool life.
3. Tool geometry: It is already mentioned that the overall performance, especially tool life, of a tool
depends on both its material and geometry. Proper selection of primary geometrical features – rake
angle, clearance angles, inclination angle and cutting angles as well as nose radius and edge radiusing
or beveling – enables to obtain such higher tool life through
(a) Reduction in cutting forces and heat generation.
(b) Better heat dissipation.
(c) Favourable stress distribution.
(d) Prevention of built up edge formation.
(e) More effective cutting fluid action.
4. Process parameters: Among the process parameters Vc, so and t, tool wear is the most susceptible to
and tool life is the most affected by increased cutting velocity Vc, which reduces tool life mainly due
to increased cutting temperature and longer effective sliding length. Increase in feed also reduces tool
life as it results in increased cutting forces and cutting temperature.
5. Environment (cutting fluid): Application of cutting fluid plays a spectacular role in prolonging tool
life. Proper selection and method of application of cutting fluid can raise tool life drastically through
cooling, lubrication and cleaning of the cutting zone from chips and debris.
6. Special techniques: In critical cases, tool life can be reasonably enhanced by employing, if feasible,
some special techniques like cryogenic machining, dynamic machining and even hot machining
depending upon the machining requirements.
Figure 6.10 schematically shows how tool life is affected by variation of the salient machining parameters.
Cutting velocity (log)

Steel
Tool life

Tool life

Cast iron

−10 −5 0 +5 10 15 5 10 15 20
Tool life, TL (log) Rake angle, g n Clearance angle, a n

Carbide tool
HSS tool Feed s1
Tool life

Tool life

Tool life

s2
s3
s3 > s2 > s1
−20 −10 0 10 20 0 45 60 90
Inclination angle, l Cutting angle, f Depth of cut, t

Figure 6.10 Usual patterns of effects of variation of the salient parameters on tool life.

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 228 Machining and Machine Tools

6.5 Cutting Tool Materials

6.5.1 Essential Properties
The vast progress in industrial manufacturing has brought about several remarkable improvements in cutting
tool materials and geometry
1. To meet the ever-growing demands for enhanced productivity, high quality and overall economy of
machining.
2. To enable effective and efficient machining of the so-called difficult-to-machine exotic materials
which are rapidly and widely coming up with the progress of the industrial world.
3. To accomplish precision and ultra-precision machining as per demand of the day and future.
4. For micro-machining as its demand is increasing.
The service life and overall performance of cutting tools, for a given job, are governed by
1. Material of the cutting tools.
2. Geometry of the cutting tools.
3. Proper selection and use of the cutting tools.
4. The condition of machining and cutting fluid application.
Of these, the most vital role is played by the tool material. Figure 6.11 indicates how the productivity in
manufacturing by machining has increased exponentially with the chronological development and progress
in cutting tool materials.
For prevention of random and catastrophic failure of the cutting edges by breakage and rapid plastic
deformation, and for retention of sharpness and long service life of the tools, cutting tool materials essentially
require the following properties:
1. High mechanical strength (tensile, compressive and shear) to resist breakage of the tool or tool tip.
2. High hardness to reduce abrasion wear.
3. High hot strength and hot hardness to maintain form stability[6] of the cutting edges.

80
Coated carbide 250 m/min

High perf. ceramics 750 m / min

70
Carbide (brazed) 60 m/min
MRR (for turning MS) units

(brazed) 80 m/min

60
Diamond and cBN

50
HSS 25 m/min

40

30
Carbide

20

10

0
1910 1923 1965 1980 2000

Year

Figure 6.11 Increase in productivity (MRR) with progress of cutting tool materials.

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 Failure, Life and Materials of Cutting Tools 229

Need Year Development

1900
HSS (W: 18%; Cr: 4%; V: 1%; C: 0.7%)
Automobile 1910
Stellite
WW-I 1920 HSS (V: 2–4%, Co: 5–12% in W & Cr)

Aircraft 1930 Sintered carbide for C. I.

WW-II 1940 Carbide for steels

Chem., petro-chem., NU HSS with high V, Mo, Co & C

1950
& polymer industries plain ceramics, syn. diamond
Jet engines
1960 Ceramics and cermets
Space programmes
Reduction of cost of
1970 Coated carbides, PM - HSS, PCD
manufacturing
Defence
1980 cBN, coated HSS, SIALON
super-alloys

1986 High performance ceramics

Just-in-time 1990 Diamond-coated carbides, PCBN

Figure 6.12 Chronological development of cutting tool materials.

4. Adequate fracture toughness and transverse rupture strength to reduce chipping and fracturing.
5. Enough fatigue strength to withstand dynamic loading.
6. High chemical stability or inertness against work material, atmospheric gases and cutting fluid.
7. Reasonably high thermal conductivity to reduce cutting temperature at the tool tip.
8. Resistance to adhesion and diffusion to retard adhesion wear and the rapid diffusion wear.
9. High stiffness to maintain dimensional accuracy of the machined features.
10. Self-lubricity or lesser friction at the chip–tool interface to resist formation of built-up edge.
11. Formability, availability and inexpensiveness.
Figure 6.12 roughly shows the chronological development that took place in cutting tool material through
the last few decades. New and more effective tool materials are continuously being discovered.

6.5.2 Conventional Cutting Tool Materials and Their Characteristics

6.5.2.1 High Speed Steel (HSS)
The advent of HSS[7] in 1905 provided a breakthrough in the history of cutting tool materials. However, later
HSS was outperformed by many other novel tool materials, such as cemented carbides and ceramics, which
could machine at much faster speeds than the HSS tools.

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 230 Machining and Machine Tools

The basic composition of HSS is 18% W, 4% Cr, 1% V, 0.7% C, the rest being Fe. Such HSS tools could
machine (turn) mild steel jobs at speeds of only upto 20−30 m/min under dry cut and upto 45 m/min (which
was quite substantial in those days) with cutting fluid. However, HSS is still used as cutting tool material
where
1. The tool geometry and mechanics of chip formation are complex, such as helical twist drills, reamers,
gear shaping cutters, hobs, form tools, broaches, etc.
2. Brittle tools such as carbides, ceramics, etc. are not suitable, that is, under shock loading conditions.
3. Costlier tools are not affordable, for example, in small-scale industries.
4. Machine tools are low-power, small, and old, and therefore cannot accept high speed and feed.
5. The tool is to be used a large number of times by re-sharpening, for example form tools, hobs,
broaches, etc.
With time the effectiveness and efficiency of HSS (tools) and their application range were gradually enhanced
by improving its properties and surface condition through
1. Refinement of microstructure.
2. Addition of large amount of cobalt and vanadium to increase hot hardness and wear resistance,
respectively.
3. Manufacture by powder metallurgical process.
4. Surface coating with heat and wear resistive materials like TiC, TiN, etc. by chemical vapour deposi-
tion (CVD) or physical vapour deposition (PVD), mostly TiN by PVD.
The commonly used grades of HSS are given in Table 6.1. Addition of a large amount of Co and V, refine-
ment of microstructure and coating led to increased strength and wear resistance, thus enhanced productivity
and life of the HSS tools remarkably.

Table 6.1 Compositions and types of popular high speed steels

Type C W Mo Cr V Co RC
T−1 0.70 18 4 1
T−4 0.75 18 4 1 5
T−6 0.80 20 4 2 12
T−2 0.80 6 5 4 2 64.7
T−4 1.30 6 5 4 4
M − 15 1.55 6 3 5 5 5
M − 42 1.08 1.5 9.5 4 1.1 8 62.4

6.5.2.2 Stellite
This is a cast alloy of Co (40−50%), Cr (27−32%), W (14−19%) and C (2%). Stellite is quite tough and is
more heat- and wear-resistive than the basic HSS (18 − 4 − 1). However, stellite as a cutting tool material
became obsolete because of its poor grindability, especially after the advent of cemented carbides.

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 Failure, Life and Materials of Cutting Tools 231

6.5.2.3 Sintered Tungsten Carbides

The advent of sintered carbides was another breakthrough in the history of cutting tool materials.[8, 9]
1. Straight or single carbide: First the straight or single carbide tools or inserts are produced using powder
metallurgy by mixing, compacting and sintering 90−95% WC powder with cobalt. The hot, hard and wear-
resistant tungsten carbide (WC) grains are held by the binder Co which provides the necessary strength
and toughness. Such tools are suitable for machining grey cast iron, brass, bronze, etc. which produce short
discontinuous chips and at cutting velocities two to three times of those possible for HSS tools.
2. Composite carbides: Tools made of a single carbide are not suitable for machining steels because of
the rapid growth of wear (particularly crater wear). This wear occurs by diffusion of cobalt and carbon
from the tool to the chip due to continuous, intimate and wide bulk (plastic) contact between the chip
and the tool surfaces under high stress and temperature. For machining steels successfully, another
type of material called composite carbide has been developed by adding a gamma phase (8−20% by
volume) to the WC and Co mixture. The gamma phase is a mixture of TiC, TiN, TaC, etc. which are
more diffusion-resistant than WC due to their greater stability and lower wetability against steel.
3. Mixed carbides: Titanium carbide (TiC) is not only more stable but also much harder than WC.
Therefore, for machining ferritic steels that cause intensive diffusion and adhesion wear, a large quan-
tity (5−25%) of TiC is added with WC and Co to produce another grade called mixed carbide. But
increase in TiC content reduces the toughness of the tools. Therefore, for finishing with light cut but
high speed, the harder grades containing upto 25% TiC are used, whereas for heavy roughing work
at lower speeds, a lesser amount (5−10%) of TiC is suitable.
4. Gradation of cemented carbides and their applications: The standards developed by ISO for
grouping of carbide tools and their application ranges are given in Table 6.2.[9]
(a) P-group is suitably used for machining long chipping ferrous metals, that is, plain carbon and
low alloy steels.
(b) M-group is generally recommended for machining more difficult-to-machine materials like
strain hardening austenitic steel, manganese steel, etc.
(c) K-group is suitable for machining short-chip-producing ferrous and non-ferrous metals and
also some non-metals.
Each group again is divided into some subgroups like P10, P20, etc. as shown in Table 6.3 depending upon
their properties and applications.[9] The smaller numbers refer to those operations which need more wear
resistance and the larger numbers to those requiring higher toughness for the tool.
Sintered uncoated carbide tools are generally used in the form of “throw away” type small inserts; square,
triangular and rhomboidal, which are mechanically clamped on suitable tool shanks as shown in Figs. 6.13(a)

Table 6.2 Broad classification of sintered carbides as tool material

ISO Code Colour Code Application

P For machining long chip forming common materials like plain carbon and
low alloy steels
M For machining long or short chip forming ferrous materials like Stainless
steel
K For machining short chipping ferrous and non-ferrous material (and non-
metals) like Cast Iron, Brass etc.

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 232 Machining and Machine Tools

Table 6.3 Detail grouping of cemented carbide tools

ISO Group Material Applications

P01 Steel, steel castings Precision and finish machining, high speed
P10 Steel, steel castings Turning, threading and milling high speed, small
chips
P20 Steel, steel castings, malleable cast iron Turning, milling, medium speed with small chip
section
P30 Steel, steel castings, malleable cast iron forming Turning, milling, low cutting speed, large chip
long chips section
P40 Steel and steel casting with sand inclusions Turning, planing, low cutting speed, large chip
section
P50 Steel and steel castings of medium or low Operations requiring high toughness turning,
tensile strength planing, shaping at low cutting speeds
K01 Hard grey C.I. chilled casting, Al, alloys with Turning, precision turning and boring, milling,
high silicon scraping
K10 Grey C.I. hardness > 220 HB. Malleable C.I., Turning, milling, boring, reaming, broaching,
Al alloys containing Si scraping
K20 Grey C.I. hardness up to 220 HB Turning, milling, broaching, requiring high
toughness
K30 Soft grey C.I. Low tensile strength steel Turning, reaming under favourable conditions
K40 Soft non-ferrous metals Turning, milling, etc.
M10 Steel, steel castings, manganese steel, grey C.I. Turning at medium or high cutting speed, me-
dium chip section
M20 Steel casting, austenitic steel, manganese steel, Turning, milling, medium cutting speed and
spherodized C.I., malleable C.I. medium chip section
M30 Steel, austenitic steel, spherodized C.I. heat- Turning, milling, planing, medium cutting speed,
resisting alloys medium or large chip section
M40 Free cutting steel, low tensile strength steel, Turning, profile turning, specially in automatic
brass and light alloy machines

and (b). The inserts are made available as solid or hollow and are clamped in different ways. Again the insert
may be negative type as well as positive rake type as indicated in Fig. 6.13(c).
Often, carbide inserts of different but suitable size and shapes, depending upon the machining operation,
are brazed on steel tool shanks. Coated carbide tools are always made and used as ‘throw away’ inserts and
mechanically clamped on tool shanks. If both brazing and coating become necessary then the tool is coated
after brazing is done.

6.5.2.4 Plain Ceramics

Inherently high compressive strength, chemical stability and hot hardness of the ceramics has led to powder
metallurgical production and use of indexable ceramic tool inserts[10] since 1950. Alumina (Al2O3) and

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 Failure, Life and Materials of Cutting Tools 233

(a) (b)

Negative Positive
(c)

Figure 6.13 General form of carbide inserts: (a) Square and triangular inserts; (b) rhomboidal and
circular inserts; (c) negative and positive (rake) inserts.

silicon nitride[11] (Si3N4) are the basic two ceramics suitable for cutting tools. Table 6.4 shows the advantages
and limitations of alumina ceramics in contrast to sintered carbide. Alumina (Al2O3) is preferred to silicon
nitride (Si3N4) due to higher hardness and chemical stability. Si3N4 is more thermally conductive, tougher
and stronger but difficult to process without hot pressing (HP) and reaction bonding. The plain ceramic tools
are brittle in nature and hence had limited applications.

Table 6.4 Cutting tool properties of alumina ceramics

Merits Shortcoming
Very high hardness Poor toughness
Very high hot hardness Poor tensile strength
Chemical stability Poor TRS
Antiwelding Low thermal conductivity
Less diffusivity Less density
High abrasion resistance

High melting point

Very low thermal conductivity*

Very low thermal expansion coefficient

∗ Cutting tool should resist penetration of heat through the surface but should disperse the heat,
when entered, throughout the core.

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 234 Machining and Machine Tools

Basically three types of alumina base ceramic tool-bits are available in the market:
1. Plain alumina with traces of additives: These white or pink sintered inserts are cold pressed and are
used mainly for machining cast iron and similar materials at speeds of 200−250 m/min.
2. Alumina with or without additives: These inserts are hot pressed, black in colour, hard and strong,
and are used for machining steels and cast iron at speeds of 150−250 m/min.
3 Carbide ceramic (Al2O3 + 20% to 30% TiC): These inserts are cold or hot pressed, black in colour,
quite strong and tough; used for machining hard cast irons and plain and alloy steels at 150 to 200
m/min.
The plain ceramic outperformed the then existing tool materials in some application areas like high speed
machining of softer steels mainly for higher hot hardness as indicated in Fig. 6.14.
Ceramic tools are always made and used only as ‘throw away’ inserts and are mechanically clamped on
tool shanks. However, the use of those brittle plain ceramic tools (until their strength and toughness could be
substantially improved after 1970) gradually decreased for being restricted to applications requiring:
1. Uninterrupted machining of soft cast irons and steels only.
2. Relatively high cutting velocity but only in a narrow range (200−300 m/min).
3. Very rigid machine tools.
The advent of coated carbide capable of machining cast iron and steels at high velocity made these plain
ceramics almost obsolete.

6.5.3 Advanced Cutting Tool Materials

The advent of a number of remarkable cutting tool materials in the last few decades enabled spectacular
improvement in effectiveness, efficiency and economy in manufacturing, especially machining. The advanced
cutting tool materials include the following:
1. Coated carbides.
2 Cermets.
3. Coronite.

90
Ceramic
Hardness, HRC

60

30 HSS
Carbides
Carbon
tool steel
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Cutting temperature × 100°C

Figure 6.14 Hot hardness of the different commonly used tool materials.

MAMT_Chapter 6.indd 234 7/21/2011 10:32:45 AM

 Failure, Life and Materials of Cutting Tools 235

4. High performance ceramics (HPC).

5. Cubic boron nitride.
6. Diamond as PCD and coating.

6.5.3.1 Coated Carbide

An ideal cutting tool demands several properties, some of which are often contradictory in nature and hence
difficult to attain in a single material. Coating technology substantially fulfilled such requirement. A thin but
hard coating of single or multiple layers of more stable and heat- and wear-resistive materials like TiC, TiCN,
TiOCN, TiN, Al2O3, etc. is provided on the tough carbide inserts (substrate) by processes such as CVD,
PVD, etc. in a controlled environment.
The bulk core or substrate provides the desired mechanical strength, bulk toughness and TRS as well as
high thermal conductivity for reducing tool temperature. The coating on the surface of the substrates provides
resistance to oxidation, corrosion, all types of tool wear, etc. as well as reduces friction at the chip−tool contact
surfaces and thus enable prolonging tool life in machining both common and exotic materials. Figure 6.15
schematically shows the configuration of a coated tool before and during machining. Even after rupture and
wear of the coating, it continues resisting tool wear with the help of its hard worn edges and the fractured
particles embedded in the substrate.
The beneficial effects of suitable coating on cutting tools include[9]
1. Reduction of cutting forces and power consumption (by 20–50%),
2. Increase in tool life (by 100−250%) for the same cutting velocity Vc; or increase in Vc (by 50−150%)
for same tool life.
3. Improvement in product quality (accuracy and finish).
4. Effective and efficient machining of wide range of work materials.
5. Reduced pollution.
These can be achieved through
1. High resistance to abrasion, adhesion and diffusion wear.
2. Lesser wetting, friction and built-up-edge (BUE) formation.

Chip

Coating

Substrate

Tool holder

(a) (b)

Figure 6.15 Configuration of a coated insert in (a) fresh and (b) wearing condition.

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 236 Machining and Machine Tools

3. Longer retention of tool sharpness due to more thermal, chemical and form stability of the coating.
4. No or less use of cutting fluid.
Coated cutting tools or inserts are categorized based on the following parameters:
1. Composition, thickness and microstructure of the coating layer(s).
2. Composition and microstructure of the substrate material.
3. Process of coating.
4. Type, size, shape and geometry of the tool (substrate).
There are various methods or processes of hard but thin coating in practice. The processes found suitable for
thin hard coating of cutting tools are as follows:[9, 12]
1. Chemical vapour deposition (CVD) with coating thickness 5–5 μm.
2. Physical vapour deposition (PVD) with coating thickness 2–5 μm.
The major advantages of CVD are
1. High density, good stoichiometry and strong metallurgical bonding of the coating on the substrate.
2. More uniform and wider surface coverage by the coating.
However, CVD has also some limitations, such as
1. Higher temperature (900–1000°C) during deposition, which may impair the bond and induce ten-
sile residual stress at the coating–substrate interfaces.
2. The coating surface may not be smooth enough.
The main advantages of PVD are
1. Finer grained, smoother and lubricious coating.
2. Higher coating density and excellent adhesion.
3. Defined composition of the multiple layers.
4. Lower deposition temperature (around 500°C) and hence lesser thermal damages.
5. Wide range of coating and substrate materials possible.
6. Ability to prepare or modify the substrate surface as per requirements.
7. Possibility of improving bond strength.
The limitations of PVD include
1. Inability to coat large area of hidden surfaces.
2. Difficulty in maintaining stoichiometry and uniformity.
The characteristics and quality of the coating depend upon
1. Material of the coating(s).
2. Material of the substrate.
3. Process of coating.
4. Control of the process parameters.
5. Post-coating treatment.
The performance of coated tools also depends on

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 Failure, Life and Materials of Cutting Tools 237

1. Work material to be machined.

2. Thickness and uniformity of the coating.
3. Geometry of the tool substrate.
4. Machining condition (e.g., speed, feed, cutting fluid application, nature, extent of vibration, etc.).
Several combinations of substrate and coating materials are used for cutting tools.[13]
The coating materials generally used on carbide tool substrates are:
1. As single layer: TiC, TiN, TiCN, TiAlN, Al2O3. TiB2, BC and D (diamond).
2. In multiple layers:
(a) TiN on TiC.
(b) Al2O3 on TiN or TiCN.
(c) TiC within two layers of TiN.
(d) TiCN on TiC and finally TiN.
(e) Al2O3 within two layers of TiN.
(f ) TiN on TiC on Al2O3 on TiN.
(g) TiCN on Al2O3 and finally TiN, and a few more combinations.
TiC is more compatible to WC and provides more resistance to abrasion-type wear. On the other hand,
TiN is more chemically stable, resistant to adhesion diffusion wear, friction and BUE formation. TiCN stays
within TiC and TiN and makes the multiple coating layer more compatible and effective.
TiAlN is a unique coating material and is finding wide use for its excellent properties. Compared to
TiN, TiAlN is not only more ductile and thermally conductive but also more hot hard, thermochemically
stable and wear-resistant. The passive oxide layer formed during machining due to aluminium present
in TiAlN offers additional lubricity and wear resistance. Tools made of this unique coating have been
successfully used for reasonably high speed machining of even difficult-to-machine materials like Ni-based
super-alloys.
High-performance coated carbide tool inserts have been developed in which a suitable carbide substrate
is coated consecutively with upto 13 layers (within about 15 μm of total thickness) of TiC, TiCN, TiN, etc.
and an AlON phase is formed by implanting nitrogen in Al2O3. Such multilayered coated carbide provides
about 50% extra tool life in high-speed machining of cast iron and steels. Coatings used for coated tools are
of three categories:
1. Hard coating (TiC, TiN, TiCN, Al2O3, etc.).
2. Heat-insulating coating (CrN and TiAlN).
3. Soft coating (MoS2, MoS + Ti, WS2, etc.).
The soft coating behaves as a solid lubricant to reduce friction, cutting forces, cutting temperature and tool
wear usually in machining sticky materials like aluminium, titanium, copper and some of their alloys. Figure
6.16 visualizes the different forms of coated carbide tool inserts.

6.5.3.2 Coronite
The quality and performance of HSS tools were already substantially improved by refinement of micro-
structure, manufacture by powder metallurgical process and PVD coating. Recently a unique tool mate-
rial, namely ‘coronite’, has been developed[9] which has outperformed all classical HSS tools in respect of
saving in cutting forces and energy requirement, tool life and product quality. This new material is being

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 238 Machining and Machine Tools

Figure 6.16 Different forms of coated carbide tool inserts.

very successfully used for making cutting tools which are generally made of HSS such as drills, end milling
cutters, etc. The tool material (coronite) is manufactured basically by appropriately combining HSS for
strength and toughness and tungsten carbide (WC + Co) for heat- and wear-resistance. Microfine powder
of TiCN is uniformly dispersed into the HSS–carbide matrix.
Figure 6.17 briefly shows manufacturing process of coronite. The performance of coronite tools is further
improved by surface coating. Small- and medium-sized coronite drills, for instance, are manufactured in the
following steps:

1. A solid core of HSS or spring steel is prepared as the central part.

2. A layer of coronite of thickness 15−20% of the drill diameter is provided around the core by hot
extrusion.
3. A fine layer (2−5 μm) of TiCN or TiN is PVD coated on the extruded tool.

HSS WC + Co
for strength and toughness for heat and wear resistance

Dispersed
submicron TiCN grains

Coronite

Figure 6.17 Manufacturing process of coronate.

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 Failure, Life and Materials of Cutting Tools 239

The merits of coronite tools are as follows:

1. Compared to HSS tools, coronite tools
(a) Provide longer tool life.
(b) Need lesser cutting forces.
(c) Provide higher accuracy and surface finish.
2. Compared to sintered carbide tools, coronite tools are
(a) Stronger and tougher.
(b) Can be easily sharpened and re-sharpened by grinding.
3. Wide range of work materials can be reasonably machined by coronite tools.

6.5.3.3 Cermets
The word cermet originated by combining ‘cer’ of ceramic and ‘met’ of metals. So, it is obviously implied
that this advanced cutting tool material possesses some of the unique properties of ceramics and also of
metals. The favourable ceramics include TiC, TiN, TiCN, etc. and the favourable metals are Ni, Co, Ni-Co,
Ni-Mo, Fe, etc.[9] Actually, cermet has been aimed at getting the useful properties of ceramics and those of
metals in a single material. In around 1980, the composition of cermet was optimized. In modern cermet
inserts, fine grains of TiCN (in a phase of WC) are mixed with Ni-Co and Fe as binder. Cermet inserts of
different standard sizes and shapes are made by the standard powder metallurgical process. TiCN is selected
for its consistently good wear resistance, low porosity and ease of preparation. The unique characteristic of
cermets are:
1. Harder, more chemically stable and wear-resistant compared to sintered carbides of both uncoated
and coated types.
2. Less tough, thermally conductive and shock-resistant compared to carbides.
3. Weight% of binder varies within 10−20%.
4. Cutting edge sharpness is retained longer than that in coated carbide inserts.
5. 20−100% more productive than both uncoated and coated carbide tools.
The modern TiCN-based cermet inserts with beveled or slightly rounded cutting edges are quite suitable
for semi-finish and finish turning of steels including stainless steel at high speed. However, such cermets are
not favourably applicable for interrupted machining as well as machining of aluminium and similar metals.
Research is ongoing for further development of better cermets.

6.5.3.4 High Performance Ceramics

Merits and Limitations of Plain Ceramics
Ceramic tools, in their early stages of development, were not widely accepted because they were weak and
exhibited frequent failures as a result of improper application or use of unsuitable machine tools or both.
Such ceramic tools possessed good hot hardness, compressive strength and excellent chemical stability and
wear-resistance. But they were inherently weak in tension, impact, dynamic loading and thermal shock
owing to their low tensile strength, toughness, transverse rupture strength and thermal conductivity. These
tools were found to fail rapidly and randomly, mostly by brittle fracture. These deficiencies limited the
application of the early (1950−1975) ceramic tools to only uninterrupted machining of relatively softer

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 240 Machining and Machine Tools

grade work materials at moderate speed (Vc) within a narrow range (200−250 m/min) and, again, only in
sufficiently rigid machine tools. Such ceramic tools having several weaknesses became almost obsolete, par-
ticularly after the advent of coated carbides.
However, briefly it can be stated that plain ceramics are much superior to sintered carbides in respect
of hot hardness, chemical stability and resistance to heat and wear but lack mainly in fracture toughness
and strength. Figure 6.18 schematically depicts the relative strengths and weaknesses of plain ceramics with
respect to sintered carbides.

Improvement of Quality and Performance of Ceramic Tools

Though coated carbides and cermets outperformed plain ceramics, R&D work went on through several
decades to improve the quality and performance and widen the application range of ceramics by gradually
removing the weakness of plain ceramics and exploiting their inherently unique properties. The mentionable
effective methods of such improvement of ceramic tool materials include the following:[14, 15]

1. Addition of an appropriate amount of suitable oxides such as Fe2O3, NiO, TiO2, MnO2, Cr2O3,
etc., especially TiO2, which improved sinterability by rapid sintering and densification. However, it
caused grain growth which has been controlled by adding 0.5 wt% of MgO. Such addition of TiO2
and MgO improved, to some extent, microstructure, strength and toughness of Al2O3 ceramics.
2. Addition of TiC by 10−30% significantly enhanced strength, toughness and thermal conductivity of
alumina tools but reduced wear resistance.
3. Introduction of silicon nitride (Si3N4) ceramic and Sialon (Si3N4 + Al2O3) − Compared to plain
alumina ceramics, Si3N4 ceramic tools exhibit more resistance to fracturing by mechanical and
thermal shocks as they have higher bending strength, toughness and higher conductivity. Hence
such tools seem to be more suitable for rough and interrupted cutting of various materials excepting
steels, which cause rapid diffusion wear and BUE formation. The toughness and wear resistance of
nitride ceramic tools could be further increased by adding zirconia and coating the finished tools
with high hardness alumina and titanium compound. Nitride ceramics cannot be easily compacted

Hot hardness

Toughness Thermal shock

resistance

Tungsten
Carbide

Ceramic
Abrasion Chemical
resistance stability

Figure 6.18 Comparison of important properties of ceramic and tungsten carbide tools.

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 Failure, Life and Materials of Cutting Tools 241

and sintered to high density. Sintering with the aid of ‘reaction bonding’ and ‘hot pressing’ may
reduce this problem to some extent.
4. Hot pressing and sintering of an appropriate mix of Al2O3 and Si3N4 powders yielded an excellent
composite ceramic tool called SIALON[16] which is very hot hard, quite tough and wear-resistant.
These tools can machine steel and cast irons at high speeds (250−300 m/min). Machining of steels
by such tools at very high speeds reduces the tool life by rapid diffusion. Isostatic pressing, especially
hot isostatic pressing (HIP) imparted remarkable improvement in strength and toughness of both
Al2O3- and Si3N4-based ceramics[17] but wide use of such novel ceramics is restricted by high manu-
facturing cost.
However, inadequate improvement and high cost prevented these modified ceramic tools from becoming
economically viable and from wide commercial use. Ceramics have really made a breakthrough as cutting
tool materials and are rapidly gaining wide commercial use after their remarkable improvements. Even with
little additional cost, some unique properties led to development of what is called high performance ceramic
(HPC) tools, namely,
1. Zirconia toughened alumina.
2. Whisker reinforced ceramic.
3. Metal toughened alumina.
HPC tools can be broadly classified into two groups as shown in the figure below.

HPC tools

Nitride ceramics Oxide ceramics

Silicon nitride Alumina

• Reaction bonded or • Zirconia (ZT, PSZ) toughened
• HlPed Si3N4
• SIALON • SiC whisker reinforcement
• Whisker toughened • Metal toughened

Nitride Ceramic Reinforced by SiC Whisker

The principle is analogous to reinforcement of concrete (beams, columns, etc.) by steel rods. In a brittle
matrix of ceramic tools, the functions of the aforesaid steel rods are accomplished by the huge tiny SiC rods,
called whiskers, which are randomly dispersed in a ceramic insert. The rod-like SiC whiskers are in average
6 μm long, have 1 μm diameter and a hexagonal cross-section.[14]
The toughness, strength and thermal conductivity and hence the overall performance of nitride ceramics
could be increased remarkably by adding SiC whiskers or fibres in 5−25 volume%. The SiC whiskers add
fracture toughness mainly through crack bridging, crack deflection and fibre pull-out. Such tools are very
expensive but extremely suitable for high-production machining of various soft and hard materials even un-
der interrupted cutting.

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 242 Machining and Machine Tools

Zirconia Toughened Alumina (ZTA) Ceramic

The enhanced strength, TRS and toughness have made these ZTAs more widely applicable and more
productive than plain ceramics and cermets in machining steels and cast irons.[15, 16] Fine powder of partially
stabilized zirconia (PSZ) is mixed in proportion of 10−20 volume% with pure alumina, and is then either
cold pressed and sintered at 1600−1700°C [17, 18] or hot isostatically pressed (HIP) under suitable temperature
and pressure. The phase transformation of metastable tetragonal zirconia (t-Z) to monoclinic zirconia (m-Z)
imparts the desired strength and fracture toughness through volume expansion (3−5%) and induced shear
strain (7%). This phase transformation occurs during cooling of the composite (Al2O3 + ZrO2) inserts after
sintering or HIP and during polishing and machining. The mechanisms of toughening effect of zirconia in
the basic alumina matrix are stress-induced transformation toughening as indicated in Fig. 6.19 and micro-
crack nucleation toughening.
The hardness of these ceramics has been raised further by proper control of particle size and sintering
process. Hot pressing and HIP raise the density, strength and hot hardness of ZTA tools but the process
becomes expensive and the tool performance degrades at lower cutting speeds. However, such ceramic tools
can machine steel and cast iron at speed range of 150−500 m/min.

Alumina Ceramic Reinforced by SiC Whiskers

The properties, performances and application range of alumina-based ceramic tools have been improved
spectacularly through drastic increase in fracture toughness (2.5 times), TRS and bulk thermal conductiv-
ity, without sacrificing hardness and wear-resistance, by mechanically reinforcing the brittle alumina matrix
with extremely strong and stiff silicon carbide whiskers.[19, 20] The randomly oriented, strong and thermally
conductive whiskers enhance the strength and toughness mainly by crack deflection and crack bridging and
also by reducing the temperature gradient within the tool. After optimization of the composition, process-
ing and the tool geometry, such tools have been found to effectively and efficiently machine a wide range
of materials over a wide speed range (250−600 m/min) even under large chip loads. But manufacturing of
whiskers needs very careful handling and precise control. Also these tools are costlier than zirconia-tough-
ened ceramic tools.

Metal (Silver) Toughened Alumina Ceramic

Toughening of alumina with metal particles became an important area of research since 1990 though its
possibility was reported in the 1950s. Alumina-metal composites have been studied primarily after the addi-
tion of metals like aluminium, nickel, chromium, molybdenum, iron and silver in alumina.[21, 22] Compared
to zirconia and sintered carbides, addition of metals was found to provide more toughness in alumina ceramics.
Again compared to other metal-toughened ceramics, silver-toughened ceramics can be manufactured by sim-
pler and more economical process routes like pressure-less sintering and without atmosphere control. All such

Process zone

Alumina matrix

Crack tip
PSZ particles

Figure 6.19 The method of crack shielding by a transformation zone.

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 Failure, Life and Materials of Cutting Tools 243

(a)
Undeflected
Crack front

(i) Crack tilting (ii) Crack deflection

Closure forces
(b)

Crack bridging Crack

Figure 6.20 Toughening mechanism of alumina by metal dispersion.

potential characteristics of silver-toughened alumina ceramic have already been exploited in making some salient
parts of automobiles etc. Research is going on to develop and use silver-toughened alumina for making cutting
tools like turning inserts.[23] The toughening of the alumina matrix by the addition of metal occurs mainly by
crack deflection and crack bridging by the metal grains as schematically shown in Fig. 6.20. Addition of silver
further helps by increasing thermal conductivity of the tool and self-lubrication by the traces of silver that ooze
out through the pores and reach the chip-tool interface. Such HPC tools can suitably machine with large MRR
and Vc and long tool life even under light interrupted cutting like milling. Such tools also can machine steels at
speeds varying from quite low to very high cutting velocities (200−500 m/min).
Table 6.5 presents the approximate values of density, hardness and fracture toughness of the differ-
ent ceramic tool materials. Ceramic tools of different compositions and properties should be employed at
appropriate machining conditions to derive their potential benefits. Some relevant recommendations have
been provided in Table 6.6.

6.5.3.5 Cubic Boron Nitride (cBN)

Extreme hardness next to that of diamond (the hardest material known so far) has made cubic boron nitride
(cBN) highly useful as a super-cutting tool material. For critical machining requirements, polycrystalline
cubic boron nitride (PCBN) has been more effective due to its several unique properties. PCBN is manufac-
tured by consolidation of fine cBN particles under high pressure and temperature in the presence of Ni, Fe or
cobalt as catalyst.[9] The thin (0.5−1.0 mm) layer of small PCBN grains is firmly compacted during sintering
on WC substrate. These PCBN compacts of desired size and shape are either clamped or brazed on standard
tool holders. PCBN tools of different grades of varying cBN content (%) and binder (TiC, TiN, etc.) are
made available to suit different machining conditions.
The unique properties of PCBN tool inserts include[24]
1. Extreme hardness (next to diamond) and extreme abrasion resistance.
2. Quite high fracture toughness (in between ceramic and WC).
3. Retention of sharpness (form stability), hardness and fracture toughness at elevated cutting temperature.
4. High thermal conductivity, low thermal expansion coefficient and thermal stability at temperatures
upto 1400°C.
5. High chemical stability even against irons and steels at high machining temperature (but undergoes
diffusion wear in high speed machining of less hard steels).Overall, reasonably high wear resistance.

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 244 Machining and Machine Tools

Table 6.5 Some salient material properties of different ceramic cutting tools[23]

Material Density (gm/cc) Hardness Fracture toughness

Value (MPam1/2) Method
Al2O3 3.8−3.9 15.3−15.9 2.2−2.5

Al2O3 + TiC 4.2−4.3 17−17.4 3.1−3.5

SIALON 3.35 12.2−15.2 GPa 3.6−5.2

Al2O3 + 0.5% MgO

Normally sintered 3.95 93.5RA
Hot pressed 4.00 94RA

HIP 4.00 94RA

Pure Al2O3 3.9 93.5RA

α − Al2O3 93.3% 1390HV 7.0 IFT

Al2O3 + 14 wt. % Y − 96.0% 1400HV 13.3

PSZ 98.4% 1544HV 15.2

Al2O3 + Y − PSZ Relative density

1 wt. % MgO

Al2O3 + 5w%ZrO2 1800HV 4.0

Al2O3 + 20w%ZrO2 1721HV 6.1

Al2O3 + 30w%TiC 2000HV 4.5

Al2O3 + SiC (+ ZrO2) 2100HV 7.5

Al2O3 + SiCw + TiC 2340HV 7.5

Si3N4 2300HV 8.0

Al2O3 (White) 4.3 22

Al2O3 + TiC (Black) 4.5 23

SIALON 6.5 60

Palmqvist
Toughness
(kg/mm)
Al2O3 sintered 15−17 2.9

19 GPa 4.0

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 Failure, Life and Materials of Cutting Tools 245

Table 6.6 Favourable machining applications of different ceramic tools[23]

Work material Hardness Tool material Cutting conditions Inserts Vc ,

so , t, environment
Steel Al2O3 200−400 m/min (for steel)
XC 35 91.5 R A CEROC (French) 100−400 m/min (for C.I.)
Cast Iron ∼ 12 R C 0.2 mm/rev, 1 mm

Cast Iron Al2O3 SNGN4320

Al2O3 + TiC 800 m/min
0.2 mm/rev
1.5 mm
Steel Al2O3 + PSZ SNUN 120408
C 20 140−450 m/min
C 50 0.12−0.24 mm/rev
1.5−2.0 mm
Dry

Steel Al2O3 SNUN 120408

Al2O3 + ZrO2 75−350 m/min
C 15 Al2O3 + TiC 0.25 mm/rev
1.0 mm
Dry

Austempered 294 HV Al2O3 + ZrO2 50−400 m/min

ductile iron Al2O3 + TiC 0.1 mm/rev
(3.68% C) Al2O3 + SiCw 1.0 mm
Si3N4 Dry, Ar, O2 gas

Steel 310−340 HV Al2O3 + ZrO2 SNGN 120408

AISI4340 Al2O3 + TiC 200−600 m/min
Al2O3 + SiCw 0.1−0.4 mm/rev
Cast Iron 2P 230−280 HV Si3N4 0.5−2 mm Dry
(3−3.3% C)

Application of PCBN tools is increasingly demanded for their feasibility, economic advantage and indispens-
ability over wide ranges of work materials and machining requirements. PCBN tools are presently used for
1. Continuous and interrupted machining of hardened steels (> 45RC) at Vc = 70–300 m/min.
2. Continuous and interrupted machining of steels and super-alloys (> 35RC) at Vc = 180−400 m/min.
3. Rough and semi-finish turning of grey cast iron at Vc = 400−800 m/min.
4. Rough and finish turning of hard cast iron (BHN ≥ 400) at Vc = 80–300 m/min.
5. High-speed and dry finishing of various non-ferrous metals and alloys and also several non-metals.

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 246 Machining and Machine Tools

However, cBN or PCBN tools should not be used for machining soft and very ductile irons and steels, stain-
less steels and any Ni-based super-alloys.
Possibility of high MRR and finish machining by PCBN enables dry and pollution-free machining. The
performance of PCBN tools were further improved, especially in turning brittle materials and interrupted
machining, by proper cutting edge preparation (champiring and/or rounding by honing). The only limitation
of PCBN tools is its very high cost.

6.5.3.6 Diamond
Diamond tools for their remarkable (highest) hardness and several other unique properties are essentially and
inevitably used for high-speed machining, especially for finishing critical components of various general and
exotic materials.[9] Though very expensive, application of diamond tools often becomes unavoidable and also
beneficial. Diamond tools are used in different forms
1. As single crystal: natural or synthetic.
2. As PCD compacts or tips.
3. As diamond-coated sintered carbide tool.

Single Crystal of Diamond

Single-diamond crystals, natural or synthetic, are used as tip/edge of cutting tools. Owing to the extreme
hardness and sharp edges, natural single crystal is used for many applications, particularly where high accu-
racy or precision is required. Their important uses are:
1. Single point cutting tool tips and small drills for high-speed machining of non-ferrous metals, ceram-
ics, plastics, composites, etc. and effective machining of difficult-to-machine materials.
2. Drill bits for mining, oil exploration, etc.
3. Tools for cutting and drilling in glasses, stones, ceramics, fibre reinforced plastics (FRPs), etc.
4. Finish machining of wire drawing and extrusion dies.
5. Super-abrasive wheels for critical grinding.
Limited supply, increasing demand, high cost and easy cleavage of natural diamond demanded a more reliable
and affordable source of diamond. This led to the invention of artificial diamonds by ultra-high temperature
and pressure synthesis process, which enables large-scale manufacture of diamonds with some control over
size, shape and friability of diamond grits and bits as desired for various applications.

Polycrystalline Diamond
The polycrystalline diamond (PCD) tools consist of a layer (0.5−1.5 mm), randomly oriented diamond
particles of fine grain size sintered with a suitable binder (usually cobalt) and then metallurgically bonded
to a suitable substrate like cemented carbide or Si3N4 inserts.[25] PCD exhibits excellent wear resis-
tance, holds a sharp cutting edge, generates little friction in the cut, provides high fracture strength, and
possesses good thermal conductivity. These properties contribute to the long life of PCD tools in conven-
tional and high speed machining of soft, non-ferrous materials (aluminium, magnesium, copper, etc.),
advanced composites and metal-matrix composites, super-alloys, and non-metallic materials. PCD is par-
ticularly well suited for abrasive materials (i.e., drilling and reaming metal matrix composites) where it
provides 100 times the life of carbides. PCD is not recommended for machining ferrous metals because

MAMT_Chapter 6.indd 246 7/21/2011 10:32:47 AM

 Failure, Life and Materials of Cutting Tools 247

of graphitization of diamond in intimate contact with these materials at elevated temperature. However,
they can be used to machine some of these materials under special conditions; for example, light cuts are
being successfully made in grey cast iron. The main advantage of PCD tools is their greater toughness due
to finer microstructure with random orientation of the grains and reduced cleavage. But such unique PCD
also suffers from some limitations such as
1. High tool cost.
2. Presence of binder, cobalt, which reduces wear resistance and thermal stability.
3. Complex tool shapes like in-built chip breaker cannot be made.
4. Size restriction, particularly in making very small diameter tools.
The above-mentioned limitations of polycrystalline diamond tools have been almost overcome by developing
diamond-coated tools.

Diamond-Coated Carbide Tools

Since the invention of low pressure synthesis of diamond from gaseous phase, continuous effort has been
made to use thin film diamond in cutting tools.[26] These are normally used as thin (< 50 μm) or thick
(> 200 μm) films of diamond synthesized by CVD method for cutting tools, dies, wear surfaces and even
abrasives for Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM) and grinding. The thin film is directly deposited on the tool
surface. The thick film (> 500 μm) is grown on an easy substrate and later brazed to the actual tool substrate,
after which the primary substrate is removed by dissolving it or by other means. Thick film diamond finds
application in making inserts, drills, reamers, end mills, routers, etc. CVD coating has been more popular
than single-diamond crystal and PCD mainly due to the following reasons:
1. It is free from binder, higher hardness, resistance to heat and wear more than PCD and properties
close to natural diamond.
2. It is highly pure, dense and free from single crystal cleavage.
3. It permits wider range of size and shape of tools and can be deposited on any shape of the tool includ-
ing rotary tools.
4. It is relatively less expensive.
However, achieving improved and reliable performance of thin film CVD diamond-coated tools (carbide,
nitride, ceramic, SiC, etc.) in terms of longer tool life, dimensional accuracy and surface finish of jobs essen-
tially needs the following:[27, 28]
1. Good bonding of the diamond layer with the substrate.
2. Adequate properties of the film (e.g., wear resistance, micro-hardness, edge coverage, edge sharpness
and thickness uniformity).
3. Ability to provide work surface finish required for specific applications.
While cBN tools are feasible and viable for high speed machining of hard and strong steels and similar
materials, diamond tools are extremely useful for machining stones, slates, glass, ceramics, composites,
FRPs and non-ferrous metals, especially those which are sticky and BUE former such as pure aluminium
and its alloys. cBN and diamond tools are also essentially used for ultra-precision as well as micro- and
nano-machining.
Demand, research and progress for development of new and novel tool materials are still continuously
going on.

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 248 Machining and Machine Tools

6.6 Solved Problems

PROBLEM 1
Under a given condition of turning, the tool life was found to decrease from 24 min to 16 min when
only the cutting velocity Vc was raised from 200 m/min to 250 m/min. What will be the tool life if the
cutting velocity is further increased to 300 m/min under the same machining condition?

Solution: Taylor’s tool life equation is

VT n = C
where V stands for cutting velocity (Vc) and T for tool life. Given that V1 = 200 m/min;V2 = 250 m/min;
V3 = 300 m/min;T1 = 24 min; T2 = 16 min. We have to calculate T3. Now,
V1T1n = V2T2n = V3T3n = constant
Then,
n
⎛ T2 ⎞ ⎛ V1 ⎞
⎜⎝ T ⎟⎠ = ⎜⎝ V ⎟⎠
1 2

n
⎛ 16 ⎞ ⎛ 200 ⎞
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ = ⎜ ⇒ n = 0.55
⎝ 250 ⎟⎠
or
24
Again,
n
⎛ T3 ⎞ ⎛ V1 ⎞
⎜⎝ T ⎟⎠ = ⎜⎝ V ⎟⎠
1 3
Then,
1/ n 1/ 0.55
⎛V ⎞ ⎛ 200 ⎞
T3 = T1 ⎜ 1 ⎟ = 24 ⎜ = 11.6 min
⎝ V3 ⎠ ⎝ 300 ⎟⎠
Therefore, T3 = 11.6 min.

PROBLEM 2
During turning a brass rod by an HSS tool, the tool life increased from 20 min to 40 min when cutting
velocity (Vc ) is reduced from 50 m/min to 40 m/min. At what cutting velocity the life of the same tool
under the same condition will be 30 min?

Solution: Taylor’s tool life equation is

VTn = C
where V stands for cutting velocity (Vc) and T for tool life. Now,

V1T1n = V2T2n = V3T3n = C (constant )

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 Failure, Life and Materials of Cutting Tools 249

Given that V1 = 50 m/min; V2 = 40 m/min; T1 = 20 min; T2 = 40 min; T3 = 30 min. We have to

calculate V3. Now
n
⎛ T2 ⎞ ⎛ V1 ⎞
⎜⎝ T ⎟⎠ = ⎜⎝ V ⎟⎠
1 2

n
⎛ 40 ⎞ ⎛ 50 ⎞
or ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ = ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠
20 40
This gives n = 0.32. Again
n 0.32
⎛ V3 ⎞ ⎛ T1 ⎞ ⎛ 20 ⎞
⎜⎝ V ⎟⎠ = ⎜⎝ T ⎟⎠ = ⎜⎝ 30 ⎟⎠ = 0.88
1 3
Therefore,
V3 = V1 × 0.88 = 50 × 0.88 = 44 m/min

PROBLEM 3
The life of a plain milling cutter of diameter 75 mm was found to decrease from 50 min to 30 min due
to increase in speed (N ) of the cutter from 200 to 260 rpm while milling a cast iron plate at given feed
and depth. How much would be the life of that cutter if the speed is 120 rpm keeping other parameters
unchanged?

Solution: We know,
VTn = C
where V = Vc = cutting velocity and T is the tool life. Therefore,

V1T1n = V2T2n = V3T3n = constant

where V1 = p DN1, V2 = p DN2 and V3 = p DN3. Given that N1 = 200 rpm; N2 = 260 rpm; N3 = 120
rpm; T1 = 50 min; T2 = 30 min. We have to calculate T3. Now

n
⎛ T2 ⎞ ⎛ V1 ⎞ ⎛ π DN1 ⎞ ⎛ N1 ⎞
⎜⎝ T ⎟⎠ = ⎜⎝ V ⎟⎠ = ⎜⎝ π DN ⎟⎠ = ⎜⎝ N ⎟⎠
1 2 2 2
Then,
n
⎛ 30 ⎞ ⎛ 200 ⎞
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ = ⎜⎝ ⎟
50 260 ⎠
This gives n = 0.5. Again,
n
⎛ T3 ⎞ ⎛ V1 ⎞ ⎛ π DN1 ⎞ ⎛ N1 ⎞
⎜⎝ T ⎟⎠ = ⎜⎝ V ⎟⎠ = ⎜⎝ π DN ⎟⎠ = ⎜⎝ N ⎟⎠
1 3 3 3

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 250 Machining and Machine Tools

0.5
⎛ T3 ⎞ ⎛ N ⎞ ⎛ 200 ⎞
or ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ = ⎜ 1⎟ = ⎜ ⎟
50 ⎝ N 3 ⎠ ⎝ 120 ⎠
Therefore,
2
⎛ 200 ⎞
T3 = 50 ⎜ = 83 min
⎝ 120 ⎟⎠

PROBLEM 4
An HSS drill during its life can drill 200 through holes in a 20 mm thick brass plate at drill-speed
of 200 rpm. Another drill of same type can make only 100 holes when the drill-speed was increased
to 300 rpm. How many holes will be produced by another drill of same type if its speed is raised to
400 rpm?

Solution: We know,
VT n = C
where V = Vc = cutting velocity and T is the tool life. Therefore,

V1T1n = V2T2n = V3T 3 = constant

Here, V1 = pdN1, V2 = pdN2 and V3 = pdN3, where d is the drill diameter and N is the speed (rpm). Now

L
T1 = 200 ×
N 1 so
L
T2 = 100 ×
N 2 so
L
T3 = x ×
N 3 so
where L is the length of hole and so is the feed. Then
n
⎛ T2 ⎞ ⎛ V1 ⎞
⎜⎝ T ⎟⎠ = ⎜⎝ V ⎟⎠
1 2
n
⎛ 100 N1 ⎞ ⎛ π dN1 ⎞
or ⎜⎝ 200 × N ⎟⎠ = ⎜⎝ π dN ⎟⎠
2 2

Given N1 = 200 rpm, N2 = 300 rpm and N3 = 400 rpm. Therefore

(1/ n )−1 (1/ n )−1

⎛ N1 ⎞ ⎛ 200 ⎞ 100
=⎜ = = 0.5
⎜⎝ N ⎟⎠
2
⎝ 300 ⎟⎠ 200
From this we get
1
− 1 = 1.7
n

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 Failure, Life and Materials of Cutting Tools 251

Again,
n
⎛ T3 ⎞ ⎛ V1 ⎞
⎜⎝ T ⎟⎠ = ⎜⎝ V ⎟⎠
1 3
(1/ n )−1
x ⎛ N1 ⎞
or =
200 ⎜⎝ N 3 ⎟⎠

where x is the desired number of holes being produced at 400 rpm. Therefore
1.7
⎛ 200 ⎞
x = 200 ⎜ = 62 holes
⎝ 400 ⎟⎠

PROBLEM 5
Determine the values of the constant ‘C ’ and the exponent ‘n’ of Taylor’s tool life equation for a cutting
condition, if the life of the tool increases from 30 min to 60 min due to reduction of cutting velocity
from 200 m/min to 160 m/min.

Solution: We know that Taylor’s tool life equation is

VT n = C
where V is the cutting velocity (Vc) and T is the tool life. Therefore,

V1T1n = V2T2n = constant

Given: T1 = 30 min, T2 = 60 min, V1 = 200 m/min, V2 = 160 m/min. Then,

n
⎛ T2 ⎞ ⎛ V1 ⎞
⎜⎝ T ⎟⎠ = ⎜⎝ V ⎟⎠
1 2

n
⎛ 60 ⎞ ⎛ 200 ⎞
or ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ = ⎜⎝ ⎟
30 160 ⎠
From this we get n = 0.32. Now
C = V1T1n = 200 × (30)0.32 = 594
Therefore, C = 594 and n = 0.32.

PROBLEM 6
If in turning of a steel rod by a given cutting tool (material and geometry) at a given machining condition
(so and t) under a given environment (cutting fluid application), the tool life decreases from 80 min to 20
min due to increase in cutting velocity Vc from 60 m/min to 120 m/min, then at what cutting velocity
the life of that tool under the same condition and environment will be 40 min?

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 252 Machining and Machine Tools

Solution: Assuming Taylor’s tool life equation, VT n = C we have

V1T1 = V2T2 = V3T3 = … = C
Here V1 = 60 m/min; V2 = 120 m/min; T1 = 80 min; T2 = 20 min; T3 = 40 min. We have to calculate
V3. Taking
V1T1n = V2T2n
we get
n
⎛ T1 ⎞ ⎛ V2 ⎞
⎜⎝ T ⎟⎠ = ⎜⎝ V ⎟⎠
2 1

n
⎛ 80 min ⎞ ⎛ 120 m/min ⎞
⎜⎝ ⎟ =⎜
20 min ⎠ ⎝ 60 m/min ⎟⎠
Solving we get n = 0.5. Again
V3T3n = V1T1n
n
⎛V ⎞ ⎛ T ⎞
⇒⎜ 3⎟ = ⎜ 1⎟
⎝ V1 ⎠ ⎝ T3 ⎠

0.5
⎛ 80 ⎞
⇒ V3 = ⎜ ⎟ × 60 = 84.84 m/min
⎝ 40 ⎠

SU M M A R Y
Any cutting tool used for machining ultimately has failure-modes could almost be prevented. However,
to fail to work desirably, after which it needs to be wear cannot be prevented but only can be retarded.
restored or replaced. Short life and frequent replace- Presently, the cutting tools fail and are allowed to fail
ment not only hampers production rate and affects only by wearing and as slowly as possible.
machining economy but also the deterioration of The modes of cutting tool failure, their causes, the
the cutting edges with time impairs the quality of mechanisms of wear and the properties to be essen-
the product. Therefore, it is essentially required to tially possessed by a cutting tool have been discussed
retard deterioration of the cutting edges and pro- in detail. The usual methods of measuring tool wear
long the tool’s service life. For that it is first neces- and evaluation of tool life are also covered with
sary to know how and why cutting tools fail so that emphasis on Taylor’s tool life equation. This chapter
appropriate action can be taken, such as like proper has provided, in detail, the chronological develop-
selection of material and geometry of the cutting ment of conventional as well as advanced cutting
tools, speed-feed combination and machining envi- tool materials including coated carbides, high per-
ronment – all of which affect tool life. The general formance ceramics, cubic boron nitride and dia-
methods of failure of cutting tool are catastrophic mond along with chemical, physical and mechanical
mechanical breakage, rapid plastic deformation and characteristics, relative performances and applica-
general wear. Through research and development tions, which would be quite useful for readers and
over several decades, the first two very unwanted practicing engineers as well as those in R&D.

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 Failure, Life and Materials of Cutting Tools 253

MU LT I P L E CH O I C E QU E S T I O N S
[Answers are provided in the CD]
1. HSS is still getting used mainly for its (c) Average flank wear
(a) High fracture toughness (d) Maximum notching wear
(b) Formability (forging, rolling, etc.) 9. Flank wear of turning inserts can be measured by
(c) Grindability (a) Optical microscope
(d) All of the above (b) Tool makers microscope
(e) None of the above (c) Scanning electron microscope
2. A cutting tool generally fails by (d) All of the above
(a) Mechanical breakage 10. For determination of tool life, the limiting
(b) Plastic deformation value of average flank wear is generally consi-
(c) Gradual wear dered to be
(d) Any of the above (a) 0.1 mm
(e) None of the above (b) 0.2 mm
3. Tool (material) should be hard to resist (c) 0.3 mm
(a) Abrasion wear (d) 0.5 mm
(b) Adhesion wear 11. Tool life is most affected by increase in
(c) Diffusion wear (a) Cutting velocity
(d) All of the above (b) Feed rate
4. Tool material needs to be chemically stable (or (c) Depth of cut
inert) to resist (d) Width of cut
(a) Adhesion wear 12. Taylor’s tool life equation is expressed as
(b) Diffusion wear (a) V nT = C
(c) Chemical wear (grooving) (b) VT n = C
(d) All of the above (c) (VT )n = C
5. Diffusion wear of cutting tool is a (d) VT = C
(a) Chemical process where V is cutting velocity, T is tool life, C is a
(b) Mechanical process constant and n is an index.
(c) Thermo-chemical process 13. Tool life is more or less affected by
(d) None of the above (a) Depth of cut
6. Crater wear occurs in cutting tools at (b) Feed rate
(a) The rake surface (c) Cutting velocity
(b) The principal flank (d) All of the above
(c) The auxiliary flank 14. Life of any cutting tool does not depend upon
(d) All the surfaces (a) Tool material
7. Surface finish in plain turning is most affected by (b) Tool geometry
(a) Principal flank wear (c) Cutting fluid application
(b) Auxiliary flank wear (d) None of the above
(c) Crater wear 15. The major weakness of plain alumina ceramic
(d) Grooving wear tools is lack of
8. A cutting edge is considered ‘failed’ when its (a) Hardness
principal flank attains the limiting value of (b) Toughness
(a) Minimum flank wear (c) Hot hardness
(b) Maximum flank wear (d) Chemical inertness

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 254 Machining and Machine Tools

16. High performance ceramics do not include 21. Diamond tools are avoided for machining
(a) Zirconia toughened alumina (a) Aluminium alloys
(b) Whisker reinforced ceramics (b) Steels
(c) Silver toughened alumina (c) Plastics
(d) Cermet (d) Ceramics
17. Addition of partially stabilized zirconia in alu- 22. The hardest cutting tool material is
mina raises toughness of the ceramic tools by (a) Zirconia toughened alumina
(a) Transformation toughening (b) SIALON
(b) Reinforcing (c) Diamond
(c) Crack bridging (d) Cubic boron nitride (cBN)
(d) Crack branching 23. Binder is not required to manufacture
18. Addition of SiC whiskers in alumina inserts (a) Cermets
reduces its brittle fracture through (b) PCD inserts
(a) Transformation toughening (c) cBN inserts
(b) Reinforcing (d) Diamond coating of inserts
(c) Crack deflection 24. In machining high carbon steels under
(d) Crack bridging the same conditions, cutting temperature
19. Si3N4 ceramic tools supersede alumina ceramic would be minimum if the tool insert is made
tools in respect of of
(a) Ease of sintering (a) Sintered carbide
(b) Hot hardness (b) Silver toughened alumina
(c) Fracture toughness (c) cBN
(d) Chemical stability (d) Diamond (PCD)
20. Alumina ceramic tools are not used for 25. Of the following cutting tool materials the one
machining that has become obsolete is
(a) Cast irons (a) Coronite
(b) Carbon steels (b) Stellite
(c) Aluminium alloys (c) Cermet
(d) Alloy steels (d) Uncoated sintered carbide

R E V I E W QU E S T I O N S
1. When does a cutting tool fail 5. State the differences among abrasion wear,
(a) randomly and catastrophically? adhesion wear and diffusion wear in respect of
(b) rapidly and totally? cutting tool wear.
(c) systematically after a reasonable servicing 6. Show schematically the general pattern (geom-
time? etry) of wear that develops at the rake surface
2. How can form stability of any cutting tool be and the clearance (or flank) surfaces of cutting
(a) defined, (b) assessed and (c) enhanced? tools.
3. What mechanisms of wear do cutting tools 7. How is cutting tool wear assessed or quanti-
undergo during their use in machining? fied for evaluation of tool life?
4. What conditions of machining and cutting 8. Show schematically the pattern of growth of
tool indicate that a cutting tool has failed? flank wear (VB) and crater wear (KT and KB)

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 Failure, Life and Materials of Cutting Tools 255

with the progress of machining time. State the 22. Name the different grades of sintered carbides
probable causes of such patterns. and state their application ranges w.r.t. work
9. How are the major characteristic features of materials and the type of machining opera-
cutting tool wear, VB and KT, determined tions.
experimentally? 23. Show the shapes (or configurations) in which
10. How is tool life defined, evaluated and carbide (and ceramic) tool inserts are avail-
expressed in R&D and industries? able for turning in lathes. How are the square
11. How is life of a cutting tool related to cutting inserts mounted in the tool holder and pro-
velocity? How can such relation be experimen- vided with desired rake angle and clearance
tally established? angle?
12. What is the form of the Taylor’s tool life equa- 24. What are the relative merits and demerits of
tion? How are the values of the constant (C) alumina ceramic tools over sintered carbide
and the index (n) determined experimentally tools?
under a given condition of machining? 25. How are the major inherent weaknesses of
13. Write the modified Taylor’s tool life equation plain ceramics (tools) reduced or overcome?
and explain the role of the machining process 26. State the relative advantages and limitations
parameters on tool life. of Si3N4 (ceramic) over Al2O3 (ceramic)
14. Briefly describe, with the help of schematic tools.
diagrams, the role of variation in different geo- 27. How does addition of stabilized zirconia,
metrical features (angles) of a turning tool on SiC whiskers or silver oxide powder improve
tool life. the properties and performance of alumina
15. What properties should a cutting tool material ceramic tools?
essentially possess and why? 28. Compare the methods of coating carbide tools
16. Why does a cutting tool material ideally by CVD and PVD w.r.t. (a) process technol-
needs to be hot hard, tough and chemically ogy, (b) properties of the coating (on the tool
inert? inserts), (c) applications.
17. What is the basic composition of high speed 29. Describe briefly the composition, construc-
steel (HSS) as a cutting tool material? Why is tion and application of coronite tools. How
this primitive tool material still inevitably used do coronite tools outperform HSS tools?
in machining industries? 30. What are the unique properties of cubic boron
18. Name the materials which are presently used nitride (tools) that make it outperform coated
for making cutting tools or inserts and com- carbides and even HPC (tools) in machining
pare those materials (of the tools) w.r.t. com- alloy steels? State the justifiable or economi-
position, hardness, fracture toughness and cally viable applications of cBN tools.
applications. 31. State the merits and limitations of using dia-
19. Describe briefly the composition and process mond tools in machining industries.
of manufacturing of sintered carbide tools/ 32. In what forms are diamond tools made avail-
inserts. able for machining? State the advantages and
20. State the basic purposes or benefits of coating disadvantages of polycrystalline diamond
over carbide inserts and how the coating pro- (PCD) tool bits over single crystal (or grain)
vides those benefits. diamond (tools).
21. Name the materials by which sintered carbide 33. How are carbide inserts diamond-coated? State
inserts (or tools) are coated and the methods the advantages of CVD–diamond-coated tools
(or processes) of coating. over PCD tool bits.

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 256 Machining and Machine Tools

PR O B L E M S
With Answers
1. During a tool life test by turning a C20 steel lives of those cutting edges were found to be 20
rod by a sintered carbide tool at a given speed– min and 12 min respectively in those two cases.
feed–depth condition, the following observa- What would be the life of another fresh cutting
tions were made: edge of the same ceramic insert if the job diam-
eter be 160 mm and speed be 715 rpm?
Total time of Average flank, Ans: 13.6 min
machining, T (min) wear, VB (mm) 5. An operator was turning a rod of given
material and diameter by the cutting edges of a
1 0.1
given coated carbide insert at the given speed,
2 0.15 feed and depth of cut. He found that life of a
5 0.2 cutting edge became double when the spindle
10 0.24 speed was reduced by 40%. How much (%)
15 0.28 increase in life of a cutting edge is expected if
the spindle-speed is reduced by 60%?
20 0.36
Ans: 242%
6. In a large steel plate of thickness 20 mm,
Draw VB versus T curve and determine tool an HSS drill could drill, until it failed, 200
life for the above condition. through holes at a speed of 400 rpm. A simi-
Ans: 16 min lar drill could drill only 100 holes when the
2. Determine the values of the constant C and speed was raised to 600 rpm. How many holes
index n of Taylor’s tool life equation if the will another similar drill make if drill-speed is
value of tool life decreased from 40 min to 10 reduced to 320 rpm?
min due to increase in cutting velocity from Ans: 290 holes
80 m/min to 160 min in turning mild steel
rod by a coated carbide tool insert under a
given condition. Without Answers
Ans: n = 0.5 and C = 506 1. Determine the values of the constant C and
3. When holes of diameter 20 mm were drilled index n of Taylor’s tool life equation for the
in a brass plate by an HSS drill, the life of turning tool whose life changes from 20 min.
that drill increases from 20 to 40 if the speed to 12 min. due to change of cutting velocity
is reduced from 400 rpm to 320 rpm, keep- from 120 m/min to 160 m/min under a given
ing feed unchanged. What would be the life machining condition.
of that drill under the same condition, if the 2. In a drilling operation, if the tool life decreases
speed is raised to 480 rpm? from 10 min to 5 min due to increase in cut-
Ans: 11.26 min ting velocity from 30 m/min to 40 m/min,
4. Two rods of same material (C40 steel) but of then what will be the life of that tool if used at
diameter 100 mm and 200 mm were turned in 50 m/min of cutting velocity?
a lathe by two fresh cutting edges of the same 3. The life of an end milling cutter increased from
ceramic insert at speeds 800 rpm and 640 rpm 15 min to 25 min when the cutter speed (N)
respectively under the same condition. The tool was reduced from 320 rpm to 250 rpm. At

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 Failure, Life and Materials of Cutting Tools 257

what speed (N), the life of that cutter would 5. In a given turning operation by a ceramic
be 40 min? tool, the tool life was found to increase
4. A carbide drill during its life time can produce from 16 min to 32 min when the cutting
100 through holes in a 16 mm thick mild steel velocity was reduced to half of the origi-
plate when the drill speed was 320 rpm. The nal velocity. Then what will be life of that
same type of drill produced 60 holes when tool if its cutting velocity (original) is just
drill-speed was increased to 400 rpm. How doubled?
many holes will the same type of drill produce
at the drilling speed of 360 rpm?

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MAMT_Chapter 6.indd 258 7/21/2011 10:32:49 AM
 7 Estimation of Machining Time
Learning Objectives
The contents of this chapter will help the readers and users to:
• understand and state the importance and to be done by
necessity of evaluating the actual machining turning operation.
time that may be required for any machin- shaping or planing operation.
ing work. drilling and boring operation.
• identify the factors that govern machining milling operation.
time. gear hobbing.
• evaluate or estimate the machining time gear shaping.
related to accomplishing any specific work

7.1 Introduction
The amount of time required to finish a preformed blank by machining plays significant role on material removal
rate (MRR) or productivity and hence overall economy. The time associated with accomplishing any machining
task comprises basically two components: idle time and actual machining (chip-removal) time. Automation and
advancement in cutting tool materials have enabled drastic reduction of the idle time, from about 80% to about
20%. So, gradually the other component (i.e., actual machining time) has become more and more predominant.
This actual machining time needs to be estimated for evaluation of productivity and machining cost. Attempts
are also made to reduce this time as far as possible for enhancing overall economy. This machining time obviously
can be reduced by simply raising the process parameters, cutting velocity, feed and depth of cut. However, too
much increase in these parameters is restricted otherwise by the capacity of the machine tool, the capacity and
life of the cutting tools and the surface quality of the products. Therefore, the levels of cutting velocity, feed and
depth of cut are appropriately selected based on the tool–work materials, machine tool condition and machining
environment in addition to MRR and overall economy. After proper selection of the machining parameters and
studying the exact machining requirements, the expected magnitude of the actual time for the specified conven-
tional machining work has to be determined by simple expressions including the associated allowances.

7.2 Significance of Machining Time and Purposes of Its Evaluation

It has been mentioned in the introduction how in the industries the possible reduction in the amount of time
T required for manufacturing a product plays a vital role in fulfilling major objectives such as

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 260 Machining and Machine Tools

1. Enhancement of productivity.
2. Reduction of manufacturing cost.
3. Increase in profit and profit rate.
In manufacturing by machining, the total time T required for machining a job comprises three major
components:
T = Ti + Tc + Tct (min) (7.1)
where Ti is the idle time required mainly for the handling operations involved (min), Tc is the amount of
actual machining time (min), Tct is the amount of time required for changing tool(s) while machining a job
which is given by
Tc
Tct = (TCT ) (min)
TL
Here TL is the tool life (min) and TCT is the time incurred in average for changing each tool or cutting
edge (min).
Earlier, almost 75−90% of the manufacturing time (T ) used to be spent as idle time and for tool changing
operations, and hardly 10−25% was used for actual machining (Tc). The idle time (Ti ) and tool change time
(Tct) are drastically reduced (almost to one-third) over the last few decades by the rapid development and
application of mechanization or automation in material handling systems and machine tools. On the other
hand, tool life has also simultaneously improved spectacularly by remarkable developments in cutting tool
materials and geometry. Along with such drastic reduction in Ti and Tct, attention was also paid to reducing
the actual machining time (Tc) as far as possible. The degree of reduction in machining time (Tc) and hence
total time (T), without sacrificing product quality, is an important index of machining economy.
The machining time needs to be determined or assessed from time to time for several purposes, such as:
1. Assessment of productivity.
2. Evaluation of machining cost per piece.
3. Determination of man-machine hour cost per piece.
4. Assessment of relative performance or capability of any machining methods, machine tool, cutting
tool or any special techniques in terms of saving in machining time.
The machining time Tc required for a particular operation can be determined
1. Approximately by calculation (i.e., estimation).
2. Precisely, if required, by actual measurement.
Measurement generally provides accurate and precise information but it is tedious and expensive. On the
other hand, though estimation by simple calculations may not be that accurate, is much more simple, quick
and inexpensive. Therefore, machining time is regularly evaluated for different purposes by simple calculation
(i.e., estimation).

7.3 Major Factors that Govern Machining Time

The factors that govern machining time can be understood from a simple example of machining. Let a steel
rod be reduced in diameter from D1 to D2 over a length Lw by straight turning in a centre lathe as indicated
in Fig. 7.1. Here, machining time is

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 Estimation of Machining Time 261

D1 D2

t Vc

so
O Lw A
Lc
Figure 7.1 Factors governing machining time in turning.

Lc
Tc = × np (7.2)
Nso

where N is the spindle speed (rpm), so is the feed (tool, mm/rev), np is the number of passes required, Lc is
the actual length of cut given by
L c = Lw + A + O
Here A, O are approach and overrun as shown in Fig. 7.1. Speed N is determined from cutting velocity
Vc as
π DN
Vc = m/min (7.3)
1000

where D is the diameter of the job before any cut. Therefore,

1000Vc
N = (7.4)
πD

D1 − D2
np = (7.5)
2t
where t is the depth of cut in one pass (mm). But practically the value of t and hence of np is decided by the machin-
ing allowance left in the preformed blanks. Usually, for saving time and material, very less machining allowance is
left, especially by near-net-shape principle. Hence, number of passes used is generally one or maximum two: one
for roughing and one for finishing. However, combining Eqs. (7.2), (7.4) and (7.5), Tc can be expressed as

π DLc ( D1 − D2 )
Tc = (7.6)
2000Vc sot

π DLc
or Tc = for single pass turning (7.7)
1000Vc so
Equation (7.7) clearly indicates that in turning to a given diameter and length, the cutting time Tc is governed
mainly by the selection of the values of cutting velocity Vc and feed so. This is true more or less in all machin-
ing operations being done in different machine tools.

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 262 Machining and Machine Tools

A number of factors are essentially considered while selecting or deciding the values of Vc and so for any
machining work. The major factors considered for selecting Vc are as follows:
1. Nature of the cut:
(a) Continuous cuts like turning, boring, drilling, etc. are done at higher Vc.
(b) Shock initiated cuts in shaping machine, planing machine, slotting machine, etc. are con-
ducted at lower Vc.
(c) Intermittent cuts, as in milling, hobbing, etc. are also done at reasonably lower speed for
dynamic loading.
2. Work material (type, strength, hardness, heat resistance, toughness, chemical reactivity, etc.):
(a) Hard, strong, heat-resistant and work hardenable materials are machined at low values of Vc.
(b) Soft, non-sticky and thermally conductive materials can be machined at relatively higher cut-
ting velocities.
3. Cutting tool material (type, strength, hardness, heat and wear resistance, toughness, chemical sta-
bility, thermal conductivity, etc.):
(a) HSS tools are used at velocities within 40 m/min in turning mild steel whereas for the same
work material cemented carbide tools can be used at cutting velocities, of 80−200 m/min.
(b) High performance ceramic tools and cBN tools are used at very high velocity (300−600 m/
min) in machining steels of different strength and hardness.
(c) Diamond tools can be used in machining various materials (excepting those having an Fe base)
at speeds even beyond 500 m/min.
4. Cutting fluid application:
(a) Proper selection and application of cutting fluid may allow increase in Vc by 20−50%.
5. Purpose of machining:
(a) Rough machining with large MRR is usually done at relatively low or moderate velocity.
(b) Finish machining with small feed and depth of cut is usually done at high Vc.
6. Kind of machining operation:
(a) Unlike turning, boring, etc., operations like threading, reaming, etc. are carried out at much
lower (20−50%) cutting velocities for achieving quality finish.
7. Capacity of the machine tool:
(a) Powerful, strong, rigid and stable machine tools allow much higher Vc, than permissible otherwise.
8. Condition of the machine tool:
(a) Cutting velocity is kept lower than the normal value stipulated for a given tool–work material
pair, if the machine tool is quite old and has limitations due to wear and tear, backlash, mis-
alignment, instability, etc.
The factors that are considered during selecting the value of feed so are
1. Work material: type, strength, hardness, etc.
2. Capacity of the machine tool: power, rigidity, etc.
3. Cutting tool: material, geometry and configuration.
4. Cutting fluid application.
5. Surface finish desired.
6. Type of operation, for instance threading operation needs large feed according to the lead of the
thread.
7. Nature of cut: continuous, shock initiated type, and intermittent. Feed, which raises cutting forces,
is kept low in shock and intermittent type cuts.

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 Estimation of Machining Time 263

Apart from the total volume of material to be removed, permissible values of cutting velocity, feed and depth
of cut and cutting fluid application, there are few more factors which also influence machining time. These
additional factors include:
1. Quick return ratio in operations like shaping, planing, slotting, gear shaping, etc.
2. Jobs of odd size and shape and irregular and harder surfaces like large castings, which are machined
much more slowly with lower cutting velocity.
3. Some special techniques like hot machining and cryomachining that enable faster machining of
some exotic materials and even some common metals like steels at higher Vc and so.

7.4 Methods of Estimation of Machining Time

7.4.1 Machining Time for Turning in Lathes
Figure 7.1 and Eq. (7.7) help in determination of the amount of time required for straight turning in lathes
following the given procedural steps:
1. Determine the length of cut by proper selection of amount of approach A (2−5 mm) and overrun
O (1−3 mm), as and when required.
2. Select the proper values of Vc and so based on the tool–work materials and other factors previously
mentioned [depth of cut is decided based on the machining allowance available and the final diam-
eter desired].
3. Determine the spindle speed N using Eq. (7.4) and then fix N as well as so from the chart giving the
lists of N and so available in that lathe.
4. Finally determine Tc using Eq. (7.7)
π D( Lw + A + O )
Tc =
1000Vc so

The machining time for facing, grooving, taper turning, threading, parting, etc. in lathes can also be deter-
mined or estimated following the same principle and method.

7.4.2 Machining Time for Drilling and Boring

The basic principle and procedure of estimation of machining time in drilling and boring are almost same as
that of turning operations. Figure 7.2 shows the methods of drilling and boring holes.
For drilling a through hole (Fig. 7.2) of diameter D and length Lw, the machining time Tc is evaluated from
Lc
Tc = (7.8)
Nso
where
Lc = Lw + A + O + C
Here A and O are approach and overrun and
D
C= cot ρ
2

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 264 Machining and Machine Tools

A Vc

Vc

Lw so
Lc
2r
so
D
O
C

Figure 7.2 Drilling and boring operations.

where r is half of the drill point angle. Speed N and feed so are selected in the same way as in turning. There-
fore, the drilling time can be determined from
π D( Lw + A + O + C )
Tc = (7.9)
1000Vc so
In the same way Tc is determined or estimated in boring also. Only the portion ‘C ’ is not included. For a
blind hole, overrun O is excluded.

7.4.3 Machining Time in Shaping and Planing

Machining time in shaping can be estimated using the schematic diagram in Fig. 7.3 which shows the length
of tool–work travels required to remove a layer of material from the top flat surface of a block in a shaping
machine.
Using Fig. 7.3, the total machining time Tc can be determined from the expression

L w′
Tc = (min) (7.10)
N s so
where Ns is the number of strokes per min, so is the feed of the job (mm/stroke), and L w′ is the total length
of travel of the job given by
L w′ = W + A′ + O ′
Here W is the width of the job; A′, O ′ are approach and overrun. Ns has to be determined from
N s Lc
Vc = (1 + Q ) (m/min) (7.11)
1000
where Vc is the cutting velocity (m/min), Lc is the stroke length (mm) = Lw + A + O (Lw is the length of the
workpiece; A, O are approach and overrun)and Q = quick return ratio = (time of return stroke)/(time of cut-
ting stroke). Therefore,
1000Vc
Ns = (7.12)
Lc (1 + Q )

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 Estimation of Machining Time 265

O′

so
Top view W L w′

Vc A′

Front view

O Lw A
Lc

Figure 7.3 Machining in a shaping machine.

Practically, the speed that is available nearest to this calculated value is to be taken up. The values of Vc and so
are to be selected considering the relevant factors already mentioned.
Machining time in a planing machine is also determined in the same way. The only difference is that in a
planing machine, cutting strokes and feed travels are imparted to the job and the tool, respectively; in shap-
ing machine it is just the opposite. Besides that, though both shaping and planing are reciprocating type, a
planing machine may allow higher Vc.

7.4.4 Machining Time in Milling Operations

There are different types of milling operations done by different types of milling cutters. Some of these are:
1. Plain milling by a slab milling cutter mounted on an arbour.
2. End milling by solid but small end mill cutter mounted in the spindle through a collet.
3. Face milling by large face milling cutter directly fitted in the spindle.
Figure 7.4 shows the scheme of plain milling by a plain or slab milling cutter and indicates how the machin-
ing time is to be calculated. Following Fig. 7.4, the machining time Tc for plain milling a flat surface can be
determined as

Tc = Lc/sm (for job width < cutter length) (7.13)

where Lc is the total length of travel of the job and sm is the table feed in mm/min. Now

Dc
Lc = Lw + A + O +
2
where Lw is the length of the workpiece; A, O are approach and overrun (5−10 mm); Dc is the diameter of
the cutter (mm). Also
sm = so Zc N

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 266 Machining and Machine Tools

Lc
Dc / 2
O Lw A

Vc

sm

Figure 7.4 Plain milling operation.

where so is the feed per tooth (mm/tooth), Zc is the number of teeth of the cutter, N is the cutter speed (rpm).
Again N can be determined from Vc as

π Dc N
Vc = (m/min)
1000
Vc and so have to be selected in the usual way considering the factors stated previously. Since milling is an
intermittent cutting process, Vc should be taken lower (20–40%) than that recommended for continuous
machining like turning. Feed so should be reasonably low (within 0.10–0.5 mm) depending upon the tooth
size, work material and surface finish desired.
Similarly, Tc can be determined for end milling and face milling by proper selection of speed and feed
depending upon the tool–work materials and other relevant factors.

7.4.5 Gear Teeth Generation in Hobbing Machine and Gear

Shaping Machine
The teeth of different types of gears are produced by machining in different ways by different cutting tools
and in different machine tools. For engineering applications, spur gears are most widely used. Bevel gears,
worm and worm wheels, and spiral gears are also used in several systems. The teeth of spur gears are generally
straight but are often made helical and also double helical for high strength and capacity.
The straight and single helical teeth of spur gears are produced by machining basically in two ways:
1. Forming (e.g., milling and broaching).
2. Generation (e.g., gear shaping and gear hobbing).
Machining time required for producing a gear tooth (more precisely for making a tooth gap) in a milling
machine is calculated based on plain milling as shown in Fig. 7.4. Only the length of the workpiece Lw is to
be replaced by the width (say B) of the gear. In a broaching machine, the tooth gaps are produced one by one
(for large gears) or all at a time (for small gears) by single stroke. So the desired machining time is determined
based on the time of each stroke of the broach.

7.4.5.1 Time of Machining Teeth in Gear Shaping Machine

Figure 7.5 visualizes the principle of generation of gear (spur) teeth in a gear shaping machine and the
tool–work motions.

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 Estimation of Machining Time 267

B
L st
FM r
O

Cutter FM t CM
IM Gear blanks

d
h

RM

Figure 7.5 Machining teeth in gear shaping machine.

The gear shaping process involves the following five tool–work motions:
1. Cutting motion (CM): down stroke of the reciprocating cutter.
2. Feed (tangential) motion (FMt): rotary motion of the cutter.
3. Indexing motion (IM): rotary motion of the gear blank.
4. Radial feed motion (FMr): radical approach of the gear blank towards the cutter axis.
5. Relieving motion (RM): small transverse reciprocation of the blank (or cutter).
After bringing the cutter and the blank into peripheral contact (at point P, Fig. 7.5), all the tool–work
motions are begun and continued till all the teeth are completely generated. Only the radical (transverse) feed
motion (FMr) of the gear blank is stopped as soon as full depth of the gear teeth (h in Fig. 7.5) is attained.
Therefore, for completely producing all the teeth, the gear blank has to rotate by one complete revolution and
an additional angular amount (say d ) as indicated in Fig. 7.5. Thus, the total machining time Tc required for
generating all the teeth of one or a set of identical gears (Fig. 7.5) is evaluated by

(2π + δ )( Dg /2 )
Tc = (7.14)
st N st

where Dg is the pitch circle diameter of the gear blank, st is the tangential feed (of the cutter, mm/stroke) and
Nst is the number of stroke (of cutter) per min. Now

Dg = mZg
where m is the module of the gear teeth to be produced, Zg is the number of gear teeth, d is the additional
angle of rotation of the blank in radian. Nst can be determined from

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 268 Machining and Machine Tools

2 N st Lst
Vc = (m/min) (7.15)
1000
500Vc
⇒ N st = (7.16)
Lst
The value of cutting velocity Vc is taken based on the tool–work materials and the capacity of the machine
tool. The stroke length Lst (Fig. 7.5) is evaluated from
Lst = nbB + A + O (7.17)
where B is the width of each gear blank; nb is the number of identical gear blanks mounted; and A, O are
approach and overrun.
The value of the additional angle of rotation of the gear blank (i.e., d, Fig. 7.5) may vary within about 30°
to 180° depending upon the size of the gear and the values of the feed st and sr taken based on the surface
finish required. The value of d increases with the increase in surface finish required. The value of this angle (d )
can also be determined analytically as follows. Let st and sr, respectively, be tangential feed and radial feed in
mm/stroke. Then the minimum number of strokes (ns ) required for full penetration upto h mm will be
h
ns = (7.18)
sr
where
h = Addendum + Dedendum of the teeth
= m + 1.25 m = 2.25 m
Here m is the module of the gear teeth. The amount of peripheral (pitch circle) rotation of the blank within
ns (number of strokes) will be
h
⋅s
sr t
Then
2π (2.25 mst /sr )
δ= (rad ) (7.19)
π mZ g

4.5st
or δ= (rad ) (7.20)
sr Z g
The speeds Nc and Ng of rotation of the cutter and the gear, respectively, are determined, if required, from
st N st
Nc = (7.21)
π mZ c
and Ng = Nc (Zc/Zg) (7.22)

7.4.5.2 Time of Machining Gear Teeth in Hobbing Machine

Figure 7.6 visualizes the principle of generation of teeth of straight-toothed spur gears and the tool–work
motions in a gear hobbing machine.

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 Estimation of Machining Time 269

CM
Cutter (hob)
A
IM
Dc
2
Lt
B

Gear blank O

FM

Figure 7.6 Generation of gear teeth in hobbing machine.

Gear hobbing machines are used for generation of teeth of straight- and helical-toothed external spur gears
and worm wheels. Figure 7.6 shows machining of teeth of straight-toothed spur gears.
So far as calculation of machining time is concerned, hobbing is very similar to plain milling as can be seen
in Figs. 7.4 and 7.6. In hobbing straight-toothed spur gears, the minimum time Tc required for generation of
all the teeth of the spur gear is also evaluated by using the simple equation
L
Tc = s c
m

where Lc is the total length of cut and sm is the feed (of the cutter, mm/min). Now
Lc = B + A + O + Dc/2
where B is the width of the gear; A, O are approach and overrun; Dc is the diameter of the cutter (hob). Also
sm = soZcNc
where so is the feed per tooth (mm/tooth), Zc is the number of teeth of the cutter (in transverse section;
Fig. 7.6), and Nc is the speed (rpm) of the cutter given by
1000Vc
Nc =
π Dc

7.5 Solved Problems

PROBLEM 1
Determine the actual machining time required to reduce the diameter of a rod from 200 mm to 195
mm over length of 200 mm at cutting velocity of 220 m/min and feed of 0.2 mm/rev. Assume, approach
A = 5 mm and overrun O = 5 mm.
Solution: Actual machining time Tc is determined by using the equation

π D( Lw + A + O )
Tc =
1000Vc so

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 270 Machining and Machine Tools

for single pass turning (here, t = 2.5mm only). Given that D = 200 mm, Lw = 200 mm, A = O = 5 mm,
Vc = 220 m/min and so= 0.2 mm/rev. Therefore,

π × 200 × (200 + 5 + 5)
Tc = min = 3.0 min
1000 × 220 × 0.2

PROBLEM 2
Determine the actual machining time Tc that will be required to drill a through hole of diameter 25 mm
in a 60 mm thick plate at cutting velocity of 55 m/min and feed of 0.24 mm/rev. by a HSS drill of cone
angle of 120°. Assume approach and overrun = 2 mm.
Solution: The actual machining time Tc , is determined using the equation

π D( Lw + A + O + C )
Tc =
1000Vc so

Given that D = 25 mm, r = 60º, Vc = 55 m/min, L = 60 mm, so = 0.24 mm/rev and A = O = 2 mm.
Therefore,
π × 25(60 + 2 + 2 + (25 / 2 )cot 60°)
Tc = = 0.50 min or 30 s
1000 × 44 × 0.24

PROBLEM 3
Determine the actual machining time that will be required to remove, by shaping, a layer of 2 mm
thickness from a cast iron plate of length 100 mm and width 60 mm at cutting velocity of 40 m/min and
feed of 0.2 mm/stroke. Assume approach and overrun along width = 2 mm and along length = 5 mm,
quick return ratio of the shaping machine is 2/3.
Solution: The desired machining time Tc is to be determined by using the following equations:

L ′w 1000Vc
Tc = ; Ns = ; Lc = L ′w + A + O; L ′w = W + A ′ + O ′
N s so Lc(1 + Q )

Given that L′w = 100 mm, A = 5, O = 5, W = 60, A′ = O′ = 2 mm, Q = 2/3, Vc = 40 m/min and
so = 0.2 mm/stroke. Therefore,

1000 × 40
Ns = = 200
[(100 + 5 + 5)(1 + 2 / 3)]

60 + 2 + 2
and Tc = = 1.6 min
0.2 × 200

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 Estimation of Machining Time 271

PROBLEM 4
Determine the actual machining time Tc that will be required for plain milling a rectangular surface of
length 200 mm and width 50 mm by a helical fluted plain HSS milling cutter of diameter 70 mm, length
75 mm and 6 teeth. Assume A = O = 5 mm, Vc = 44 m/min and so = 0.2 mm/tooth.
Solution: We know that
Lc
Tc = min
sm
Now
Dc
Lc = Lw + A + O + = 200 + 5 + 5 + 30 = 240 mm
2
sm = so Z c N = 0.1 × 6 × N
where
1000Vc 1000 × 44
N = = = 200 rpm
π Dc π × 70
Therefore
sm = 0.2 × 6 × 200 = 240 mm/min
So,
Lc 240
Tc = = = 1.0 min
sm 240

PROBLEM 5
Estimate the minimum time Tc that will be required to generate all the teeth of four cast iron straight-
toothed spur gears of 50 teeth, 3.0 module and 25 mm thickness by a HSS gear shaping cutter of 20
teeth. Assume: st = 0.4 mm/stroke, sr = 0.04 mm/stroke, A = O = 12.5 mm.
Solution: Let Vc for the given tool–work materials be taken as 20 m/min. We know that

(2π + δ )( Dg /2 )
Tc = [by Eq.(7.14 )]
st N st
Here,

500Vc
N st = [by Eq.(7.16 )]
Lst
Also
Lst = nb B + A + O [by Eq. (7.17)]
= 4 × 25 + 12.5 + 12.5
= 125 mm

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 272 Machining and Machine Tools

So,
500 × 20
N st = = 80
125
Again
Dg = mZg = 3 × 50 = 150 mm

4.5 × st
δ= [by Eq. (7.20)]
sr Z g
4.5 × 0.4
= rad = 0.9 rad ≅ 50°
0.04 × 50
Therefore,

(2π + 0.9)(150/2 )
Tc = = 16.75 min
0.4 × 80

PROBLEM 6
Determine the actual machining time Tc that will be required to generate all the teeth of a mild steel
(MS) straight-toothed spar gear of width 25 mm by a HSS hob of diameter 60 mm and having eight
teeth along its periphery. Assume: approach = overrun = 5 mm and axial feed of the hob = 0.05 mm/
tooth.
Solution: We know that
Lc B + A + O + ( Dc /2 )
Tc = =
sm so Z c N c

Let Vc be taken as 20 m/min (for MS vs. HSS). Then,

1000 × 20
Nc = ≅ 100 rpm
π × 60
Therefore, the desired machining time Tc will be
25 + 5 + 5 + (60/2 )
Tc = = 1.6 min
0.05 × 8 × 100

PROBLEM 7
Estimate the total time that may be required to produce all the teeth of a mild steel spur gear by a 60 mm
diameter HSS hob (Fig. 7.7). Assume: Cutting velocity = 35 m/min; hob feed = 0.5 mm/rev of the gear
blank; gear teeth = 4; gear module = 2.5 mm; gear width = 12 mm.
Solution: Machining time Tc is given by

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 Estimation of Machining Time 273

Lc

Figure 7.7 Solved problem 7.

Lc
Tc =
sh × N g
where Lc is the total length of cut, mm and sh is the hob-feed rate, mm/min. Here,
Dc
Lc = B ++ A +O
2
Given, B = gear width = 12 mm; Dc = hob-diameter = 60 mm; A, O = approach and overrun = 2.5 mm
(assumed). Therefore,
Lc = 12 + 30 + 5 = 47 mm

Also sh = hob feed = 0.5 mm/rev. of the blank and Ng = rpm of gear blank. Now

Vc = pDhNh
So,
Vc 35 × 1000
Nh = = = 185 rpm
π × 60 π × 60
Therefore,
Kh 1 (assumed )
Ng = Nh × = 185 × = 4.625 rpm
Zg 40
This implies
47
Tc = = 20 min
0.5 × 4.625

PROBLEM 8
The teeth of two identical cast iron straight-toothed spur gears of 40 teeth, having 3 modules and 10 mm
thickness are to be cut in a gear shaping machine by a 20-teeth HSS cutter at reasonable cutting velocity
and feed. Determine approximately the time that will be required to produce the gear teeth.

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 274 Machining and Machine Tools

Solution: Desired machining time Tc is given by

(2π + δ ) Dg /2
Tc =
St N st
where diameter of the gear
Dg = mZg

Given, module, m = 3 mm and Zg = no. of teeth = 40. Also st = tangential feed rate = 0.2 mm/stroke
(assumed). So
500Vc
N st =
Lst

where Vc = cutting velocity = 20 m/min (assumed); Lst = length of stroke given by

Lst = nB + A + O = 2 × 10 + 2.5 + 2.5 = 25 mm
So,
500 × 20
N st = = 400
25
Again d = extra rotation (rad.) of the gear blank is

4.5 × st
δ=
sr Z g

where sr = radial feed = 0.05 mm/stroke (assumed). So,

4.5 × 0.2
δ= = 0.45 rad
0.05 × 40
Therefore,
(2π + 0.45)[(3 × 40)/2]
Tc =
0.2 × 400

6.75 × 60
= = 5.06 min
80

PROBLEM 9
How much time may approximately be required to machine the 40 teeth of a spur gear by a 40 teeth gear
shaping cutter rotating at 2 rpm only?
Solution: All the teeth will be cut by about 1.5 revolution of the gear blank. Therefore, approximately,
the machining time Tc will be
Tc = (1/2) min × 1.5 = 0.75 min

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 Estimation of Machining Time 275

SU M M A R Y
The need for estimation of actual machining time for methods of estimation of actual machining time for
a specific machining task has been briefly addressed. any work to be done by conventional machining;
The major factors that govern machining time and turning, drilling, shaping and planing, plain mill-
their role on MRR or productivity have been pre- ing and gear teeth generation by gear shaping and
sented. The constraints against too much increase hobbing have been demonstrated with the aid of a
in cutting velocity, feed and depth of cut are also number of solved problems in this chapter. Chapter
mentioned. The principle and method of selecting 8 deals with machinability, some critical problems in
those process parameters have been focused. The machining and their possible remedies.

MU LT I P L E CH O I C E QU E S T I O N S
[Answers are provided in the CD]
1. The amount of time taken for manufacturing (a) Continuous cut like turning
affects (b) Shock-initiated cut like shaping
(a) Productivity (c) Interrupted cut like milling
(b) Manufacturing cost (d) Broaching
(c) Profit rate 6. For the same tool–work material combination
(d) All of the above in a lathe work, the highest cutting velocity
(e) None of the above can be taken while
2. The span of actual machining (associated with (a) Straight turning
chip formation) time depends upon the (b) Thread cutting
(a) Degree of mechanization or automation (c) Reaming
(b) Speed of change of cutting tools (d) Knurling
(c) Power available in the machine tool 7. For quick production by machining, the
(d) Use of fixtures or jigs machine tool needs to be
3. Selection of level (value) of cutting velocity in (a) Strong
a turning operation does not depend upon (b) Rigid
(a) Power available in the machine tool (c) Powerful
(b) Selection of cutting tool material (d) All of the above
(c) Cutting fluid application 8. The machining time (in min) that will be
(d) None of the above required to reduce diameter of a rod from 60
4. The amount of time required for any turning mm to 56 mm over a length of 200 mm by
work is governed by the magnitude of turning in a centre lathe at a speed of 400 rpm
(a) Cutting velocity and feed of 0.25 mm/rev will approximately
(b) Feed equal
(c) Depth of cut (a) 0.50 min
(d) All of the above (b) 1.00 min
5. For given tool–work materials, the cutting (c) 2.00 min
velocity should be maximum in the case of (d) 4.00 min

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 276 Machining and Machine Tools

9. Estimated time for drilling a through hole in a (a) The material of the end mill
plate of given material and thickness does not (b) The diameter of the cutter
depend upon (c) The length of the cutter
(a) Material of the drill (d) Any of the above
(b) Diameter of the drill 13. Producing the teeth of any spur gear by
(c) Length of the drill machining will need minimum time if done
(d) Cone angle of the drill (point) by
10. While estimating time for machining by shap- (a) Milling
ing, approach and overrun are taken in the (b) Gear shaping
order of a few (c) Gear hobbing
(a) Millimetres (d) Gear planing
(b) Centimetres 14. Time for machining the teeth of a spur gear in
(c) Metres a milling machine is not affected by the
(d) Microns (a) Material of the gear
11. Quick return ratio affects machining time (b) Diameter of the gear
requirement while (c) Helix angle of the gear
(a) Turning (d) Pressure angle of the gear
(b) Shaping 15. For producing all the teeth of any spur gear,
(c) Drilling the gear blank needs to be rotated by more
(d) Milling than one complete rotation in case of
12. In producing a through straight slot on the (a) Gear teeth milling
surface of a cast iron plate by an HSS end mill (b) Gear teeth shaping
cutter, the machining time will not depend (c) Gear teeth broaching
upon (d) All of the above

R E V I E W QU E S T I O N S
1. Why and how must the amount of time 8. State the procedural steps that are followed for
required for manufacturing any product be estimation of time required for straight turn-
reduced as far as possible? ing a rod in a centre lathe.
2. What factors govern the amount of time 9. What is the procedure of analytical determi-
required for manufacturing a lot of products nation of time required for drilling a through
by machining like turning? hole in a given metal plate?
3. How does increase in cutting velocity and feed 10. Describe the method of calculation of total
affect productivity in machining? time that may be required to finish the two flat
4. What factors restrain a large increase in cut- surfaces of a rectangular plate of given dimen-
ting velocity for enhancing MRR? sions by shaping.
5. While reducing the time of machining a job, 11. The top surface of a cast metal plate is to be
which factors are usually considered for selec- finished by plain milling. How will you esti-
tion of the level of cutting velocity? mate the span of time that will be required for
6. How do process parameter levels govern the the said purpose?
required time of machining by plain turning? 12. How one can estimate the time required for
7. What factors govern the selection of feed rate producing all the teeth of a straight-toothed
while aiming for the minimization of machin- spur gear of given specification in a milling
ing time? machine?

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 Estimation of Machining Time 277

13. Briefly state the procedure of calculation of 14. Describe briefly the method of estimation of
time required for completing the teeth of a time required for producing all the teeth of a
spur gear from a given blank in a gear shaping spur gear in a gear hobbing machine.
machine?

PR O B L E M S
With Answers
1. At one end of a 300 mm long mild steel rod, Tool feed = 0.50 mm/rev
its diameter has to be reduced from 80 mm to Depth of cut = 5 mm per pass
76 mm over a length of 95 mm in a lathe by a Tool approach = 5 mm
carbide tool at a spindle speed of 400 rpm and 2. The top surface of a cast iron plate of size 500
tool feed of 0.20 mm/rev. Give a reasonable mm × 200 mm × 70 mm has to be finish-
estimate of the time required for this turning. machined by a 250 mm diameter face milling
Ans: 1.25 min cutter at spindle speed of 200 rpm and work
2. Analytically estimate the time that will be re- table feed of 120 mm/min. Determine ap-
quired to drill a through hole of 20 mm diam- proximately the time that will be required for
eter in a 15 mm thick mild steel plate using a this machining work.
standard HSS twist drill and soluble oil. As- 3. A slot of length 100 mm, width 20 mm and
sume speed, feed, etc. reasonably. depth 10 mm is to be cut on the top surface
Ans: 0.25 to 0.50 min of a C20 steel block of size 150 mm × 80 mm
3. A brass plate of size 200 mm × 100 mm × 6 × 40 mm by a HSS end mill cutter. Assuming
mm is to be slit transversely into two pieces suitable speed, feed, etc., estimate the machin-
by a slitting saw (milling cutter). Estimate the ing time.
required time, assuming 4. Determine the actual machining time (min)
Cutter speed = 200 rpm that will be required to reduce the diameter of
Cutter diameter = 250 mm a mild steel rod from 100 mm to 90 mm over
Table feed = 0.05 mm/tooth a length of 160 mm in a lathe at spindle speed
Number of cutter teeth = 100 of 640 rpm, feed of 0.40 mm/rev and 2.5 mm
Ans: About 0.40 min depth of cut.
4. The thickness of a CI plate of size 100 mm × 5. The thickness of a brass plate of size 100 × 60
60 mm × 10 mm is to be reduced by 2 mm mm is to be reduced from 20 mm to 18 mm
in a shaping machine. Assuming suitable data in a shaping machine at a speed of 64 strokes/
roughly, estimate the machining time required. min and feed of 0.12 mm/stroke. Determine
Ans: About 2.0 min the actual machining time that will be required
for the above work assuming the following:
quick return ratio, Q = 2/3 and overrun and
Without Answers approach = 2.5 mm along both length and
1. Estimate the time that will be required to re- breadth.
duce the diameter of a rod from 200 mm to 6. How many complete revolutions of the gear
160 mm over a length of 145 mm in a lathe shaping cutter, having 24 teeth, will be re-
under the following conditions: quired to produce all the teeth of a spur gear
Spindle speed = 200 rpm having 120 teeth?

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MAMT_Chapter 7.indd 278 7/21/2011 11:25:39 AM
 8 Machinability, Some Critical
Problems and Remedial
Measures
Learning Objectives
The contents of this chapter would enable the readers to:
• Define machinability and express its role on • Design and illustrate various in-built and
the aims and objectives of machining. adjustable types of chip-breakers for improved
• Be aware of the methods of assessment and machinability.
improvement of machinability. • Learn and incorporate some simple but effec-
• Address the machinability problems and sug- tive geometrical modification of cutting tools
gest possible remedial approaches in machin- to improve their performance.
ing some critical metals – aluminium and • Be aware of how to plan and implement some
its alloys, stainless steels, Ni- and Ti-based potential and feasible special techniques which
super-alloys and plastics and FRPs. can improve machinability and productivity.
• Realize and demonstrate the need of breaking
the machining chips.

8.1 Introduction
All work materials are obviously not equally easy to machine. Ease of machining generally refers to the pos-
sibility of machining any given material at preset MRR with lesser cutting forces and power consumption,
reasonably lesser cutting temperature, longer tool life and desirably good surface finish. The degree and extent
of such ease of machining is termed as machinability. Ease of machining or machinability depends not only on
the work material but also on the geometry and material of the cutting tools, speed-feed combination and the
machining environment. Attempts are always made to improve the machinability aspects without sacrificing
productivity by proper selection of cutting tools, process parameters and cutting fluid application. Forms of
the chips also often indicate, at least qualitatively, the machinability aspect of any material. Various chip-breakers
are designed and used to obtain chips of favourable form and thickness. Some materials and alloys and some
non-metals pose a lot of unusual difficulties due to their high strength, hot strength, work hardenability, poor
thermal properties, excessive thickness and chemical aggressiveness. Often some special techniques, if feasible,
economically viable and eco-friendly, are employed to cope with such difficult-to-machine materials. All such

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 280 Machining and Machine Tools

machinability aspects, the means of improving machinability and special techniques for difficult situations
have been addressed in this chapter.

8.2 Machinability
8.2.1 Definition and Assessment of Machinability
Machinability generally refers[1] to the behaviour of any work material in machining. Such machining char-
acteristics of any work material depend not only on its metallurgical and mechanical properties but also
significantly on the machining condition.
It is always attempted to accomplish machining effectively, efficiently and economically as far as possible
by rapidly removing the excess material with minimum power consumption, tool wear and surface deterio-
ration. But this may not be always possible for all work materials and under all conditions. The machining
characteristics of the work material also largely depend on the conditions of machining, particularly the type
of cutting tool used – both its material and geometry. The levels of the process parameters and application
of cutting fluid also substantially influence the behaviour of the given work material under machining. The
term ‘machinability’ has been introduced for gradation of work materials w.r.t. machining characteristics.
However, there is no unique or definite meaning of the term machinability. People tried to describe ‘machin-
ability’ in several ways such as:
1. It is generally applied to the machining properties of work material.
2. It refers to material (work) response to machining.
3. It is the ability of the work material to be machined.
4. It indicates how easily and fast a material can be machined.
It is accepted in general that it is not easy to clearly define and quantify machinability. For instance, saying
‘material A is more machinable than material B’ may mean that compared to B:
1. A causes lesser tool wear or maintains longer tool life.
2. A requires lesser cutting forces and power for same MRR.
3. A provides better surface finish.
Surface finish and tool life are generally considered more important in finishing operations, and cutting
forces and power consumption are significant in bulk machining work. Machinability actually depends on
several aspects. So the order of placing the work material in a group w.r.t. favourable behaviour in machining
will change if the criterion is changed from tool life to cutting power or surface quality of the product and
vice versa. For instance, the machining behaviour of work materials is so affected by the cutting tool (both its
material and geometry) that often machinability is referred to as ‘operational characteristics of the work–tool
combination’.
Attempts were also made to assess or quantify machinability in terms of
1. Tool life, which substantially influences productivity and economy of machining.
2. Magnitude of cutting forces, which affects power consumption and dimensional accuracy.
3. Surface finish, which plays a role on performance and service life of the product.
Often cutting temperature and chip form are also taken into account while assessing machinability. But
practically is it not possible to use all these criteria together for expressing machinability quantitatively. In a
group of work materials, a particular one may appear best in respect of, say, tool life but may be much poorer

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 Machinability, Some Critical Problems and Remedial Measures 281

in respect of cutting forces and surface finish and so on. Besides that, the machining responses of any work
material in terms of tool life, cutting forces, surface finish, etc. are more or less significantly affected by the
levels of almost all the parameters or factors associated with machining processes like turning, drilling, milling,
etc. Therefore, there cannot be as such any unique criterion to express machinability of any material.
However, the relative machinability or machining response of any work material compared to that of a
standard metal used to be generally evaluated quantitatively only based on tool life at VB = 0.30 mm by an
index called machinability rating (MR). It is given by

Speed (fpm) of machining the work givin

ng 60 min tooll life
f
MR = ×100
Speed (fpm) of machining the standard me
m tal giving 60 min tool life
f

Figure 8.1 depicts a simple way of evaluating MR of any work material. The free cutting steel AISI – 1112,[2]
when machined (turned) at 100 fpm, provides 60 min of tool life. If the work material to be tested provides
60 min of tool life at cutting velocity of 60 fpm, as indicated in Fig. 8.1, under the same machining condition
set, then MR of that material would be
60
MR = × 100 = 60% or simplyy 60 (based
d on 100%
% forr thee standar
a d material)
100
Another way to calculate MR is to directly consider the value of the cutting velocity expressed in fpm at which
a work material provides 60 min of tool life as the MR of that work material. In this way, the MRs of some
materials have been evaluated,[1] as shown in Table 8.1.

Standard material
y fpm

100
Cutting velocity,

60

Specimen material
30 60 100
Tool life, min
T

Figure 8.1 Machinability rating (MR) in terms of cutting velocity giving a 60 min tool life.

Table 8.1 Machinability rating of different work materials

Metal MR
Ni 200
Br 300
Al 200
C.I. 70
Inconel 30

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 282 Machining and Machine Tools

But the usefulness and reliability of such practices have faced several genuine doubts and questions, such as:
1. Tool life cannot be or should not be considered as the only criterion for judging machinability.
2. Under a given condition and a fixed cutting velocity, tools made of the same material can provide
different tool lives, as slight variation in the exact composition, microstructure, treatments, etc. of
that material may cause significant difference in tool life.
3. The tool life–speed relationship of any work material may substantially change with the variation in
the following:
(a) Material and geometry of the cutting tool.
(b) Level of process parameters (Vc, so, t).
t
(c) Machining environment (cutting fluid application).
(d) Machine tool condition.
Keeping all such factors and limitations in view, machinability can be tentatively defined as ‘the ability to be
machined’ and more simply as ‘ease of machining’. But ease is a relative and qualitative term. Practically, ease
of machining or machinability characteristics of any tool–work pair is assessed quantitatively mainly by
1. The magnitude of the cutting forces and cutting temperature.
2. Tool wear or tool life.
3. Surface finish or surface roughness.
4. Chip forms (shape, thickening, colour, straining, etc.).
Machinability is considered desirably high when cutting forces, temperature, surface roughness, and tool
wear are less, tool life is long and chips are ideally uniform, thin and short, resulting in short chip–tool con-
tact length and less friction.

8.2.2 Role of Various Factors on Machinability

The machinability characteristics and their criteria, that is, the magnitude of cutting forces, temperature,
tool life and surface finish are governed or influenced more or less by all the variables and factors involved in
machining,[3] such as
1. Properties of the work material.
2. Cutting tool (material and geometry).
3. Levels of the process parameters.
4. Machining environment (cutting fluid application, etc.).
Machinability characteristics of any work–tool pair may also be further affected by
1. The strength, rigidity and stability of the machine tool.
2. The nature of the machining operations.
3. The functional aspects of the special techniques, if employed.

8.2.2.1 Role of the Properties of the Work Material on Machinability

The following properties of the work material more or less govern the machinability of that material:
1. The basic nature – brittleness or ductility, etc.
2. Microstructure.

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 Machinability, Some Critical Problems and Remedial Measures 283

3. Mechanical strength – fracture or yield.

4. Hardness.
5. Hot strength and hot hardness.
6. Work hardenability.
7. Thermal conductivity.
8. Chemical reactivity.
9. Stickiness.
10. Self-lubricity.

Machining of Brittle and Ductile Materials

Generally, compared to ductile materials, brittle materials are relatively more easily machinable because:
1. Chip separation is affected by brittle fracture[3] requiring lesser force and energy of chip formation.
2. Shorter chips are formed, causing lesser frictional force and heating at the rake surface.
For instance, compared to even mild steel, grey cast iron needs much lesser cutting forces and produces lesser
temperature. Smooth and continuous chip formation in machining mild steel may produce better surface
finish but BUE, if formed, may worsen the surface finish. In machining ductile metals by single-point tools,
the expression
PZ = tsots f
indicates that cutting force increases with the increase in the dynamic yield shear strength ts of the work material.
The actual value of ts of any material, again, changes with the condition of machining and also depends on
the ductility of the work material as[4]
ts = 0.74 su e 0.6Δ
where su is the ultimate tensile strength which is a classical property of the work material, Δ is the percentage
elongation indicating ductility of the work material and e is the average cutting strain.

Role of Microstructure of the Work Material

The value of ts of a given material depends largely on its microstructure. Coarse microstructure usually leads
to a lesser value of ts. The value of ts can be sizeably reduced by
1. Proper heat treatment like annealing of steels.
2. Controlled addition of materials like sulphur (S), lead (Pb), tellurium (Te), etc., leading to free cut-
ting of soft ductile metals and alloys.

Free Cutting Steels

Addition of lead[5] in low-carbon steels and also in aluminium, copper and their alloys helps reduce their ts.
The dispersed lead particles act as discontinuities and as solid lubricants, improving machinability by reduc-
ing friction, cutting forces and temperature, tool wear and BUE formation. Addition of sulphur also enhances
machinability of low-carbon steels by enabling free cutting[6]. The added sulphur reacts with Mn present in
the steels and forms MnS inclusions which, being very soft, act almost as voids and reduce friction at the
tool–work interfaces resulting in reduction of cutting forces and temperature and their consequences. The
degree of ease of machining of such free cutting steels depends upon the morphology of the MnS inclusions
which can be made more favourable by addition of traces of Tellurium or Selenium. Several other inclusions

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 284 Machining and Machine Tools

and additives, even in traces, are also found[7] to affect machinability of various steels either favourably or
unfavourably.

Dependence of Machinability of any Work Material on its Strength, Hardness,

Hot Strength, Hot Hardness and Work Hardenability
Harder and stronger work materials show poorer machinability as they require larger cutting forces and provide
shorter tool life. However, in machining ductile materials the shear strength ts and hence cutting forces tend to
decrease with the increase in cutting velocity. In high velocity machining, the yield shear strength (ts) decreases
mainly due to softening of the work material ahead the cutting tool at elevated temperatures. Such benefits of
high temperature and cutting velocity are not attained when the work materials are hot strong, hot hard and work
hardenable like Ti- and Ni-based super-alloys as well as high manganese steel, Ni-hard, Hadfield steel, etc.
Sticking of the material (like pure copper and aluminium and their alloys) and formation of BUE at the
tool rake surface also hamper machinability by increasing friction, cutting forces, temperature and surface
roughness. Lower thermal conductivity of the work material affects its machinability by raising the cutting
zone temperature and thus reducing tool life.

8.2.2.2 Role of Cutting Tool Material and Geometry in Machinability

of Work Material
Role of Cutting Tool Materials
While machining a material under a given condition, the tool life is governed mainly by the tool material,
which also influences cutting forces and temperature as well as the accuracy and finish of the machined products.
The composition, microstructure, strength, hardness, toughness, wear resistance, chemical stability and ther-
mal conductivity of the tool material play significant roles on the machinability characteristics though in
different degrees, depending upon the properties of the work material. Figure 8.2 schematically shows how in
turning a material like steel, the tool materials affect tool life at varying cutting velocities.
High wear resistance and chemical stability of cutting tools like coated carbides, ceramics, cubic boron
nitride (cBN), etc. also help in providing better surface integrity of the product by reducing friction, cutting
temperature and BUE formation in high speed machining of steels. Very soft, sticky and chemically reactive

Ceramic tool
y Vc (log) m/min

HSS
Cutting velocity,

Sintered carbide

HSS WC Ceramic
Tool life TL (log), min
T

Figure 8.2 Role of cutting tool material on machinability (tool life).

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 Machinability, Some Critical Problems and Remedial Measures 285

materials like pure aluminium attain highest machinability when machined by diamond tools due to high
chemical stability of diamond against aluminium.

Role of Geometry of Cutting Tools

The following geometrical parameters of cutting tools significantly affect the machinability of a given work mate-
rial, under given machining conditions, in terms of specific energy requirement, tool life, surface finish, etc.:
1. Tool rake angles (gg ).
2. Cutting angles (ff and f1).
3. Clearance angle (aa ).
4. r
Nose radius (r).
The other geometrical (tool) parameters which also influence machinability to some extent directly and
indirectly are:
1. l
Inclination angle (l).
2. Edge bevelling or rounding.
3. Geometry of the chip-breaker.

Role of Tool Rake Angle on Machinability

In machining like turning, boring, etc. of ductile materials, the cutting force Pz decreases with the increase in
rake angle as schematically shown in Fig. 8.3, as
PZ = tso ts f
where
f = z − tang
p −g}
z = e m{(p/2)
ts = 0.74 sue 0.6Δ
and e = z − tan g
These expressions clearly show that increase in rake angle g reduces PZ substantially through reduction in
cutting strain (ee ), chip reduction coefficient (z ) and hence ts and the form factor f With decrease in PZ, PXY
and hence PX and PY also decrease proportionally. However, a large increase in rake angle weakens the cutting
Cutting force, PZ

Chip load

Tool rake angle, g

T

Figure 8.3 Effect of tool rake angle on machinability (cutting force, PZ).

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 286 Machining and Machine Tools

edge both mechanically and thermally and may cause premature failure of the tool. Presence of an inclination
angle l enhances the effective rake angle and thus helps in further reduction of the cutting forces. The tool
rake angle does not affect surface finish significantly.

Role of Cutting Angles (e

e and e1) on Machinability
The variation in the principal cutting edge angle f does not affect PZ or the specific energy requirement
but influences PY and the cutting temperature qc quite significantly, as shown below and as indicated in
Fig. 8.4:
PY = PXYY cosf = aP
aPZ cosf

and θc α c o φ

where Ka is a constant. If the force PY is large, it may impair the product quality by dimensional deviation
and roughening of the surface through vibration. Reduction in both f and f1 improves surface finish sizeably
in continuous chip formation according to
so
hmax =
cot φ + cot φ1

where hmaxx is the maximum surface roughness due to feed marks alone.

Role of Clearance Angle (`

`)
a ) affects tool life. Inadequate clearance angle reduces
Figure 8.5 schematically shows how clearance angle (a
tool life and surface finish by tool–work rubbing, and again too large a clearance reduces the tool strength
and hence tool life.

Role of Tool-Nose Radius r on Machinability

Proper tool-nose radiusing improves machinability to some extent through
1. Increase in tool life by increasing mechanical strength and reducing temperature at the tool tip.
2. Reduction of surface roughness, hmax as

so 2
hmax =
8r
Average cutting temperature (q c)

qc
P Y)
Transverse force (P

PY

Cutting angle, f, deg.

Figure 8.4 qc and PY).

Effects of variation in cutting angle on machinability (q

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 Machinability, Some Critical Problems and Remedial Measures 287

Tool life, min

T
0 10 20 30
Tool clearance angle, deg.
T

Figure 8.5 Influence of tool clearance angle on tool life.

Proper edge radiusing (r ′) also often enhances strength and life of the cutting edge without much increase in
cutting forces.

8.2.2.3 Role of the Levels of the Process Parameters in Machinability

Proper selection of the levels of the process parameters (Vc, so and tt) can help in attaining better machin-
ability response of a given work-tool combination without sacrificing productivity or MRR. Amongst the
process parameters, depth of cut t plays the least significant role. Compared to feed (so), variation of cutting
velocity (Vc) governs machinability more predominantly. Increase in Vc, in general, reduces tool life but it
also reduces cutting forces or specific energy requirement and improves surface finish through favourable
chip–tool interaction. Some cutting tools, especially ceramic tools perform better and last longer at a higher
Vc within limits. Increase in feed also raises cutting forces almost proportionally but reduces specific energy
requirement to some extent.[8] Cutting temperature is also lesser susceptible to increase in so than Vc. But
increase in so, unlike that in Vc, raises surface roughness. Therefore proper increase in Vc, even at the expense
of so, can often improve machinability significantly.

8.2.2.4 Role of Machining Environment (Cutting Fluids) on Machinability

The basic purpose of employing cutting fluid is to improve the machinability characteristics of any work-tool
combination by
1. Improving tool life by cooling and lubrication.
2. Reducing cutting forces and specific energy consumption.
3. Improving surface integrity by cooling, lubricating and cleaning at the cutting zone.
The favourable roles of cutting fluid application depend not only on its proper selection based on the work
and tool materials and the type of the machining process but also on its rate of flow, direction and location
of application.

8.2.3 Possible Ways of Improving Machinability

Machinability characterization can be more or less improved without sacrificing productivity in the following
ways:

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 288 Machining and Machine Tools

1. By inducing a favourable change in composition, microstructure and mechanical properties

by mixing suitable type and amount of additive(s) in the work material and by appropriate heat
treatment.
2. By proper selection and use of cutting tool material and geometry depending upon the work material
and the significant machinability criteria undertaken.
3. By optimum selection of Vc and so based on the tool–work materials and the primary objectives of
the machining work.
4. By proper selection and appropriate method of application of cutting fluid depending upon the
tool–work materials, desired levels of productivity, that is, Vc and so and also on the primary objec-
tives of the machining work undertaken.
5. By proper selection and application of special techniques like dynamic machining, hot machining,
cryogenic machining, etc., if feasible, economically viable and eco-friendly.

8.3 Machining Problems of Some Critical Materials and

Remedial Approaches
Other than steels, some metals and alloys, such as aluminium and its alloys, stainless steels, Ni-based and
Ti-based super-alloys, etc. are also widely used for their unique properties. Several FRPs are also getting wide
use. But machining essentially required for accuracy and surface finish of the end products of such metals and
alloys face lot of difficulties for various reasons.

8.3.1 Machinability of Aluminium and Its Alloys

Aluminium and some of its alloys have found very wide applications, next to steels, for both single com-
ponent type products and long continuous products for structural use. Aluminium is used more widely in
alloy form rather than in its commercially pure form. Aluminium is inherently characterized by its softness,
lightness, ductility, lower melting point, high thermal conductivity and formability. Aluminium is generally
used in
1. Commercially pure form.
2. Form of aluminium alloy.
Commercially pure aluminium as such requires lesser cutting forces and causes lesser cutting tool wear due
to its softness (low shear strength), lower melting point and high thermal conductivity. Both cutting forces
and tool wear decrease further with the increase in cutting velocity Vc. However, machining of such pure
aluminium has several problems[1,9] which include:
1. Difficult chip-control.
2. Wide chip–tool contact.
3. Intensive chip-seizure and friction at the tool rake surface.
4. Larger chip thickness.
5. Large thrust or feed force and the consequences.
6. Very poor surface finish and integrity.
The aforesaid problems are found to decrease to some extent while machining common aluminium alloys.
Aluminium alloys are basically of two categories:

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 Machinability, Some Critical Problems and Remedial Measures 289

1. Cast alloy: mostly employed for producing single components, such as products for automotive parts.
2. Wrought or cold worked: used mainly for making long products for structural use.
Machinability of aluminium and its alloys, like other conventional work materials, is judged by
1. Chip form and thickening.
2. Magnitude of cutting forces.
3. Seizure and BUE formation.
4. Surface roughness.
5. Tool wear or tool life.
Machinability of aluminium has been sizeably improved by properly alloying it, enabling:
1. Decrease in severity of the chip–tool interaction, resulting in reduction in friction, cutting forces and
power consumption.
2. Reduction in stickiness of the work material.
3. Control of chip form, that is, segmented chips in place of continuous chips.
Amongst the various aluminium alloys, aluminium-silicon alloy is the most common and most widely
used for making several automotive parts by casting. The two popular grades of Al–Si alloys are
1. Eutectic alloys containing 6–10% silicon.
2. Hypereutectic alloys having 17–23% silicon.
Hypereutectic alloys possess ample free silicon and have a high melting point and high hardness. Hence
hypereutectic Al–Si alloys being hard, strong and heat- and wear-resistive are used for making some critical
parts of automobile engines. But this alloy obviously becomes a bit difficult to machine and the cutting tools
undergo rapid abrasive wear and formation of strong bonded built-up-edge (BUE) leading to shorter tool life
and poor surface finish.
Wrought or cold worked aluminium alloys are generally used for manufacture of structural components
like rods, bars, channels, tubes, plates, strips, etc. The common alloying elements are copper and magnesium.
Machining of cold worked aluminium[10] may also become difficult, particularly at low cutting velocity due
to extreme softness and stickiness and BUE formation. Aluminium and its various alloys are generally ma-
chined by HSS, carbide and diamond tools.
Aluminium is also used in some metal matrix composites where a base of aluminium is reinforced by dis-
persion of tiny particles or fibers, called whiskers, of SiC or alumina in aluminium matrix. Such metal matrix
composites are used for some critical applications in industries. But their machining[11] becomes difficult due
to increased strength and abrasiveness of such matrix. Other problems like BUE formation, short tool life,
etc., also prevail. Alumina-reinforced aluminium is relatively more difficult to machine.
The problems of machining aluminium and its alloys are substantially reduced and their machinability is
improved by:
1. Use of high cutting velocity − 300 to 600 m/min.
2. Use of sharp cutting tools having large positive rake and wide approach angle.
3. Application of profuse cooling.
4. Using a chip-breaker.
5. Using PCD (polycrystalline diamond) tools.
6. Mixing of a small amount (upto 0.5%) of soft grade additives like zinc, lead, bismuth, tin, etc.
which makes the alloy a so-called ‘free machining’ alloy by reducing ductility, stickiness, friction and
damage of the cutting edges.

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 290 Machining and Machine Tools

8.3.2 Machinability of Stainless Steels

Stainless steel is characterized by its corrosion resistance which is imparted by the formation of a thin but
strong protective layer of chromium oxide. However, various application requirements led to development
and use of different grades of stainless steels, which can be broadly classified as:
1. Ferritic stainless steel
(a) Composition: 11–27% Cr, 1–1.5% Mn, 0.1–0.2% C and the rest Fe.
(b) Properties: Ferritic structure, poor ductility and formability, non-work-hardenable, machin-
able like low carbon and low alloy steels.
(c) General use: Cutlery, cookware, etc.
(d) Cost: Relatively low.
2. Martensitic stainless steel
(a) Composition: 12–18% Cr, 1% Mn, 0.5–1.2% C and the rest Fe. Ni and Mo are also often
added to raise strength.
(b) Properties[12]: Stronger and harder than other stainless steels, work-hardenable and heat
treatable.
(c) Cost: Costlier than ferritic grade stainless steel.
(d) General use: Tools, knives, etc.
3. Austenitic stainless steel
(a) Composition: 16–26% Cr, 3.5–22% Ni, 0.05–0.25% C, 2–10% Mg, and the rest Fe and
traces of Mo, Ti, Si, N, etc. 18 (Cr)–8 (Ni) stainless steel is very common and widely used.
(b) Properties: High corrosion resistance, good formability, high ductility and strength, non-
magnetic, high machining finish, work-hardenable by cold working and so on.
(c) Cost: Relatively costlier than the ferritic and martensitic stainless steels.
(d) General use: More widely used than the other stainless steels and mainly for long products like
tubes, pipes, etc. It is also used for making tanks, vessels and several machine elements.
Another grade of high quality stainless steel is made by precipitation hardening to impart high strength
and hardness in addition to high corrosion resistance. Such steel is produced from martensistic stainless
steels by further addition of aluminium which imparts age hardening. Precipitation hardened stainless
steels are costly and are used to make strong and rigid structural objects such as rods, plates, springs, etc.
There is another type of stainless steel, named duplex stainless steell which contains 20–25% Cr and 5–7%
nickel and is produced by water quenching from a hot working temperature. The microstructure happens
to be the combination of that of ferritic and austenitic stainless steels. Such high quality and costly stain-
less steels are used where high resistance to stress corrosion is needed in addition to high strength and
rigidity.
Stainless steels are widely used essentially for their unique properties. But all the types of stainless steels are
more or less difficult to machine. The poor machinability of stainless steels, in general, is observed due to
1. Larger magnitude of cutting forces.
2. Higher cutting temperature.
3. Rapid damage and failure of cutting tools.
4. Poor surface finish and integrity.
5. Vibration or chatter.

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 Machinability, Some Critical Problems and Remedial Measures 291

All such problems are caused mainly due to

1. High ductility and yield strength of stainless steels.
2. Lower thermal conductivity.
3. Intensive friction and BUE formation.
4. Strong adhesion of work material with the tool (surfaces) resulting in rapid tool wear by flaking and
rupturing and poor surface integrity.
5. Abrasiveness of the work material.
6. Gradual work hardening with the progress of machining.
Machinability of stainless steel further deteriorates with the increase in its strength and hardness due to
increase of addition of Ni, Mn, N, Al, etc. preformation by cold working and quenching. Austenitic stainless
steels are more difficult to machine compared to both ferritic and martensitic stainless steels. Stainless steels
are machinable at varying speed ranges by HSS, uncoated carbide, some ceramics and cBN tools.
The nature and extent of the machining problems of stainless steels can be favourably changed and re-
duced and their machinability can be improved substantially depending upon the type of steel by
1. Appropriate selection of cutting tool materials (from HSS, WC, ceramics and cBN) and geometry
(rake angle, inclination angle, cutting angles, etc.).
2. Using a suitable cutting velocity (neither too low nor too high) to control cutting forces, tool wear
and surface roughness.
3. Using larger feed or uncut chip thickness – not less than 0.20 mm/rev or per tooth.
4. Minimization of number of cuts to reduce work hardening.
5. Employing efficient coolant systems.
6. Using a rigid machine, tools and the associated fixtures and tooling.
7. Making the stainless steel ‘free cutting’ by adding an appropriate amount of sulphur and/or selenium
and also by calcium deoxidation where the sulphide and selenides help in reducing friction, wear and
surface roughness with little or no sacrifice of corrosion resistance.

8.3.3 Machinability of Nickel and Its Alloys

Though nickel behaves like steels, is also characterized by high hot strength as well as high heat and corrosion
resistance in addition to its usual ductility and toughness. Commercially pure nickel possesses favourable
electrical, magnetic and magnetostrictive properties. With all such unique properties, Ni has found wide
applications, especially after further improvements by proper alloying and heat treatments. Nickel and nickel-
based alloys can be broadly grouped[13] as
1. Commercially pure nickel (Ni ≥ 94%).
2. Ni–Mo and Ni–Mo–Cr alloys, called super-alloys having high heat and corrosion resistance and high
strength.
3. Ni–Mo–Cr–Cu alloys used for very high corrosion resistance.
4. Ni–Cu alloys, called Monel, which are highly resistive against intensive corrosive media.
5. Ni–Cr and Ni–Cr–Fe super-alloys used for components requiring high strength and corrosion resis-
tance even at very high temperatures.
Nickel and its alloys are more or less difficult to machine mainly due to their high strength and work hard-
enability. Nickel is alloyed to various compositions to attain specific properties demanded by different

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 292 Machining and Machine Tools

applications. The two grades of Ni-based super-alloys which are widely used for making engineering com-
ponents subjected to stringent conditions, such as in aerospace engineering (jet engines, etc.), are Inconel
and Nimonic. Both again have several grades depending upon their composition, manufacturing process,
properties and applications.
From the machining point of view, a typical grade of Inconel, namely Inconel 718, has been taken up
and discussed here in detail for its several unique properties and wide uses. In respect of machining prob-
lems other Ni alloys are also more or less close to this super-alloy. Inconel 718 has the following unique
properties:
1. High mechanical strength.
2. Hot strength.
3. High resistance to heat, corrosion and fatigue.
4. Reasonably good formability.
These have led to wide application of this super-alloy in aircraft engines and also in automobile engineering,
steam and nuclear power systems, chemical and petrochemical industries, marine applications, heat treatment
plants and so on, especially for those components which are subjected to high stresses, high temperature, cor-
rosion and dynamic loading.
Inconel 718 is reasonably well castable, forgeable and weldable but is more difficult to machine than aus-
tenitic stainless steel. Inconel 718 and also other Ni-based super-alloys are characterized more or less by poor
machinability. The major machining problems and their causes are:
1. Large cutting forces and the consequences for
(a) High yield shear strength of the alloy.
(b) Retention of strength even at high temperature.
(c) Unfavourable chip–tool interaction resulting in high friction and chip seizure.
(d) Work hardening.
2. High cutting temperature (and its detrimental effects) due to
(a) Large cutting forces.
(b) Poor thermal conductivity of Inconel.
(c) Unfavourable chip–tool interaction.
3. Rapid tool damage (and short tool life) due to
(a) Work hardening of the work material.
(b) Abrasive nature of Ni-based alloys.
(c) Intensive stress and temperature at the cutting edges and tool tip.
(d) Strong bonding of the chip material on the tool rake surface.
4. Poor surface finish due to
(a) High temperature.
(b) Rapid damage of the tool geometry.
(c) Unfavourable chip–tool and work-tool interface.
(d) Induced vibration and chatter.
5. Poor dimensional stability[14] due to
(a) Large cutting forces.
(b) High temperature.
(c) Residual stresses.

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 Machinability, Some Critical Problems and Remedial Measures 293

Most of the problems in machining Inconel 718 could be reduced in different degrees by several means as
follows:
1. Proper selection of the cutting tool material
(a) HSS and uncoated carbide[15] tools cannot machine Inconel 718 economically viably.
(b) PVD coated carbide (such as AlTiN-coated carbide)[15,16] can turn Inconel 718 at speeds of
even upto 125 m/min.
(c) Some toughened alumina ceramic tools[17,18] have been found viable at high speed machining.
(d) cBN tool inserts[19,20] of a suitable grade and configuration are economically viable for both
bulk and finish machining of Inconel 718.
2. Proper selection of tool geometry
(a) Sharp edges with positive rake angle.
(b) Negative inclination angle.
(c) Sufficient nose radius.
(d) Edge rounding or bevelling.
(e) Compound rake for controlled contact cutting.
(f ) In-built chip-breaker.
3. Appropriate selection of levels of the process parameters
(a) Cutting velocity: depending upon the tool material and tool life desired.
(b) Feed: low for finishing and reasonably large for bulk machining.
(c) Depth of cut: reasonably small for avoiding vibration and chatter.
4. Proper selection and application of cutting fluid like
(a) Soluble oil at high jet pressure.[21]
(b) Cryogenic coolant like liquid N2 jets.[21,22]
(c) Low viscosity mineral oil and NaNO2 solution.[15]
5. Special techniques, if feasible, like
(a) Hot machining for stock removal.
(b) Hybrid machining (job – heated, tool – cooled).[23]
Attribution of free cuttingness of the alloy by inclusion of trace of soft and lubricating type materials like
sulphide and graphite.

8.3.4 Machinability of Titanium and Ti-Based Alloys

Titanium and its various alloy forms, have found wide applications for their few unique properties which
include:
1. High strength and its retention at temperatures up to about 350°C.
2. Light weight and highest strength to weight ratio.
3. Resistance to corrosion and fatigue at high temperature.
4. Reasonably good formability and weldability.
Titanium alloys are being widely used since the 1950s for various parts of engine and structures of
aircrafts. Since then, the application range has gradually grown to cover pre-ignition areas and coolers of gas
turbines, hydrogen and cryogenic storage media, high current/high field super-conductors, condenser tubing

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 294 Machining and Machine Tools

for nuclear fossil fuel power generation plants, off-shore oil drilling, desalination plants, pulp and paper
industries, surgical implants, sport-items, etc.
Titanium is generally used in its alloy form. Titanium is an allotropic element. Upon heating the elemental
titanium undergoes allotropic transformation from closely packed hexagonal (cph) a (alpha) phase to body
centered cubic (bcc) b (beta) phase at 882°C, often referred to as b -transus and having a melting point of
1668°C. Addition of alloying elements will either raise or lower the b -transus.[24]
Alloying elements like Al, O, N and C that raise the b -transus and stabilize the a -phase are known as
a -stabilizers. Elements like Mo, V, Nb, Cu and Si that lower b -transus and stabilize b -phase are called
b -stabilizers. When both these types of alloying elements are present, a two-phase a + b alloy is formed.
Addition of a - and b -stabilizers also alters the physical properties of the alloy. The a -phase alloys usually
1. Are non-heat treatable but weldable.
2. Have moderate strength and toughness but high ductility even in cryogenic environments.
3. Show high resistance to oxidation and creep even at high temperatures.
The b -phase alloys are generally characterized by
1. Ready heat treatability.
2. High strength and creep resistance at moderate temperatures.
3. Excellent formability.
On the other hand, a + b -phase alloys
1. Are heat treatable.
2. Have medium to high strength.
3. Possess hot forming qualities.
4. Exhibit high temperature creep strength.
Amongst the titanium alloys, the a + b phase alloys are most widely used for their unique and versatile
properties. Among such alloys, Ti-6Al-4V is very common. Titanium alloys are available in wrought forms
such as billet, plate, strip, tube, rod, wire, etc. produced by rolling, drawing and extrusion. Component prod-
ucts are also manufactured by casting, forging, near-net-shape forming, and powder metallurgy. However,
manufacture of Ti alloys and their products becomes relatively expensive due to complexity of the processes.
Most of the component products of Ti alloys as usual require good dimensional accuracy and surface fin-
ish by machining and grinding for their good performance and long service life. But the machinability of Ti
alloys is considered to be poor, which enhances the production cost of Ti-alloy components. The machining
of titanium and its alloys (including Ti-6Al-4V) has been difficult mainly due to their:
1. Chemical reactivity: Titanium is chemically very reactive to almost all tools and their coating mate-
rials at temperatures beyond 350°C. This leads to welding of chips to the cutting edges, resulting in
rapid tool damage by chipping, flaking, adhesion and diffusion wear. So tool life gets shortened and
the machined surface becomes rough.
2. Low thermal conductivity: This property localizes the heat and raises the cutting temperature inten-
sively, which reduces tool life and impairs surface integrity.
3. High strength (as such) and hot strength: High strength and hot strength raise cutting forces and
specific energy consumption, which induces several detrimental effects.
The other distinguishing machining characteristics of the Ti alloys that directly and indirectly affect their
machinability are

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 Machinability, Some Critical Problems and Remedial Measures 295

1. Formation of thin, continuous and segmented chips like saw teeth.

2. Relatively lesser cutting forces which are almost irrespective of cutting velocity due to absence of
BUE formation and very small chip–tool contact length.
3. Rapid deterioration and failure of the cutting edges due to concentration of intensive stress and
temperature at the narrow chip–tool contact area.
4. Conventional cutting fluid application does not reduce cutting forces appreciably but high-
pressure jet cooling reduces the cutting temperature and thermal damage of the sharp cutting edges
significantly.
5. Cast iron grade uncoated carbide tools are found to machine Ti alloys at a moderate speed and
production rate with reasonable economy under profuse cooling.[25] cBN and PCD inserts of sharp
geometry machine Ti alloys quite well, as expected, but such tools are very expensive.
Application of cryocooling jets in turning Ti-6Al-4V alloy by uncoated carbide inserts has revealed[26,27] that
1. Cryocooling could not reduce cutting forces appreciably, apparently because
(a) Chip–tool interaction is smooth, without seizure or BUE.
(b) Cutting edge sharpness is retained, which is an advantage, but work hardness increases, which
is a disadvantage.
2. Tool life is increased only 30–45% by bulk cooling.
3. Surface finish is improved marginally.
4. Chip-segmentation has been relatively more uniform.

8.3.5 Machining Characteristics of Plastics and FRPs

Metals are gradually getting replaced by plastics as they have several unique properties, such as
1. Light weight.
2. Easy formability.
3. Low processing temperature.
4. Reasonable strength and toughness.
5. Lower thermal and electrical conductivity.
6. Good surface finish.
7. Corrosion resistance.
8. Wide range of size, shape and colour.
9. Easy availability and low cost.
10. Lesser friction.
All plastics are some kind of polymers made of long chain modules. Plastics have very wide range of appli-
cations, from household articles and fine tubes and foils to aircraft bodies. Engineering plastics are those
which are used for making structural products like plates, sheets, rods, tubes, etc. and component products
of specific sizes and shapes being used in machines and industries. Plastics are basically of two major cat-
egories:
1. Thermoplastics, whose softness and hardness can be reversed repeatedly by simple heating. Ice-
cream is a good analogy.
2. Thermosetting plastics, whose hardness and stiffness, once stabilized by heating, cannot be reversed
again. Boiled egg is a good analogy.

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 296 Machining and Machine Tools

For desired properties and economy, polymers are blended with various additives and mixed with some
feasible filler materials. The main additives used and their functions are
1. Filler materials like wood dust, cloth fibers, glass fibers, used up or restored plastics, mica, clay, etc.
for strength, mouldability and saving cost.
2. Plasticizers for flexibility.
3. Colourizing agents to provide the desired colour.
4. Lubricating agents to reduce friction and easy flowability.
5. Stabilizers for controlling rapid degradation due to light and heat.
6. Antioxidants to reduce rapid degradation due to heat or light.
Machining and grinding are essentially required after preforming to impart the desired dimensional ac-
curacy and surface finish to most engineering products for their good performance and long service life. But
plastic products require no or very occasional and little machining work as plastic objects are usually molded
to adequate tolerance and finish.
However, often some plastic objects, usually those of rigid and of reasonable size and requiring some con-
stricted features and high precision, are finished by machining. Machining is obviously avoided in lot or mass
production of plastic products. The factors to be kept in mind while machining plastics are
1. Machining is as such difficult in case of plastics, unlike in conventional metals.
2. Annealing may facilitate machining of some plastic jobs.
3. High cutting temperature is likely to cause gumming, high friction and poor surface finish.
4. Care should be taken for control of dimensions which are severely affected by elastic recovery, high
thermal expansion and plastic deformation.
Effective and efficient machining like turning, drilling, end milling, boring, threading and slitting of plastic
components requires
1. Selection and use of proper cutting tool material – HSS and uncoated carbides are used at lower
speeds; PCD and cBN tools, though costly, are used for high speed and precision machining.
2. Use of tools or inserts with sharp cutting edges and a large positive rake.
3. Much wider (10–20°) clearance angles.
4. Use of rigid, job-mounting and supporting rests, where feasible, for preventing elastic deformation
or deflection of the blank and control of vibration or chatter.
5. Profuse cooling by soluble oil or air blast.
Reinforcement of plastic objects by fibers has become common practice for several engineering applications.
Reinforcement of plastics by fibers of different materials, meshes, lays and number of layers led to some very
useful FRPs namely GFRP, CFRP, KFRP and so on. Like plastics, FRPs also often need machining, espe-
cially drilling and other similar operations. Reinforcement of plastics[28,29] renders higher strength, stiffness,
toughness and thus good performance and life as required by aircraft parts, aerospace structures, machine
parts and other industrial components. But fiber-reinforcement makes plastics more difficult to machine. The
additional machining problems of reinforced plastics include
1. Increased cutting forces.
2. Faster tool failure by severe abrasion and chipping.
3. Increased surface roughness by fracture of the fiber as well as the resin matrix and de-lamination.
Suitable uncoated carbide and PCD tools are used for machining FRPs at moderate and high speeds, respectively.

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8.4 Control of Chips and Chip-Breaking

8.4.1 Purpose of Chip Control by Chip-Breaking
Continuous machining like turning of ductile metals produces continuous chips, which leads to problems
in their handling and disposal. The problems become acute when ductile but strong metals like steels are
machined at high cutting velocities by carbide or ceramic inserts with flat rake faces. The sharp-edged hot
continuous chip that comes out at a very high speed
1. Becomes dangerous to the operator and the other people working in the vicinity.
2. May impair the finished surface by entangling with the job and tool.
3. Causes chip disposal difficulties.
Hence it becomes necessary[30] to break such continuous chips into small regular pieces for
1. Safety of the workers.
2. Prevention of damage of the product.
3. Easy collection and disposal of chips.
The chip-breaking has to be done in such a way that it becomes desirably effective and also improves machin-
ability by reducing the chip–tool contact area, cutting forces and crater wear of the cutting tool.

8.4.2 Methods of Chip-Breaking

For convenience and safety, closed coil type chips of short length and ‘comma’-shaped half turn chips are ideal
in machining ductile metals and alloys at high speed.
The principles and methods of chip-breaking[31,32] are generally classified as follows:
1. Self-breaking[32] – This is accomplished without using a separate chip-breaker either as an attach-
ment or an additional geometrical modification of the tool.
2. Forced chip-breaking by using additional tool geometrical features or devices. [33]

8.4.2.1 Self-Breaking of Chips

Ductile chips become curled or tend to curl even when machined by tools with a flat rake face due to
unequal speed of flow of the chip at its free and rubbed surfaces, and unequal temperature and cooling rate
at those two surfaces. With the increase in cutting velocity and rake angle (positive), the radius of curva-
ture increases, which is less favourable. In case of oblique cutting, due to presence of the inclination angle,
restricted cutting effects (RCE), etc., the curled chips deviate laterally resulting in helical coiling of the
chips. The curled chips may self-break by
1. Natural fracturing of the strain-hardened outgoing chip after sufficient cooling and spring back, as
indicated in Fig. 8.6(a). This kind of chip-breaking is generally observed under conditions close to
those which favour formation of jointed or segmented chips.
2. Striking against the cutting surface of the job, as shown in Fig. 8.6(b). This occurs mostly under pure
orthogonal cutting.
3. Striking against the tool flank after each half to full turn as indicated in Fig. 8.6(c).

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 298 Machining and Machine Tools

X
Vc

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 8.6 Principles of self breaking of chips: (a) natural, (b) striking on job, (c) striking at tool flank.

The possibility and pattern of self chip-breaking depend upon the work material, tool material and geometry
(gg l,
l f and rr), levels of the process parameters (Vc and so) and the machining environment (cutting fluid
application) which are generally selected keeping in view the overall machinability.

8.4.2.2 Forced Chip-Breaking

From a certain distance from the cutting edge, the hot continuous chip becomes hard and brittle due to
cooling and work hardening. If the running chip does not become sufficiently curled and work hardened, it
may not break. In that case, the running chip is forced to bend or closely curl so that it breaks into pieces at
regular intervals. Such broken chips are usually of regular size and shape depending upon the configuration
of the chip-breaker. Chip-breakers are basically of two types:
1. In-built type.
2. Clamped or attachment type.

In-built Chip-Breakers
These are in the form of a step or a groove at the rake surface near the cutting edges of the tool. Such chip-
breakers in tools are provided in two ways:
1. By grinding after manufacture of the tool – in case of HSS tools like drills, milling cutters, broaches,
etc. and brazed type carbide inserts.
2. During tool manufacture by powder metallurgical processes – for example, in throw-away type
inserts of carbides, ceramics and cermets.
The basic principle of forced chip-breaking is schematically shown in Fig. 8.7 where the strain-hardened and
brittle running chip strikes the heel and then the cantilever chip gets forcibly bent and then breaks. Figure 8.8
schematically shows some commonly used step type chip-breakers, which are
1. Parallel step.
2. Angular step – positive and negative type.
3. Parallel step with nose radius (for heavy cuts).
Groove type in-built chip-breaker may be (a) circular groove and (b) tilted Vee groove as schematically shown
in Fig. 8.9.

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 Machinability, Some Critical Problems and Remedial Measures 299

r
H

Vc W

Figure 8.7 Principles of forced chip-breaking. Here W, width; H, height and r, angle.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure 8.8 Step type in-built speed breaker: (a) Parallel step; (b) parallel and radiused; (c) positive
angular; (d) negative angular.

Vc
Vc

(a) (b)

Figure 8.9 Groove type in-built chip-breaker: (a) Circular groove and (b) tilted Vee groove.

The unique characteristics of in-built chip-breakers include the following:

1. The outer end of the step or groove acts as the heel that forcibly bends and fractures the running chip.
2. They are simple in configuration, easy to manufacture and inexpensive.

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 300 Machining and Machine Tools

Clamping bolt
Adjustable Tool holder
chipbreaker

Carbide b
insert
W

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 8.10 Clamped type chip-breakers. (a) Fixed geometry, (b) variable width and (c) variable width
and angle.

3. The geometry of the chip-breaking features once made is fixed (i.e., it cannot be varied).
4. Effective only for fixed ranges of speed and feed for any given tool–work combination.

Clamped Type Chip-Breaker

Clamped type chip-breakers work basically on the principle of stepped type chip-breaker but have the provi-
sion of varying the width of the step and/or the angle of the heel. Figure 8.10 schematically shows three types
of such chip-breakers in common use:
1. Chip-breakers with fixed distance and angle of the additional strip – effective only for a limited
domain of parametric combination.
2. W only – a little versatile.
Chip-breakers with variable width (W)
3. W height (H ) and angle (b
Chip-breakers with variable width (W), b ) – quite versatile but less rugged
and more expensive.

8.4.3 Design Principle of Simple Step Type Chip-Breaker

8.4.3.1 Design of Parallel Step Type In-Built Chip-Breaker[33]
In machining such as turning of ductile materials, the chip first leaves the hot plastic zone and then comes
out as an elastic cantilever beam. The chip-breaker (heel) bends the chip to a shorter radius of curvature and
raises the strain, resulting in chip-breaking as indicated in Fig. 8.7.
Ample study had been done on chip-breaking and the results, briefly shown in Fig. 8.11, which indicates
that for a given value of uncut chip thickness a1, the chip effectively breaks when the radius of curvature r is
brought to or slightly below some critical value. From Fig. 8.7, it appears that

W 2 = (2r − H )H
H (8.1)

where W is the width of the step, H is the height of the step and r is radius of curvature of the chip.

Example 8.1 Design step type integrated chip-breaker for plain turning of a mild steel rod at feed
so = 0.24 mm/rev with a tool whose PCEA ((f f) = 60
0°

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 Machinability, Some Critical Problems and Remedial Measures 301

Solution: Here,
a1 = sosinf = 0.24 × sin 60° = 0.2 mm

From the graph (a1 vs. r ) in Fig. 8.11, for a1 = 0.2 mm, the value of r is taken 5 for effective chip-breaking.
Assuming H = 2 we get

W = ( × ))22 = 4.0 mm

8.4.3.2 Design of Clamped Type Chip-Breaker

From the geometry of Fig. 8.12, we can see that

0.6
Uncut chip thickness, a1

0.5
OB EB
0.4

0.3
UB
0.2

0.1

0 5 10 15 20
Radius of curvature, r (mm)

Figure 8.11 Critical radius of curvature for chip-breaking: EB, effective breaking; OB, over breaking;
UB, under breaking.

b
2

r
h H

W
b

Figure 8.12 Design of clamped type chip-breaker.

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 302 Machining and Machine Tools

β
W = ρ tan (8.2)
2

and h = W sinb (8.3)

where b is angle of the chip-breaking strip. The value of H is taken to be slightly greater than that of h.

Example 8.2 For the same condition as in Example 8.1, that is, a1 = 0.2 mm and rc = 5 mm and
assuming b = 60° (varies from 45° to 90
0 °), evaluate H.

Solution: For the given values we have

W = 5 tan 30° ≅ 3 mm

h = 3 × sin 60° = 2.5 mm

Therefore
H = 2.5 + 1.0 = 3.5 mm

Table 8.2 shows a chart recommending the dimensions of a step type chip-breaker[33] for different conditions
under the following assumptions:
1. Ideally the chip is plastic, that is, there is no work hardening.
2. The chip flows straight if chip-breaker does not exist.
3. Plane sections remain plane.
4. The heel of the breaker exerts a bending force on the chip.

Table 8.2 Effective dimensions of step type chip-breaker

Depth of cut 5_0.3

0.15 0.3 _ 0.4 0.4 _0.6 6 _1.0
0.6
Feed >1.0 mm
Chip-breaker mm mm mm mm
W
r r 0.25 _0.6 1.0 _2.0 1.0 _2.0 1.0 _2.0 1.0 _2.0
H

Step-type
H 0.25 0.4 0.5 0.75 0.75

0.4 _1.2 mm W 1.6 2.0 2.8 3.2 –

1.6 _ 6.4mm W 2.4 3.2 4.0 5.0 5.0
2.0_12.8 mm W 3.2 4.0 5.0 5.0 5.0
3.6_20 mm W 4.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0
>20 mm W 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 6.4

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 Machinability, Some Critical Problems and Remedial Measures 303

8.4.4 Configuration and Working Principle of Some Chip-Breakers

in Practice
In-built type chip-breakers once made are of fixed geometry, and are hence are effectively applicable for par-
ticular situations or materials and are very simple in construction and are easy to handle. While designing
the overall geometry of the tool inserts, several factors, in addition to chip-breaking, need to be considered,
such as:
1. Imparting mechanical strength to the cutting edge by its rounding and/or bevelling.
2. Reduction of cutting forces by having favourable (positive) rake.
3. Controlled contact (chip–tool) cutting effect[34] for lesser friction and wear.
4. Better heat dissipation.
Incorporation of all such aspects through integrated tool geometry requires proper design and manu-
facture which fortunately have now-a-days become quite easy and fast due to the advent of CAD and
processes like EDM, ECM, etc. for manufacturing complex shaped dies and punches. In-built type chip-
breakers with integrated tool geometry have become very popular and are getting widely used. Figure
8.13 shows the typical form of modern cutting tool inserts with an in-built chip-breaker. The curved por-
tion BCC is the edge radiusing CD is the land with negative rake, DEF F is the groove with positive rake and
the point F acts as the heel to break the chip by fracturing. The actual length and angle of those features
and their apportionment are decided and some special features are further incorporated to the geometry
(Fig. 8.13) depending upon the operations like bulk machining or finishing and the characteristics of the
work materials.
The configurations of some industrially used uncoated and coated carbide tool inserts with compound
rake including chip-breaking features[35] are typically shown in Fig. 8.14. Throw away type indexable tool
inserts are also widely used for drilling, milling, broaching, etc. where the inserts of suitable geometry
are mechanically clamped in the steel shank of the tools. The geometry of some of those uncoated and
coated carbide inserts also essentially incorporates the chip-breaking feature.

Rake surface

C D
F
B E

A
Vc

Flank surface

Figure 8.13 Schematic view of the typical form of inserts with integrated chip-breaker.

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 304 Machining and Machine Tools

Figure 8.14 Cutting tool inserts with integrated groove type chip-breaker.

8.4.4.1 Chip-Breakers in Solid HSS Tools

Despite the advent of several modern cutting tool materials, HSS is still used for its excellent TRS, tough-
ness, formability, grindability and low cost. Cutting tools made of solid HSS blanks, such as form tools,
drills, milling cutters, broaches, etc. are also often used with suitable chip-breakers for breaking long or wide
continuous chips.
The handling of wide and long chips often becomes difficult particularly while drilling large diameters
and deep holes. Grooves either on the rake faces or on the flanks as shown in Fig. 8.15 help break the chips
both along the length and breadth in drilling ductile metals. The locations of the grooves are offset in the two
cutting edges.[36]

d
20

d
d 15
4
d
6
d
6

Figure 8.15 Chip-breaking grooves in a drill.

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 Machinability, Some Critical Problems and Remedial Measures 305

Crisp design Shortest heel for

helical ribs chip-breaking action

(a) (b)

Figure 8.16 Designs of chip-breaking drills. (a) Crisp design of chip-breaking drill and (b) US industrial
design of chip-breaking drill.

Chip-breaker grooves

Figure 8.17 Chip-breaking grooves on a plain helical milling cutter.

Figure 8.16 schematically shows another principle of chip-breaking when the drilling chips are forced to
tighter curling followed by breaking of the strain hardened chips into pieces. In drilling, the strong ductile
chips can be effectively broken and removed by cutting fluid circulated at high pressure. It is also possible by
controlled vibration of the drill in the direction of feed.
Plain milling and end milling inherently produce discontinuous ‘comma’-shaped chips of favourably
shorter lengths. But the chips become very wide while milling wide surfaces and may cause problems in chip
disposal. To reduce this problem, milling cutters are provided with small peripheral grooves on the cutting
edges[31] as shown in Fig. 8.17. Such in-built type chip-breakers break wide chips into a number of chips of
much shorter width. Similar groove type chip-breakers are also often provided along the teeth of broaches,
for breaking the chips to a shorter width for ease of disposal.

8.4.4.2 Dynamic Chip-Breaker

Dynamic turning is a special technique wherein the cutting tool is deliberately vibrated along the direction
of feed as indicated in Fig. 8.18 at suitable frequency and amplitude. Such additional controlled tool oscilla-
tion caused by mechanical, hydraulic or electro-magnetic (solenoid) shaker improves surface finish. This also
reduces cutting forces and enhances tool life due to more effective cooling and lubrication at the chip–tool
and work–tool interfaces caused by intermittent break of the tool–work contact. This kind of technique, if
further slightly adjusted, can also help in breaking the chips. When the two surfaces of the chip will be wave-
shaped by a phase difference of about 90°, the chip will either break immediately or will come out in the
form of bids, which will also break with slight bending or pressure as indicated in Fig. 8.18. This technique
of chip-breaking can also be accomplished in dynamic drilling and dynamic boring.

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 306 Machining and Machine Tools

B
so
Δs
so

Section B – B

Figure 8.18 Self-chip-breaking in dynamic turning.

Δsso

so

Figure 8.19 Dynamic chip-breaking in radial operations in lathe.

Figure 8.19 schematically shows another possible dynamic chip-breaking device suitable for radially fed type
lathe operations, for example, facing, grooving and parting.

8.4.5 Overall Effects of Chip-Breaking

The favourable effects of chip-breaking are
1. Safety of the operator(s) from the hot, sharp and continuous chip flowing out at high speeds.
2. Convenience of collection and disposal of chips.
3. Lesser chances of damage of the finished surface by entangling or rubbing with the chip.
4. More effective cutting fluid action due to shorter and varying chip–tool contact length.
The unfavourable effects of chip-breaking are
1. Chances of harmful vibration due to frequent chip-breaking and hitting at the heel or flank of the
tool bit.
2. More heat and stress concentration near the sharp cutting edge and hence chances of its rapid failure.

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 Machinability, Some Critical Problems and Remedial Measures 307

8.5 Some Special Techniques of Improving Machinability

Developments in cutting tool materials have made tremendous progress in the last few decades, particu-
larly in the last ten years to meet the growing need for high productivity and the challenge for effective
and efficient machining of many new exotic and difficult to machine work materials which are coming
up with the rapid and vast developments in science and technology. Along with the developments in tool
materials, the geometry of the tools has also been significantly improved and standardized to derive benefits
of modern tool materials and improve the machinability characteristics. Beyond the standard geometry,
some further simple but unique geometrical modifications are also possible to enable the cutting tools to
perform more efficiently and economically in high production machining. Some metals and alloys like
Ni-hard, Hadfield steel, high manganese steel, Nimonic, Inconel, etc. are still quite difficult to machine
conventionally due to their high strength, hardness, hardenability and poor thermal properties. As a result,
these materials are presently machined with very low productivity. But, if properly selected and employed,
simple hot machining may enable machining of such materials easily and quickly, particularly in the case
of rough machining.
The main problem that arises in high production and finish machining is the high cutting tempera-
ture which not only reduces tool life and impairs the product quality but also causes tremendous pollution
through use of the oil-based cutting fluids.
Cryogenic cooling like liquid nitrogen impingement can reduce both the problems through extreme cool-
ing and gas shielding. This novel technique is more economically viable in grind finishing work. The efficien-
cy of cutting fluid action could be substantially improved by having closer contact of the cutting fluid with
the rotating grinding wheel surface by simply using a scraper board and coating the faces of the wheels with a
suitable paste. There are several other simple but very effective techniques which can help increase productiv-
ity and quality as well as overall economy in manufacturing by machining and grinding.

8.5.1 Geometrical Modifications of Cutting Tools

8.5.1.1 Edge Bevelling of Turning Inserts
From the point of view of the mechanisms and mechanics of machining, the cutting edges of the tools should
be ideally sharp. But due to lack of mechanical strength the sharp edges undergo quick deterioration through
rapid attrition, crushing, plastic deformation or micro-chipping, leading to premature failure of these edges.
Slight rounding or bevelling of the sharp edges has been found[33,37,38] to enhance the strength and life of
the cutting edges. But such rounding and beveling, if not properly done, are likely to raise the cutting forces
through negative rake effect.
Figure 8.20 shows the scheme of such modification by simple bevelling of the cutting edges. Such modi-
fication, if properly done with appropriate value of angle (gg ) and width (b) of the land, provides substantial
improvements in several aspects mainly through
1. Edge-strengthening.
2. Controlled contact cutting effect.
3. Favourable stress distribution pattern in the tool.
4. Better heat dissipation throughout the tool.
Turning of C-25 steel rods by carbide inserts of varying bevelled edge geometry at different cutting ve-
locities and feeds revealed some interesting and important results.[39] Proper cutting edge bevelling enabled
significant improvement through reduction in

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 308 Machining and Machine Tools

a1

a2 g
b 1

g2
d

5°

Figure 8.20 Geometry of a controlled contact tool.

1. Chip contact length (Fig. 8.21).

2. Chip reduction coefficient, z (ratio of chip thickness after and before cut).
3. Cutting forces.
4. Peak cutting temperature (Fig. 8.22).
5. Micro-chipping and wear.

2.00
Vc = 100 m/min
Chip contact length, mm

4 Sc = 0.22 mm/rev
1.50 t = 2.5 mm
3 Yz = 5°
1
1.00
2

0.50

0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Land width, mm
Land angles: 1 = 10°, 2 = 20°, 3 = 30°, 4 = 40°

Figure 8.21 Effects of land on chip contact length.

1200
Legend yy, deg.
Temperature, max, °C

10
20
1000 30
40

800

600
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
b /a1

Figure 8.22 Role of land on peak cutting temperature.

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 Machinability, Some Critical Problems and Remedial Measures 309

It is known that the magnitude of cutting forces and hence specific energy consumption and cutting
temperature in machining a given material for given MRR decrease with the reduction in z The value of z
again can usually be reduced by having a large rake angle and reducing friction and BUE formation at the
work–tool interfaces. The chip contact length is decreased basically for the controlled contact cutting effect
provided by the cutting edge bevelling. However, the land width b and land angle g have to be carefully
chosen depending upon the uncut chip thickness a1 and cutting velocity. Very small or very large values
of b and g may reduce the benefit due to lesser controlled contact cutting effect and negative rake effect,
respectively.
The rake angle is expected to be adverse effectively due to the land with negative rake but practically
this does not happen. A small volume of chip material remains stagnated ahead of the land, behaving as a
part of the tool with its primary rake angle. However, the reduction in chip contact length reduces the total
friction force at the rake surface, which helps in reducing z to some extent. The optimum values of b and
g of the land in respect of minimizing chip contact length z and the force are around 0.30 mm and 25°,
respectively. However, the effects of edge bevelling seemed to become more favourable with the increase
in Vc and so.
FEM analysis reveals[40] that chip–tool interface temperature decreases with proper edge bevelling.
Figure 8.22 shows that the peak value of the interface temperature decreases the most when the land width b
is around 1.5 times the uncut chip thickness. This has been attributed to reduction in the friction and cutting
forces as well as sharing of a part of the heat by the stagnated chip material ahead of the land. Under the action
of the cutting forces, stresses develop in the cutting tool. Tensile stress is more detrimental for the brittle and
semi-brittle type cutting tools like carbides and ceramics. It is found, as expected, that proper cutting edge
bevelling helps in reducing the peak value of the stresses, particularly tensile stress. The simple land also helps
in shifting the location of the peak stress away from the weaker cutting edges. This way chance of breakage
of the tools is substantially reduced, which is essentially important for sophisticated and expensive modern
machining systems.

8.5.1.2 Simple Modification of Face Milling Inserts

Face milling inserts, particularly under high production machining, undergo rapid failure by chipping,
fracturing and wear of the sharp edges due to large stresses and dynamic loading. Milling as such pro-
duces relatively rough surfaces. The configurations of various face milling inserts with cutting edge com-
pounding and bevelling are indicated in Fig. 8.23. Such modifications of face milling inserts[41] provide
several benefits:
1. Presence of the small intermediate cutting edge with a smaller cutting angle enhances tip strength.
2. The planishing edge helps in improving surface finish by removing the feed marks.
3. Bevelling of the main cutting edge, which takes the major chip load and forces, enables reduction
in cutting forces, cutting temperature and chances of premature failure of the tool by fracturing
and rate of wear. All such benefits are attributed to edge strengthening, control contact cutting
effect and reduction and favourable distribution pattern of stresses and temperature in the cutting
tools.
Such simple modifications substantially improve the overall performance of the face milling inserts through
reliable functioning, increase in tool life and giving good surface integrity which are essential for higher pro-
ductivity, product quality and overall economy.

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 310 Machining and Machine Tools

r 2°

A Section A – A
75° A
15°

37.5° t

1.4
1.0

Figure 8.23 Simple geometry modifications of face milling inserts.

8.5.1.3 Chisel Edge Modification of Drills

Drilling is associated with a very large thrust force due to the presence of the chisel edge, which removes
material by the adverse process of indentation, unlike machining. This is mainly because of a negligibly
small cutting velocity and large negative rake (−60°). Such a large thrust force not only causes dimensional
inaccuracy and shorter tool life but also affects the design and health of the machine tool. Several attempts
have been made to reduce this problem by thinning the web. A simple and effective method is the use of the
Zhirov-point[42] drill where two small slots are ground on either sides of the chisel edge as shown in Fig. 8.24.
These slots convert the flat chisel edge into a pair of small cutting edges with a favourable rake angle. Such
simple modification of the chisel edge, leaving a small land in between the auxiliary cutting edges enables

Lw

Figure 8.24 Reduction in drilling thrust by ZP-modification.

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 Machinability, Some Critical Problems and Remedial Measures 311

400 Drill type: 12.7 mm DIA

Workk material: M.S.
Cutting speed, c = 14.16
m/min
350
Conventional

300

Pq, kg
250

Thrust, P
200

150
Legend
width, Iw
0.10 mm
100 0.20 mm
0.44 mm
0.60 mm
with pilot hole
50
0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
Feed, 500, mm / rev

Figure 8.25 Reduction in thrust force by Zhirov-point modification of a drill.

reduction of the thrust force by 30–60% as indicated in Fig. 8.25. In addition to that, slight bevelling of the
main cutting edges to suitable land geometry helps in further reducing the stress and temperature at the cut-
ting edges, leading to improved tool life.
Such modifications are more effective and essential for carbide drills[43] which are brittle in nature and
usually suffer from even larger thrust force due to wider chisel edge compared to diameter. Chisel edge modi-
fication, particularly Zhirov point type, also reduces dimensional inaccuracy and vibration by converting
the flat and wide chisel edge into conical form with sharp tip which readily and precisely penetrate the work
material without walking.

8.5.1.4 Simple Modifications of Hob Teeth

The teeth of the cutters, like slot milling cutter and specially hob, suffer from the unfavourable RCE due to
simultaneous action of all the three cutting edges. This effect results in rapid wear and chipping at the sharp
corners of the cutting teeth mainly due to intensive stressing. As a result both life of the hob and form accu-
racy of the gear teeth are reduced. This problem can be solved to some extent particularly in roughing work
by simply reducing the width and height of the alternate teeth, which enables elimination of the RCE.

8.5.2 Special Techniques in Machining Processes

8.5.2.1 Hot Machining[44]
Exotic materials like Ni-hard, Inconel, and Nimonic, etc. are widely used for making several engineering com-
ponents due to their high strength, hardenability and heat resistance. However, these properties make those
materials difficult to machine conventionally even with advanced tools like cBN and diamond. Such machin-
ing problems can be reduced, at least for rough machining, by the unique technique called hot machining,
which is schematically shown in Fig. 8.26.
The work material is locally heated to a suitable temperature while machining like turning. In hot machin-
ing, heat is applied to the work material in order to reduce the shear strength in the vicinity of the shear zone.

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 312 Machining and Machine Tools

Flame

Nozzle

Chip

W rk
Wo
T
Tool

Figure 8.26 Principle of hot machining.

Proper hot machining enables effective and efficient machining of high strength and exotic metals and alloys.
There are various techniques of hot machining based on the following essential requirements:
1. Penetration of heat should be such that the shear zone is adequately heated and softened.
2. Input rate of heat must be sufficiently high so as to raise the temperature sufficiently and quickly.
3. There should be least thermal damage to the workpiece.
4. Installation and operation should be low-cost.
5. It should not be hazardous to the operators.
6. Control of temperature should be easily and quickly obtained.
In hot machining, the work surface can be easily heated by flame, arc and friction. Other possible sophis-
ticated methods are resistance heating, induction heating, etc. If, during any hot machining, along with
the desired softening of the work surface the tool tip also gets extremely heated and tends to soften, then
the tool alone can be additionally cooled internally by flow of a cryogen like liquid nitrogen. Such hybrid
techniques have been successfully tried in high speed machining of Ni-based super-alloys like Nimonic and
Inconel.

8.5.2.2 Dynamic Machining

The principle of dynamic turning, for example, is schematically shown in Fig. 8.27 where the turning tool is
deliberately reciprocated with a small magnitude depending upon the feed (so) and with a moderate frequency
along the direction of longitudinal feed motion of the tool in addition to its usual feed motion. Such addi-
tional small reciprocating tool motion substantially improves the machinability characteristics through
1. Reduction in surface roughness by elimination of feed marks.

Reciprocating
motion
Feed

Figure 8.27 Dynamic turning.

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 Machinability, Some Critical Problems and Remedial Measures 313

2. Reduction in cutting forces and temperature due to favourable chip-breaking effect and more effec-
tive cooling and lubrication at the chip–tool and the work–tool interfaces.
3. Improvement in tool life due to better cooling and lubrication effects.

8.5.2.3 Rotary Turning (Tool)

The intensive sliding friction between the flowing chip and the stationary cutting tool in conventional turning
enhances cutting forces and temperature and weakens the tool tip by causing crater wear. Such undesirable rubbing
and its detrimental effects may be reduced or even eliminated by using a technique called rotary turning (tool),
schematically shown in Fig. 8.28, where the circular tool is rotated at a particular speed and direction such that
the chip flow velocity and the tool velocity at their contact points become almost the same in both direction and
magnitude. Use of this technique would be viable where chip–tool rubbing is critical and needs to be controlled.

8.5.2.4 Stretch Machining

It is quite difficult to machine some materials like aluminium and copper due to their extreme softness and sticki-
ness, and materials like rubber, Teflon, etc. for their deformability. In such cases machining can be made easier by
employing techniques like stretch machining. Figure 8.29 shows the principle of stretch turning where the job is
stretched by a strong pull force. The high tensile stress so induced enables easier machining of these materials.

Workpiece

Vc
Chip

Feed
Tool holder
T

Figure 8.28 Rotary turning (tool).

Figure 8.29 Stretch turning.

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 314 Machining and Machine Tools

8.5.2.5 Ballistic Machining

Use of explosives of a suitable type and volume are becoming common in several manufacturing processes like
welding, compaction, forming, etc. The tremendous pressure and force created momentarily are exploited in
processes requiring the application of large forces to get the work done. Some preliminary research has already
been done in this direction and some encouraging potential results have been reported. Figure 8.30 schemati-
cally shows the possible method of such ballistic machining in place of conventional turning.

8.5.2.6 Bulk Machining by Laser Beams

Research, development and application tests are going on for bulk machining by powerful laser beams.
Figure 8.31 schematically shows the principle of laser-assisted turning where two powerful laser beams will
act axially and radially in a synchronized way. Such a potential and novel technique will be more justified and
economically viable for large jobs and when the work material is as such quite difficult to machine due to its
high strength, hardness, hardenability and poor thermal properties. This process will not only be very fast but
also will cause material saving.

8.6 Surface Quality of Machined Components

8.6.1 Definition of Surface Quality (of a Machined Job)
The quality of the machined surface is essentially considered as a major index of machinability and machining
performance. The quality of the machined surfaces play significant role on both the functional behaviour, that
is, the performance, and the service life of the machined engineering components. Poor surface topography
of a machined part may affect and impair:

Cutter

Explosion
Df D0
Work

Ram Layer to be removed

Figure 8.30 Scheme of ballistic machining.

Conventional turning Laser turning

Axial beam
Radial beam

Figure 8.31 Ballistic machining and laser turning.

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 Machinability, Some Critical Problems and Remedial Measures 315

1. Its fitting and alignment in assembly.

2. The tribological aspects (in running fit) – friction, lubrication and wear.
3. Its physical strength due to stress concentration, notching effect, etc.
Secondly, the thermally induced (during machining) surface defects, such as tensile residual stresses, micro-
cracks, etc., if present, may reduce the service life of the concerned machined parts. The properties of machined
surfaces are generally characterized by
1. Surface roughness: This usually refers to the macro and micro irregularities developed on the prod-
uct surfaces produced by the various manufacturing processes, such as preforming processes like
casting, forging, rolling, extrusion, powder metallurgy, etc. and even the semi-finishing and finishing
processes like machining, grinding, honing, lapping, etc. However, the pattern and extent of the
surface irregularities depend upon the type and working condition of the manufacturing process
undertaken. Crude surface roughness becomes visible even with the naked eye. Finer roughness is
observed under different microscopes of varying resolution. Surface roughness can be quantitatively
measured sufficiently precisely by different instruments and techniques.
2. Surface finish: This is a qualitative term used generally as reciprocal of surface roughness. Unlike
surface roughness, surface finish is qualitatively graded as very rough, rough, fine, very fine, etc.
3. Surface integrity: This actually covers a wider spectrum of surface characteristics. In addition to the
visible topography of the external surfaces, surface integrity also takes into account the apparently invis-
ible surface defects or characteristics induced by material deformation, metallurgical transformation, and
temperature. For instance, high working temperature, as in casting, hot forging, high speed machining
and grinding, causes burning, rapid corrosion and oxidation at the product surfaces, and also induces
tensile residual stresses as well as surface and sub-surface micro-cracks – all of which are very detrimental,
especially when the produced component is used under stock or dynamic loading. The compressive resid-
ual stresses induced at the product surfaces by plastic deformation at lower temperatures, as in cold forg-
ing, cold rolling, low speed machining, etc. favourably raise the strength and durability of the products.
Changes, both favourable and unfavourable, in strength, hardness and resistance to heat, corrosion and
wear at the machined surfaces are also under the purview of surface integrity and overall surface quality.

8.6.2 Geometrical Characteristics of Machined Surface Profiles

The general configuration or topography of machined surfaces is schematically shown in Fig. 8.32. The profile
or contour of any machined surface possesses one or more of the following three basic topographical features
(Fig. 8.32):
1. Shape: widely spaced macroscopic deviation from the nominal contour surface.
2. Waviness: more frequently and uniformly spaced deviations from the shape or the nominal contour
surface.
3. Roughness: Micro-irregularities randomly spaced on the waves or the nominal surface.
As an example, if eccentricity exists in the rotation of the milling arbour, it may result in the widely but regu-
larly spaced shape error, whereas the intermittent cutting action of the plain milling cutter produces the more
frequent and regularly spaced waviness (error) and the conditions of the cutting edges and chip–tool interac-
tion produce the micro-irregularities called surface roughness. But actually there are several other possible
reasons or causes behind the development of shape error, waviness and surface roughness of varying pattern
and magnitude depending upon the machining operation and condition undertaken.

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 316 Machining and Machine Tools

Waviness Shape Roughness

Waviness (error)

Shape error

Roughness

Figure 8.32 Schematically shown general machined-surface profile – shape, waviness and roughness.

8.6.3 Factors that Cause and Affect Surface Integrity of Machined Products
8.6.3.1 Factors that Affect Machined Surface Profiles
The features of machined surface profiles are generally governed by the following factors:
1. Shape errors, their spacing and deviation (from the nominal surface), which are likely to be governed by
(a) The non-uniform feed rate of the job or tool due to errors in the feed drive.
(b) Waviness and lateral undulation in machine tool guides.
(c) Variation in axial or polar rigidity or compliance of machine tool parts.
(d) Low frequency vibration or oscillation in machine–fixture–tool–work (M-F-T-W) system.
2. Waviness of varying wavelength and depth (from nominal surface), which is usually caused by:
(a) Periodic vibration originated at the cutting zone due to
• Eccentricity in the rotation of the spindle holding the workpiece (e.g., in turning) and hold-
ing the cutting tool (e.g., in drilling, boring, milling, etc.).
• Eccentricity in dimension, mass or mounting of the rotation job or the cutting tools.
• Presence of hard spot(s), if any, on the machining surface of the workpiece.
• Interrupted cutting by large cutters with high feed rates.
(b) Error in the job or tool feed systems like screw–nut threads, rack-pinion, cams, etc.
(c) Waviness of the surfaces of the slides and guides.
(d) Fluctuation in the cutting forces for formation and dislodgement of BUEs, if any, and chip-
breaking.
(e) Stick-slip motion of the tool or job holding slides.
3. Surface roughness, which refers to the microscopic surface irregularities which may be periodic and
aperiodic or random.
4. Periodic or repetitive roughness, which appears on the machined surfaces depending upon the shape
or geometry of the cutting tool (tips) and often on the tool-size (diameter) and the feed rate.
Figure 8.33 visualizes how the shape and magnitude (hmax) of the regular surface roughness, called feed marks
or scallop marks, are developed by single-point tools in turning, shaping, planing, boring and so on.

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 Machinability, Some Critical Problems and Remedial Measures 317

f and f1) and

The peak value (hmax) of such roughness due to feed marks is governed by the cutting angles (f
the tool feed, so (mm/rev. or mm/stroke as the case may be), as
so
hmax =
cot φ + cot φ1
which indicates that in such cases, for the same feed rate or MRR, the surface roughness can be reduced,
that is, surface finish can be improved substantially by reducing any of the cutting angles of the tool. The
roughness value hmax due to feed marks in machining by single-point tools is generally reduced by proper
rounding of the tool tip as indicated in Fig. 8.34. The magnitude of the maximum surface roughness
hmax is
s2
hmax = o
8r

Feed motion

f1
f hmax

so

Figure 8.33 Regular surface roughness produced in machining by single-point tools.

Feed motion

Machined
Nose radius, r surface

so h max

Figure 8.34 Surface roughness due to feed marks in machining by nose-radiused tools.

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 318 Machining and Machine Tools

where so is the tool feed in mm/rev (or stroke) and r is the radius of the tool nose rounded by a circular arc.
For a given feed rate, that is, MRR, the surface roughness hmaxx reduces in inverse proportion by providing and
increasing the nose radius. Such nose radiusing also enhances the mechanical strength of the tip and enables
reduction of stresses and temperature at the tool tip. But a very large nose radius raises the transverse force
and hence vibration, dimensional inaccuracy, etc.
Figure 8.35 schematically shows how hmaxx is substantially reduced simply by slightly rounding the tip of
sharp single-point tools. Such geometrical benefits can be obtained in the case of conventional drilling also.
But drills as such do not provide the desired precision. So, when high dimensional accuracy as well as surface
finish is required in the case of cylindrical holes, they are obtained by precision operations like boring, reaming,
grinding, etc.

Sharp tool
Tool feed
T
Rounded tool motion

f1

Depth of cut f
r Machined
surface

S0
h max for rounded tool
h max for sharp tool

Figure 8.35 Effect of tool-nose radiusing on surface roughness.

Finished
so surface
b

t f1
f
CE
E2
CE 1 CE 3

T feed
Tool

Figure 8.36 Surface finishing by a Kolesov tool.

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 Machinability, Some Critical Problems and Remedial Measures 319

In machining by any single-point tool, the surface roughness due to the feed marks can be drastically
reduced or even eliminated by simply but properly flattening[45] the tool tip as shown in Fig. 8.36. Such tool
is called a Kolesov tool where there are three cutting edges:
1. CE
E1: main cutting edge.
2. CE
E2: flat or planishing edge.
3. CE
E3: auxiliary cutting edge.
The width b of the flat or planishing edge CE E2 should be equal or slightly larger than the feed, so mm/rev. (or
stroke). In a high production operation like face milling, where the contact point of each insert behaves like
a single-point tool as shown in Fig. 8.37, is additionally slightly flattened to provide a planishing edge (PE )
in addition to the main cutting edge, MCE, E intermediate cutting edge, ICE E and the auxiliary cutting edge,
ACE.E The planishing edge, slightly wider than the amount of feed per tooth, so, removes the feed marks and
thus improves surface finish.
In plain or slab milling and end milling, the surface roughness due to the feed marks can be reasonably
reduced by using larger (in diameter) cutting tools, if not restricted otherwise. In such cases, the role of the
cutter diameter (Dc) on the surface roughness value hmax is evident from

so2
hmax = (8.4)
4 Dc

where so is the feed per tooth, mm given by

sm
so =
Zc N

Here sm is the feed of worktable in mm/min, Zc is the number of cutting edges in the tool and N is the speed
(rpm) of the cutter. Periodic micro-surface roughness may also be caused by fluctuation of the cutting forces
at high frequency due to
1. Intermittent chip-breaking without or with chip-breaker.
2. Frequent formation and dislodgement of BUE under certain conditions.

Face milling insert

Tool inser t
T

MCE
Depth of cut
Machined ACE ICE
surface PE

Workpiece

Figure 8.37 Surface finishing by planishing the edge of the inserts in face milling.

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 320 Machining and Machine Tools

3. High frequency stick-slip motion, if any, due to rubbing between the worn out tool-flank and the
machined surface.
4. Self-excited vibration or chatter, if any.
A periodic surface roughness generally develops irregularly and randomly with varying pattern and extent on
the machined surfaces for various reasons which include:
1. Micro-chipping at the cutting edges, particularly at the tool-tips (or nose) as schematically shown
in Fig. 8.38. In machining by single-point tools at a sufficiently large speed and feed, first the peak
value, hmaxx may decrease, for example from BD D to EFF as schematically shown in Fig. 8.38(b), due to
rubbing over the feed mark ridges by the inner sharp edge of the flowing chips. In addition to that,
the micro-chipping of the tool at its tip or nose induces micro-surface irregularities randomly but in
small size as indicated in Fig. 8.38(c).
2. Overflow of part of the BUE from the rake surface to the machined surface.
3. Scratching by loose chip particles or debris.
4. Entangling of the long continuous chips, if not broken or diverted, on the machined portion of the
workpiece.

Feed mark
so

f1
Depth of cut, t
r

f
(a)

Job surface
so

A D F C
Chip
E (inner
B
edge
flow)

Tool positions
T
(b)

Job surface

Sharp cutting edge

Worn tool edge Tool positions
T

(c)

Figure 8.38 Pattern of surface roughness in turning.

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 Machinability, Some Critical Problems and Remedial Measures 321

8.6.3.2 Factors that Cause and Affect Surface Defects Other Than Surface
Roughness
In addition to surface roughness, machining also induces several other unfavourable or detrimental effects
on the machined surfaces mainly due to the high cutting temperature. The nature and extent of such effects
depend upon the level of the cutting temperature and the metallurgical properties of the work material. The
high cutting temperature generated by large cutting forces and high cutting velocity may impair the machined
surfaces by causing oxidation, burning, corrosion and metallurgical transformation and by inducing tensile
residual stresses and micro-cracks at the surface and sub-surface. Tensile residual stresses are extremely harm-
ful, unlike compressive residual stresses which are generally induced by plastic deformation at relatively lower
temperature.

8.6.4 Measurement of Surface Roughness

The randomly distributed micro-surface irregularities, that is, the roughness of the machined surface is mea-
sured by several methods and instruments. The measured or monitored surface roughness is characterized
mainly by its
1. Magnitude, generally in average.
2. Pattern of distribution of irregularities.
3. Texture or lay of the surface roughness.
Surface roughness is measured based on different principles which include
1. High resolution microscopy.
2. Suitable profilometry.
3. Replica method.

8.6.4.1 Microscopic Methods

Surface roughness is experimentally investigated by high resolution optical microscopes generally for some
qualitative assessment. But surface roughness can be evaluated both qualitatively and partially quantitatively
by using a stereomicroscope and a scanning electron microscope (SEM). But detailed and precise quantitative
measurement of surface roughness is not possible by any microscopy.

8.6.4.2 Profilometry
Precision measurement of surface roughness is commonly done by using profilometers working on the basis
of tracing or scanning.
Measurement and characterization of surface roughness by a profilometer may be broadly classified as,
1. Contact type or non-contact type.
2. 2-D or 3-D.
In a contact type profilometer, a conical micro-size diamond tip fitted at the end of a resilient cantilever beam
is made to move, as a stylus, over the machined surface along a straight line up to a suitable length and at a
preset speed by a motor-gear drive. The stylus traces the surface irregularities and correspondingly the tracing

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 322 Machining and Machine Tools

diamond tip, that is, the free end of the cantilever beam moves up and down. That movement is measured
by a suitable transducer and amplifier and is displayed and/or recorded in strip chart recorder. This recorded
profile represents the actual surface profile of the machined parts. In case of 3-D measurement[46] for more
detailed study, the desired surface is scanned line by line with very small incremental lateral shift. Optical
profilometers[47] may work on one of the following two principles:
1. The contact type stylus is fitted with a mirror which undergoes online micro-angular tilting and the
static incident light beam is reflected accordingly. The recorded reflected beam represents the actual
surface profile.
2. The non-contact type optical profilometer works on the principle of interferometry. [1]

8.6.4.3 Replica Method

In some complicated and unaccessible situation a relatively crude but simple method namely cast replica
method is employed. The actual surface profile is transferred to a plastic sample. A suitable plastic, after soft-
ening by heating or by a solvent, is pressed or pasted on the surface of interest. After reasonable hardening,
the plastic bead with the surface replica is stripped off. Then the replicated surface is measured by suitable
instrumentation.

8.6.5 Evaluation and Presentation of the Value of the Surface Roughness

Surface roughness is quantitatively presented by a number of parameters or indices, namely, Ra, Rrms, Rz, etc.
having different relative advantages and applications. However, all such indices are evaluated based on the
centre line, which is the mean of the stylus traces after filtering off the slope, waviness, etc. over a chosen
standard length called cut off lengthh (0.08, 0.25, 0.8, 2.5 and 8.0 mm). The mean or centre line of a typical
surface profile is schematically shown in Fig. 8.39.

Centre line
Y +)
Y(

g (+)i

g (−)i

Y −)
Y(

Datum line

+ Cut of length, L −

Figure 8.39 Quantitative evaluation of surface roughness.

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 Machinability, Some Critical Problems and Remedial Measures 323

Ra (centre line average) is evaluated by using

L
1
Ra =
L ∫
Yi d x
0
(8.5)

Rrms (route mean square) is evaluated by using,

1/ 2
⎡1 L ⎤
Rrms =⎢
⎢⎣ L 0 ∫
(Yi )2 d x⎥
⎥⎦
(8.6)

Rz (10-point average) is evaluated from

( R1 R3 R5 R7 R9 ) ((R
R2 R4 R6 R8 R10 )
Rz = (8.7)
5

where R1, R3, R5, R7 and R9 are the distances of the five consecutive peaks from a datum line (parallel to the
centre line) and R2, R4, R6, R8 and R10 are the distances of five consecutive troughs or valleys from the same
datum line.

8.6.6 Reduction or Control of Surface Roughness and Improvement of

Surface Integrity
The surface roughness in machining can be reduced by
1. Proper selection of cutting tool geometry, such as
(a) Rounding or radiusing the tip or nose of the single-point tools (turning, shaping, planing,
boring, etc.).
(b) Reducing the cutting angles (f f ,f 1), if not restricted otherwise, of single-point tools.
(c) Slight flattening of the tool tip.
2. Proper selection of levels of the process parameters without sacrificing productivity or MRR, such as
(a) Reducing the feed per tooth as far as possible.
(b) Taking as large a depth as admissible.
(c) Raising cutting velocity if not restricted otherwise.
3. Reduction of damage and wear at the tool tips by
(a) Reducing cutting temperature by proper cutting fluid application.
(b) Selection of proper (chemically stable and wear-resistant) tool material.
(c) Controlling wear by proper lubrication.
(d) Using edge (cutting) rounded tools or inserts.
(e) Preventing built-up-edge formation.
4. Control of the machining condition by
(a) Preventing scratching on the machined surface due the flowing continuous chips, by proper
chip-breaking.
(b) Prevention of BUE formation and its overflow.
(c) Regular cleaning and washing away of the chips and debris by cutting fluid.

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 324 Machining and Machine Tools

5. Control of vibration in the M-F-T-W system by

(a) Reducing the magnitude and fluctuation of cutting forces by
• Using a positive rake tool if allowed.
• Maintaining proper lubrication.
• Reducing the transverse force component Py.
• Preventing BUE formation and thus deterioration of tool rake angle.
• Adjusting frequency of chip-breaking.
(b) Minimizing the initial irregularities on the surfaces to be machined.
(c) Using a rigid M-F-T-W system.
Attempts should always be made to improve the surface integrity of the machined parts mainly by controlling or
reducing the cutting temperature, which is the main cause of impaired surface integrity due to rapid oxidation and
corrosion, unfavourable metallurgical transformation, etc. and inducing tensile residual stresses and microcracks.

SU M M A R Y
Machinability clearly indicates ‘ease of machin- super-alloys and plastics, especially FRPs have been
ing, which substantially governs the effectiveness, mentioned and the remedial measures have also been
efficiency and economy of machining’. The defini- briefly discussed.
tions and the methods of essential improvement of The necessity, role, types, design and perfor-
machinability have been highlighted. The role of the mance of chip-breakers and their functioning
various parameters that are associated with machin- have been covered. Several feasible and potential
ing, on the machinability indices of a given work special techniques have been addressed with il-
material at desired MRR have been reasonably illus- lustrations for selection and implementation to
trated. The principle and general means of improv- improve machinability, or for reducing machin-
ing machinability have been described. The unusual ability problems as and when required. Machin-
problems faced in machining some critical or diffi- ing by material removal also includes grinding
cult-to-machine materials including aluminium and and super-finishing processes. The next chapter
its alloys, different stainless steels, Ni- and Ti-based deals with them.

MU LT I P L E CH O I C E QU E S T I O N S
[Answers are provided in the CD]
1. Machinability is judged and evaluated by (a) 50
(a) Magnitude of cutting forces (b) 100
(b) Magnitude of cutting temperature (c) 150
(c) Length of tool life (d) 200
(d) All of the above 4. Tool life in machining depends upon
2. Machinability rating (MR) is expressed by (a) Work material only
(a) Tool life at given cutting velocity (b) Tool geometry only
(b) Cutting velocity for a given tool life (c) Cutting velocity only
(c) Material removal rate (d) None of the above
(d) All of the above 5. Chips are separated during turning grey cast
3. Machinability rating of AISI-1112 steel is iron rod by

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 Machinability, Some Critical Problems and Remedial Measures 325

(a) Yielding (c) Intensive BUE formation

(b) Shearing (d) All of the above
(c) Fracturing 13. High hot strength is the major cause of poor
(d) Tearing machinability of
6. Plain carbon steel are made free cutting steel (a) Aluminium–silicon alloy
by adding (in that steel) (b) Stainless steel
(a) Sulphur (c) Ni-based super-alloy
(b) Phosphorus (d) Ti-based super-alloy
(c) Calcium 14. Compared to coated carbide, uncoated carbide
(d) Aluminium tools provide better machinability in turning
7. The geometrical feature of turning tool that (a) Nimonic (alloy)
affects machinability is (b) Ti-6Al-4V (alloy)
(a) Rake angle (c) Stainless steel
(b) Clearance angle (d) High carbon steel
(c) Cutting angle 15. Application of liquid nitrogen jets as cryo-
(d) All of the above coolant in machining Ti-6AL-4V alloy does
8. The variation in principal cutting, edge angle not help in reducing
f ) of turning inserts, does not affect the mag-
(f (a) Magnitude of cutting forces
nitude of (b) Tool wear
(a) The tangential force (component) PZ (c) Surface roughness
(b) The axial or thrust force, PX (d) Cutting temperature
(c) The transverse force, PY 16. Plastics and FRPs show maximum machin-
(d) None of the above ability if machined by
9. With the increase in principal cutting edge (a) HSS tools
angle (ff ) of turning tool, the cutting tempera- (b) Coated carbide
ture (c) Alumina ceramic inserts
(a) Increases (d) Diamond tipped tool
(b) Decreases 17. Chip-breakers is essentially used in high speed
(c) Does not change turning of mild steel rods
(d) May both increase or decrease (a) For the safety of operator
10. Surface roughness in turning cannot be (b) To prevent damage of the machined sur-
reduced by reducing face
(a) Feed rate (so) (c) For ease of chip disposal
(b) Principal cutting edge angle (d) For all of the above
(c) Auxiliary cutting edge angle (e) For none of the above
(d) Tool nose radius 18. Chip-breakers are essentially used while turning
11. Pure aluminium jobs show maximum machin- (a) Mild steel rod at low speed
ability if machined by (b) Mild steel rod at high speed
(a) HSS tools (c) Cast iron rod at high speed steel
(b) Sintered carbide tools (d) Cast iron rod at low speed
(c) Alumina ceramic tools 19. Use of chip-breakers does not help in
(d) Diamond tool (a) Reducing cutting power consumption
12. Machinability of stainless steel is poor for (b) Reducing the cutting temperature
(a) Work hardenability (c) Improving tool life
(b) Higher yield strength (d) None of the above

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 326 Machining and Machine Tools

20. Surface finish improves in turning mild steel 24. Hot machining substantially improves machin-
rods by employing ability of
(a) Dynamic chip-breaking (a) Strong and work hardening metals
(b) Clamped type chip-breaker (b) Soft but sticky metals
(c) Stepped type in-built chip-breaker (c) Brittle metals
(d) Grove type in-built chip-breaker (d) All of the above
21. Proper cutting edge bevelling of turning inserts 25. Stretch machining makes machining easier
improves machinability of steel through while turning
(a) Increasing mechanical strength of the (a) Hard work materials
cutting edge (b) Work hardenable metals
(b) Controlled contact cutting (c) Soft and ductile materials
(c) Better heat dissipation (d) Brittle metals
(d) All of the above 26. The main problem that prevents ballistic
(e) None of the above machining from regular use is
22. In face milling by triple edge inserts, the sur- (a) Danger of handling explosives
face finish is provided by (b) Difficulties in holding the workpieces
(a) The main or primary cutting edge (c) Difficulties of arresting the cutter after
(b) The intermediate cutting edge machining
(c) The planishing edge (d) Very large specific energy requirement
(d) All of the above 27. In the process of reduction of diameter of
23. Web thinning of HSS drills improves machin- metal rods by a pair of laser beams, the excess
ability by reducing metal is removed in the form of
(a) Torque (a) Chips
(b) Thrust force (b) Rings
(c) Cutting power consumption (c) Powder
(d) All of the above (d) Long continuous ribbon

R E V I E W QU E S T I O N S
1. What is meant by machinability and how is it 7. State the usual methods of improving machin-
judged or assessed? ability while machining any metal and alloy.
2. What factors govern machinability character- 8. What are the problems that arise in machin-
istics of any work material? ing pure aluminium and Al–Si alloys and why?
3. Describe briefly with the help of simple dia- How can their machinability be improved?
gram the principle of relation of machinability 9. Classify stainless steels and compare them w.r.t.
rating (MR) of any work material in terms of (a) composition, (b) properties, (c) applica-
cutting velocity. tions and (d) machinability characteristics.
4. Which properties of any work material gov- 10. What problems arise in machining stainless steel
ern its machinability under a given machining and why? How are those problems reduced?
condition? 11. What are the unique properties and applica-
5. How and why are free cutting steels made tions of Ni-based super-alloys? Why are these
from steel? super-alloys difficult to machine?
6. How do materials and geometry of cutting 12. What kind of problems arise in high speed
tools influence the machinability characteris- machining of Inconel 718? How can those
tics of work materials? machining problems be controlled?

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 Machinability, Some Critical Problems and Remedial Measures 327

13. Why is machining of Ti-6Al-4V alloy diffi- 23. When and why special techniques are
cult? How are such difficulties reduced? employed in machining? Name at least five
14. What makes machining of plastics difficult? such special techniques.
What measures are taken for the case of 24. How does proper bevelling of the cutting edges
machining plastics and FRPs? of turning inserts help in improving machin-
15. When and why it is needed to control chip ability?
flow and use chip-breaker in machining? 25. Show the geometrical features of the corners
16. Describe briefly, with the help of simple (or tips) of face milling inserts and state the
sketches, the different ways of breaking the functional roles of those features.
machining chips. 26. Why does the axial (thrust) force become
17. How are long ductile chips made to break in large in conventional drilling? How can
high speed machining? Briefly describe with that force be sizeably reduced by any special
proper illustrations. technique?
18. Show and briefly state the method of clamp- 27. State the (a) principle, (b) purpose and
ing and working principle of clamped-type (c) methods of hot machining.
chip-breakers. 28. Describe briefly any special technique of
19. Describe briefly the method of design of dynamic machining and state the possible
simple stepped type in-built or clamped chip- benefits of use of such technique.
breaker for given machining condition. 29. What are meant by stretch machining and
20. Why and how are the long and wide ductile rotary turning (tool)? Briefly describe those
chips broken in drilling and plain milling? methods and state their possible benefits.
21. State the overall advantages and possible 30. Describe briefly the methods of bulk turning
limitations of application of chip-breaking in by laser beams and state its possible benefits.
machining.
22. What is meant by dynamic chip-breaking?
Briefly explain the method of dynamic chip-
breaking in turning and facing in lathes.

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MAMT_Chapter 8.indd 328 7/21/2011 10:45:10 AM
 9 Grinding: Fast Machining and
Finishing by Bonded Abrasives

Learning Objectives
The contents of this chapter would enable the readers to:
• Be conversant with the main purposes, basic • Identify the significant parameter and their
principle and different methods of grinding. roles on uncut chip thickness, grinding forces
• Visualize the relative positioning of the grind- and specific energy requirement in grinding.
ing wheel and the blank, and their motions • Estimate grinding forces and temperature
in various methods of grinding. under different working conditions.
• Be aware of various applications of grinding • To know what is grindability and learn how to
in the industries. improve it using special techniques.
• Classify and specify grinding wheels based • Be conversant with the advanced grinding
on material, structure and strength, and technologies and their unique characteristics.
select appropriate wheel as per requirement. • Be aware of selection and employ the super-
• Categorize the grinding chips and the modes finishing techniques.
of such chip formation in grinding under
various conditions.

9.1 Introduction
A large section of engineering components need very high form and dimensional accuracy as well as very
good surface finish, which normally are not possible by conventional machining by cutting tools at desirably
high material removal rate (MRR). In such cases, grinding operations are needed. Besides that, hard or essen-
tially hardened metals, especially steels, cannot be finished by machining but are easily done by grinding.
In grinding, the work material is removed in the form of microchips by the hard and sharp abrasive grits
being strongly held in the circular wheels by suitable bond material. Grinding is generally characterized by
randomly distributed innumerable abrasives and very high cutting velocity. However, unlike machining,
grinding requires more specific energy and produces much higher cutting zone temperature.
Different types of grinding wheels and grinding machines have been developed and are used, with proper
selection, for various grinding applications. The concerned people should know the classification of such
wheels, processes and machines and their applications. The general configurations, construction, designa-
tion, selection and the methods of mounting and use of various grinding wheels are also important aspects.

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 330 Machining and Machine Tools

It is necessary to understand the mechanisms and modes of chip formation under different grinding
conditions. To employ grinding efficiently and economically through improvement in grindability, adequate
knowledge of mechanics and temperature of grinding are essential.
Grinding is inherently associated with some acute problems such as wheel loading, high cutting
temperature and its detrimental effects and rapid wheel wear. Several remedial measures have also come
up. For general awareness and benefit of the readers, researchers and practicing engineers, the chronological
developments in grinding technology in several directions need to be studied and exploited. Some special
techniques have been developed to overcome the acute problems in grinding and improvement of overall
grindability of both conventional and exotic materials.
Some engineering components such as engine blocks (bore), spindles, bearings, etc. need, for their better
performance and durability, super-finishing even after fine machining, boring, broaching and grinding.
Different methods of super-finishing are used in industries; the appropriate method and proper level of the
process parameters are carefully selected according to specific requirements.

9.2 Basic Principles, Methods and Applications of Grinding

9.2.1 Basic Principle and Various Methods of Grinding
Grinding is a well-known process in manufacturing and is widely employed mainly for finishing jobs of
metals, alloys, carbides, ceramics, metal matrix composites, ceramic matrix composites, etc. with high dimen-
sional accuracy, surface finish and form accuracy. Grinding can as well be employed for form machining and
stock or bulk material removal.
Hard and sharp-edged abrasive grits are used for material removal by two ways: (a) jet of loose abrasives
in abrasive jet machining and (b) being strongly embedded in hard matrix in the form of wheel or disc. In
grinding, the work material is removed in the form of microchips by the sharp abrasive grits held in the wheel
by bond material. The material removal process is a combination of shearing, ploughing, rubbing, etc.
In grinding, generally the abrasive grits do not possess any definite shape as in the case of cutters for
machining operation. The statistical average rake angle of abrasive grits held in a grinding wheel tends to be
highly negative (−60°). To minimize the effect of high negative rake, the cutting speed (often termed as grind-
ing velocity or wheel speed) is kept very high as compared to machining. For conventional grinding wheels,
the grinding velocity can be as high as 50 m/s for steel components.
The grinding wheel rotates at high speed to achieve the high grinding velocity. The workpiece either
reciprocates or rotates in contact with the wheel. The speed of reciprocation or rotation of the workpiece is
much less as compared to the grinding velocity and is generally around 10−20 m/min for conventional grind-
ing wheel and steel as work material.[1] The amount of engagement between the workpiece and the wheel
is known as infeed. Infeed in grinding is typically very small and is in the range of 2−50 μm in the case of
surface grinding of steel with conventional wheels. The main purposes of grinding are
1. Dimensional accuracy.
2. Good form and positioning accuracy.
3. Good surface finish.
4. Shaping and finishing objects of harder materials.
Figure 9.1 shows a typical method of grinding and scheme of removal of chips. The general methods of grind-
ing include[1,2]

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 Grinding: Fast Machining and Finishing by Bonded Abrasives 331

Vc

Vw

Figure 9.1 Schematic representation of chip formation during grinding.

1. Surface grinding: flat and slight contour surfaces.

2. Cylindrical grinding: straight, taper and contour surfaces.
3. Internal grinding: straight, taper and contour surfaces.
4. Tool and cutter grinding: for giving shape and sharpening.
5. Centreless grinding: external and internal surfaces.

9.2.1.1 Surface Grinding

This method of grinding is similar to plain milling and is generally used to finish flat surfaces. There are four
different methods of surface grinding depending upon the movement of the worktable and the orientation
of the grinding wheel spindle:
1. Grinding with horizontal spindle and reciprocating table: A disc-type grinding wheel performs
the grinding action with its peripheral surface. Figure 9.2 schematically shows such surface grinding
by (a) traverse grinding and (b) plunge grinding.
2. Grinding with vertical spindle and reciprocating table: This grinding operation is similar to that
of face milling. Here a cup-shaped wheel grinds the workpiece using end face of the wheel as shown
in Fig. 9.3. This brings more grits in action at the same time and consequently a higher MRR may
be attained than in grinding with a peripheral wheel.
3. Grinding with horizontal spindle and rotary table: Such grinding is schematically shown in Fig.
9.4. By swiveling the worktable, conical surfaces can also be produced as illustrated in Fig. 9.5.

Grinding wheel

Down feed Down feed

Job Job
reciprocation reciprocation

Traverse feed

(a) (b)

Figure 9.2 Surface grinding by (a) traverse feed (traverse grinding) and (b) plunge feed (plunge
grinding).

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 332 Machining and Machine Tools

Wheel
Workpiece

Figure.9.3 Surface grinding with vertical axis wheel and reciprocating table.

Workpiece

Figure 9.4 Surface grinding in horizontal spindle rotary table surface grinder.

4. Grinding with vertical spindle and rotary table: The principle of such grinding is shown in Fig.
9.6. This is mostly suitable for small workpieces in large quantities.

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 Grinding: Fast Machining and Finishing by Bonded Abrasives 333

Figure 9.5 Grinding of a tapered surface in horizontal spindle rotary table surface grinder.

Workpiece

Wheel
Workpiece

Figure 9.6 Surface grinding with vertical spindle and rotary table.

9.2.1.2 Cylindrical Grinding

This is used to finish external cylindrical surfaces: straight, tapered, steps or profiles. Broadly there are three
different types of cylindrical grinding methods:
1. Plain cylindrical grinding: In this method, the workpiece is held between headstock and tailstock
centres as in centre lathes. A disc-type grinding wheel performs the grinding action with its peripheral
surface. Both traverse and plunge feed grinding are carried out in such grinding as shown in Fig. 9.7.

(a) (b)

Figure 9.7 Cylindrical grinding: (a) Traverse feed grinding and (b) plunge feed grinding.

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 334 Machining and Machine Tools

Figure 9.8 Universal cylindrical grinding.

2. Universal cylindrical grinding: Universal cylindrical grinding is similar to plain cylindrical
grinding except that the former is more versatile. In addition to small worktable swivel, this
system provides large swivel of the headstock, wheel head slide and wheel head mount on the
wheel head slide, as has been indicated in Fig. 9.8. This allows grinding of small to wide taper on
the long and short workpieces.
3. Form cylindrical grinding: Principle of cylindrical grinding is being used for thread grinding with
specially formed wheel that matches the desired thread profile. A single ribbed wheel or a multi-
ribbed wheel is used as shown in Fig. 9.9.

9.2.1.3 Internal Grinding

This method is used to finish internal cylindrical surfaces. The surface may be straight, tapered, grooved or
profiles. Broadly there are three different types of internal grinding methods as follows:
1. Chucking type internal grinding: Figure 9.10 schematically shows chucking type internal grinding
and various motions required for the grinding action. The workpiece is usually mounted in a chuck.
A magnetic face plate is also used. A small grinding wheel performs the necessary grinding with its
peripheral surface. Both traverse and plunge grinding can be carried out as shown in Fig. 9.10.

Grinding wheel

Workpiece

(a) (b)
Figure 9.9 Thread grinding with (a) single rib, (b) multi-ribbed wheel.

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 Grinding: Fast Machining and Finishing by Bonded Abrasives 335

Plunge feed

Traverse
feed
(a) (b)

Figure 9.10 Internal (a) traverse grinding and (b) plunge grinding.

2. Planetary internal grinding: It is used where the workpiece is heavy and/or of odd shape and hence
cannot be rotated conveniently as shown in Fig. 9.11. In this method, the workpiece does not rotate.
Instead, the grinding wheel orbits the axis of the hole in the workpiece.
3. Internal form grinding.

Workpiece

Grinding wheel

Finished surface

Figure 9.11 Internal grinding in planetary grinder.

9.2.1.4 Centreless Grinding

This method of grinding is also used for finishing cylindrical surfaces in a production machine in which out-
side diameter of the workpiece is not held between centers but by a work-support or blade. The workpiece is
rotated by means of regulating wheel and ground by the grinding wheel. Centreless grinding may be external
as well as internal type.

External Centreless Grinding

It may be of three types:
1. Infeed or plunge feed type.
2. End feed type.
3. Through feed type.
Parts with variable diameter can be ground by centreless infeed grinding as shown in Fig. 9.12(a). The opera-
tion is similar to plunge grinding with cylindrical grinder. End feed grinding shown in Fig. 9.12(b) is used for
slender workpiece with straight or tapered surface. The profile of the grinding wheel or the regulating wheel
or of both the wheels needs to be properly prepared to get the required taper on the workpiece.

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 336 Machining and Machine Tools

Wg

Wr

(a) (b)

Figure 9.12 External centreless grinding of (a) infeed and (b) end feed types. Wg is grinding wheel
and Wr is regulating or guide wheel.

Grinding wheel

Guide wheel Causes job

rotation
Causes axial
job feed

Figure 9.13 Centreless through-feed grinding.

In through-feed centreless grinding, the regulating wheel revolving at a much lower surface speed than
grinding wheel controls the rotation and longitudinal motion of the workpiece. The regulating wheel is kept
slightly inclined to the axis of the grinding wheel and the workpiece is automatically fed longitudinally as
shown in Fig. 9.13.

Internal Centreless Grinding

This method is used for grinding cylindrical and tapered holes in cylindrical parts (e.g., cylindrical liners,
various bushings, etc.). The workpiece is rotated between supporting roll, pressure roll and regulating wheel
and is ground by the grinding wheel as illustrated in Fig. 9.14.

9.2.1.5 Tool and Cutter Grinding

Tool grinding may be divided into two subgroups:
1. Tool manufacturing.
2. Tool re-sharpening.
There are many types of tool and cutter grinding machines to meet these requirements. Simple single-point
tools are occasionally sharpened by hand on bench or pedestal grinder. However, tools and cutters with

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 Grinding: Fast Machining and Finishing by Bonded Abrasives 337

B
Supporting roll A
A

Pressure roll

Figure 9.14 Internal centreless grinding. Here A is grinding wheel rotation, B is workpiece rotation
and C is wheel axial travel.

complex geometry like milling cutter, drills, reamers and hobs require proper grinding machine commonly
known as universal tool and cutter grinder. Present trend is to use tool and cutter grinder equipped with
computer numerical control (CNC) to grind tool angles, with high precision.

9.2.2 Difference Between Machining and Grinding

Grinding is basically a machining process and is generally used to impart high dimensional and form accuracy
and desirably good surface finish to the products. However, there are certain differences between machining
and grinding such as:
1. Grinding is considered as abrasive milling where thousands of abrasive particles are dispersed in a
matrix such as vitrified, resin, rubber, metals, etc. or embedded on the surfaces of metallic discs.
These particles cause material removal by their small sharp tips and edges while high speed moving
past the work surface.
2. The size, shape, spacing and geometry of the grinding abrasives randomly and widely vary unlike in
cutting tools.
3. The cutting velocity in grinding is kept 20 to 60 times higher than that in machining for:
(a) Reducing the overall cutting forces.
(b) Reducing chip load and force per tooth (grit) to achieve good surface finish and longer life of
the working abrasives.
4. Unlike in cutting tools, damage or dislodgement of few abrasives or grits out of thousands does not
practically hamper the performance of the grinding wheel.
5. Auto-sharpening of matrix bonded type wheels.
6. Grinding of a given material requires more (10 − 20 times) specific energy to remove unit volume of
work material due to unfavourable geometry (e.g., large negative rake, in average −40° to −60°) of
the grit tips and additional rubbing action.
7. Unlike conventional machining, grinding works effectively and efficiently almost irrespective of
strength and toughness of the work material.

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 338 Machining and Machine Tools

9.2.3 Applications of Grinding

The general applications of grinding are as follows:
1. Finishing to high-dimensional accuracy and surface finish essentially required for better perfor-
mance and longer service life of engineering component.
2. Simultaneous stock removal and finishing (abrasive milling).
3. Material removal processing of hard, tough and exotic materials like Had-field steel, Ni- and Ti-
based super-alloys, carbides, ceramics, stones, glass, quartz, various composite materials, fibre rein-
forced plastics (FRPs), etc., which are quite difficult by conventional machining.
4. Cutting tools – sharpening and re-sharpening.
5. Slitting and parting of critical objects.
6. De-burring, de-scaling and fettling.
7. Samples preparation for metallurgical studies.
8. Finishing sliding surfaces of various machine and machine tools.
9. Producing and/or finishing screw threads and gear teeth.
10. Finishing of critical features of cams, splines, clutches, bearings, crank shafts, dies and metal-
moulds, piston-cylinders and various valves of IC engines and hydraulic and pneumatic drives and
several others.
11. High precision grinding of critical parts like nozzles, blades, etc. of jet engines, turbines, gas tur-
bines, etc.

9.3 Grinding Requirements

The inherent characteristics, the basic purposes and critical applications of grinding essentially demand
certain requirements to be fulfilled:
1. Grinding machines
(a) Have to be enough powerful and highly rigid and stable.
(b) Should possess high spindle speeds (rpm).
(c) Precision control of feeds and depth of cut.
(d) Are to be grouted or mounted on strong foundations and shock mounts.
(e) Should possess adequate safety measures.
2. Grinding wheels
(a) Need to be of appropriate composition, structure and hardness.
(b) Should be of proper size and shape.
(c) Need regular truing and dressing.
(d) Should be free from eccentricity.
(e) Should be mounted properly on the spindle.
3. Environment
(a) Cutting fluid must be employed properly after its appropriate selection.
(b) Incoming of any vibration in the grinding machines from the surroundings has to be
prevented.
(c) Dust and temperature in the grinding zone should be controlled.

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 Grinding: Fast Machining and Finishing by Bonded Abrasives 339

9.4 Grinding Wheels

9.4.1 Construction of Grinding Wheels
The conventional and widely used grinding wheels are made by mixing thousands of tiny but hard abrasive
grains of alumina (Al2O3) or carbide (SiC) with a bond material like vitrified, etc. at soft state followed by
casting in moulds and then sintering or firing. Such conventional wheels are characterized, in respect of its
material, generally by[1]
1. Type, shape and size of the abrasive grains.
2. The bond material (matrix).
3. Structure and porosity of the wheel after firing.
4. Final bond strength.

9.4.1.1 Abrasive Grains

The types and characteristics of the abrasive material, used to make the grinding wheels, are:
1. Alumina (Al2O3)
(a) Quite hard and chemically stable.
(b) Used for grinding Fe-based metals and alloys which are strong, hard and diffusive.
(c) Grades:
• Friable – pure, white and suitable for grinding relatively harder work materials.
• Tough – impure (having additives), pink and of more common use.
2. Silicon carbide (SiC)
(a) Harder but less chemically stable against Fe.
(b) Usually used for grinding non-ferrous metals and alloys.
(c) Grades:
• Green – friable: used for grinding relatively harder metals.
• Grey – stronger: used for grinding softer metals.
3. Diamond (D)
(a) Extremely hard (hardest) and sharp.
(b) Used for plastics, ceramics, composites, glass, quartz, stones, plastics, etc.
(c) Unstable against Fe, therefore, not used for grinding steels.
(d) Very high heat and wear resistance.
(e) Very expensive, therefore, use is restricted.
4. Cubic boron nitride (cBN)
(a) Very hard (next to diamond), tough and sharp.
(b) Highly chemically stable even against Fe.
(c) Suitably used for grinding hard and strong steels and similar metals.
(d) Very high wear resistance.
(e) Very high cost, which restrains its wide use.
Conventional abrasive grit materials (alumina and silicon carbide) are artificially manufactured, have differ-
ent chemical additives and crystal structure. For example, the alumina grit can be monocrystalline, micro-
crystalline or with added zirconium, and silicon carbide grits can be black and green (pure). Again silicon

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 340 Machining and Machine Tools

carbide grits, though harder than the alumina grits, are not suitable for grinding ferrous materials because of
their chemical reactivity with iron and steel alloys. Similarly, diamond cannot be used for grinding steels as at
high grinding zone temperature it would graphitize. cBN grits again, which is used for grinding mainly fer-
rous materials, can be monocrystalline and microcrystalline (polycrystalline). Microcrystalline cBN grits are
claimed to be significantly tougher and the bonding with the matrix is superior as they have rough faces.

9.4.1.2 Bond Materials

The bond materials can be of different types. For conventional abrasive particles, vitrified and resinoid bonds
and for super-abrasive wheels resinoid, vitrified and metal bonds are generally employed.[1]
Vitrified wheels (bond – a mixture of clay, feldspar and filler material) possibly account for half of the total
grinding wheel market. Following these closely are resinoid wheels especially for high-speed and heavy-duty
grinding. Resinoid wheels are fabricated by mixing abrasive with thermosetting resins and plasticizier. They
are suitable for heavy duty and high-speed grinding due to their high strength and ability to withstand shock
loads. However, they are susceptible to chemical attack by alkaline cutting fluids. Rubber bonded wheels are
mainly used as thin cut-off wheels to provide near burn-free surface. Silicate bonds are produced by baking
sodium silicate and silicate wheels are produced by small companies for less processing temperature. Shellac
bonded wheels, though used rarely, are used for flexible cut-off wheels, fine finishing of mill rolls, etc. Oxy-
chloride bonds are basically cold setting cement, a mixture of magnesium oxide and an aqueous solution of
magnesium chloride. They are used in only dry grinding, as they are susceptible to chemical attack. Metal
bonds are extensively used with super-abrasive wheels. Generally sintered bronze, iron, nickel, etc. are used as
bond materials. Use of WC-Co cemented carbide bond is also found in mining drills. Metal bonded wheels
are essential for electro-chemical grinding.
The common wheel bond materials can be briefly summarized as follows:
1. Vitrified
(a) Hard, low temperature, easy manufacture and cheap.
(b) Most common.
(c) Affected by damp and alkaline solution.
2. Resin bond
(a) Used for roughing, fettling and cutting off.
(b) Affected by damp and water base solution.
3. Rubber
(a) High strength and elasticity.
(b) Used for parting, roll and tool grinding.
(c) Affected by damp, alkaline solution and time.
4. Shellac
(a) Easy manufacture under low temperature.
(b) Used for fine finish, rolls, ceramics, etc.
5. Oxychloride
(a) Less brittle and low temperature.
(b) Affected by shocks, damp, acid and alkaline solution.
6. Metal bond
(a) D and cBN (often A and C) in bronze, Ni, Al alloy and Fe.
(b) Suitable for electro-chemical grinding (ECG).
(c) Bond – strong for soft and soft for hard metals.

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 Grinding: Fast Machining and Finishing by Bonded Abrasives 341

(a) Straight
(j) Ring (cylindrical)

(b) Recessed one side

(c) Recessed two sides (k) Straight cup

(d) Offset
(l) Double cup

(e) Countersunk dovetail

(m) Flaring cup

(f) Raised dovetail

(n) Dish
(g) Tapered one side
(p) Saucer (saw gummer)
(h) Tapered two sides (r) Cutting off and slitting

Figure 9.15 Configurations of conventional grinding wheels.

Grinding wheels are made available in various sizes, and configurations to suit the requirements. Figure 9.15
shows the configurations of some conventional grinding wheels of common use.[1]

9.4.2 Classification and Selection of Grinding Wheels

9.4.2.1 Classification of Grinding Wheels
Bonded abrasive wheels or grinding wheels are broadly classified based on several factors which include:
1. Abrasives: material, microstructure, grade, size and shape. The commonly used abrasive materials
are:
(a) Conventional abrasives: alumina (Al2O3), A and carbide (SiC), C.
(b) Super-abrasives: cubic boron nitride (cBN), BN and diamond (D).
The size of the abrasive grains is generally denoted by a mesh number (say, S) from which the average
diameter of the grains, dg (mm) can be evaluated:
S × dg = 15.2 (9.1)
The standard sizes (S) of abrasive grains used for grinding ranges as follows:
(a) Course: 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 20, 24
(b) Medium: 30, 36, 46, 54, 60
(c) Fine: 70, 80, 90, 100, 120, 150, 180
(d) Very fine: 220, 240, ... 600.
The super-abrasives may be microcrystalline or polycrystalline as well as strong or friable.

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 342 Machining and Machine Tools

2. Bond material: The bond materials used to make grinding wheels are given in the following table.
Super-abrasives are preferably bonded with suitable metal.

Symbol Material
V Vitrified (most common for conventional wheels)
S Silicate
B Resinoid
BF Reinforced resinoid
E Shellac
O Oxychloride
R Rubber
RF Reinforced rubber

3. Grade (hardness) of the grinding wheel: Any conventional grinding wheel is volumetrically appor-
tioned[3] as
Vk + Vb + Vp = 100 (9.2)

where Vk is % volume of abrasives, Vb is % volume of bond and Vp is % volume of porosity. Grade of

a grinding wheel refers, alphabetically, to the strength or hardness of that wheel, which again depends
upon the strength and volume amount (Vb %) of the bond material. Wheel hardness can be raised by
increasing strength and/or content (Vb %) of the bond. Wheel grade is categorized as
(a) Very soft: C to G
(b) Soft: H to K
(c) Medium: L to O
(d) Hard: P to S
(e) Very hard: T to Z
4. Structure of the wheel-matrix: A reasonable amount of porosity (Vp %) is essentially retained for
the desired grinding performance of the wheel. The term ‘structure’ refers to the amount (Vp %)
of porosity (i.e., spacing or openness of the abrasives). Such pores provide accommodation of the
grinding chips formed and cutting fluid applied at the inter-grit spaces. Structure of a wheel is
indicated by a number varying from 0 to 12 with larger number signifying more openness of the
grains.
5. Size of wheel: Size of any grinding wheel is designated mainly by its outside or working diameter
which governs the grinding velocity Vc as
Vc = pDgNg (m/s) (9.3)
where Dg is the diameter of the wheel (mm) and Ng is the working speed of the wheel (rps). Keep-
ing in view, better performance of wheels at higher Vc, the wheels are generally made and used with
larger diameter Dg. However, for internal grinding, the wheel diameter is restrained to small size
depending upon the size of the bore subjected to grinding.
6. Configuration of grinding wheel: Grinding wheels are made available in different shapes or con-
figuration, as shown in Fig. 9.15, depending upon

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 Grinding: Fast Machining and Finishing by Bonded Abrasives 343

(a) Size and shape of the workpieces.

(b) Nature of grinding features and grinding requirements.
(c) Application requirements.
7. Method of mounting the wheel on spindle: There are different methods of mounting the wheels
on the spindle of the grinding machines as typically shown in Fig. 9.16.

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e)

1 2
3

(h) (i)
(f)
(g)

Figure 9.16 Different methods of mounting grinding wheels and segments.

9.4.2.2 Selection of Grinding Wheels

Wide range of grinding wheels are manufactured and available in different sizes, shapes, materials of abra-
sives and bond, grades, structures, etc. Therefore, for any specific grinding work an appropriate wheel needs
to be selected and procured. While selecting grinding wheel for any work, the following factors need to be
considered:
1. Work material: For conventional work materials like soft and medium hard metals and alloys includ-
ing steels and cast irons, conventional wheels with alumina or silicon carbide abrasives are selected.
Alumina wheels are used for strong and tough metals such as steels, high-speed steel (HSS), etc. SiC
wheels are less chemically stable against Fe and hence used for grinding brittle cast irons and non-
ferrous metals and alloys.
Harder wheels are used for softer work materials to keep abrasives working for longer period.
Softer wheels are used for harder work materials for timely dislodgement of the worn out blunt abra-
sives and bringing sharp grits to expose and work. The expensive super-abrasive type wheels are used
only for extra hard and exotic work materials which cannot be ground by the conventional wheels.
However, diamond is to be avoided in the case of Fe-based metals.
2. Surface integrity desired: Surface integrity covers both the visible surface roughness (SR) and the
invisible surface or under surface thermal damages such as oxidation, burn, tensile, residual stresses,

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 344 Machining and Machine Tools

micro-cracks, etc. Fine-grained wheels are obviously used for better surface finish. Where surface
integrity is a critical requirement, thermal damages are controlled by profuse coolant and using open
structured wheels.
3. Wheels of diameter as large as possible, if not restricted otherwise, are selected to attain high cut-
ting velocity and better grindability in terms of lesser grinding forces, better surface finish and longer
wheel life.
4. Nature of work: Wheels are also selected based on the task
(a) Grinding method: While selecting grinding wheel it may also need to consider whether the
grinding work is
• External, internal or centreless.
• Finishing of flat surface, cylindrical surface or contoured surface.
(b) Characteristics of the grinding machine: Selection of grinding wheel is also governed by the
relevant characteristics of the grinding machine to be used:
• Power and rigidity.
• Spindle: vertical or horizontal.
• Space available for wheel and job.

9.4.3 Specification of Grinding Wheel

A typical grinding wheel specification can be
51-A-60-K-5-V-1985-6
where the number ‘51’ signifies manufacturers own code. The letter ‘A’ denotes that the abrasive grit material
is aluminium oxide. The other common abrasive grit material, silicon carbide would be denoted as ‘C’. The
next number ‘60’ specifies the average abrasive grit size. The letter ‘K’ designates the hardness of the wheel. The
symbol can be any letter between ‘A’ to ‘Z’: ‘A’ denoting the softest grade and ‘Z’ denoting the hardest (stron-
gest bond) grade. The following number ‘5’ means that the structure of the wheel is dense (i.e., the inter-grit
space is less). The number may vary from 1 to 12, ‘1’ indicating least inter-grit space and ‘12’ indicating maxi-
mum inter-grit space. The following letter code ‘V’ means that the bond material used is vitrified. The codes
for the bond materials are B, Resinoid; BF, Resinoid Reinforced; E, Shellac; O, Oxychloride; R, Rubber; RF,
Rubber Reinforced; S, Silicate and M, Metal. The following number 1985-6 is a manufacturers’ identifier.
In the case of super-abrasive wheels (where the grit material is cBN or diamond) a few more parameters
are defined. One of them is a concentration number, which indicates the amount of abrasive contained in
the wheel. Concentration number of 100 for both diamond and cBN means that the abrasive contained is
around 4.4 carat/cm2 and further the volumetric percentage is around 25%. Generally the concentration
number varies from 50 to 150 (12.5−37.5 volume percentage of diamond or cBN).

9.4.4 Wheel Conditioning Before Use

Both conventional and super-abrasive wheels require conditioning before use and reconditioning during use.
The conditioning requirements are:
1. Wheel balancing.
2. Truing.
3. Dressing.

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 Grinding: Fast Machining and Finishing by Bonded Abrasives 345

As grinding wheels rotate at a high speed to attain high peripheral surface speed (grinding velocity), any
unbalance in the wheel may lead to machine vibration, poor product quality, catastrophic wheel failure,
machine damage, etc. Therefore, it is essential to balance wheels and to avoid eccentricity, non-uniformity,
out-of-roundness, wrong mounting, etc. After mounting the wheel on the spindle both conventional and
super-abrasive wheels are trued to remove eccentricity and out-of-roundness and to impart desired profile
for form grinding. Dressing is a process of opening up the wheel, that is, exposing new sharp grits by
removing old, dull grits and accumulated chip materials require truing and dressing with the exception of
electroplated super-abrasive wheels (generally monolayer wheels of any construction). Truing and dressing
are performed by
1. Single-point diamond dresser.
2. Multi-point diamond dresser.
3. Stationary or rotary diamond rolls.
4. Brake controlled dressing unit with vitrified green (friable and purer) silicon carbide wheels (mainly
for super-abrasive wheels).
5. Metal crusher (tool post grinding wheel).
6. Diamond block dressing (profile grinding wheels).
7. Abrasive sticks and wheels (for super-abrasive resinoid wheel running-in period).
The major parameters governing the dressing process are:
1. The lead of the dresser (i.e., the velocity of the dresser across the wheel).
2. The wheel speed.
3. The depth of dressing.
4. Number of passes.
5. The environment.
6. Surface speed of rotating dresser (brake controlled dressing).

9.5 Mechanism and Mechanics of Grinding

9.5.1 Similarity of Grinding with Plain Milling
The basic principle of material removal in grinding is very similar to that in machining. Figure 9.17 shows
how material removal is caused by the tiny cutting edges in a typical grinding process (surface grinding).

Wheel Vc
Abrasive Bond
grain
Grinding
Workpiece Vc Chip
Vw
Vw
Workpiece

Figure 9.17 Material removal by abrasives in grinding.

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 346 Machining and Machine Tools

fDc
W

Vc
y

Vc d
Feed
Vc

Figure 9.18 Material removal in plain milling.

Figure 9.18 schematically shows the plain milling process where chip formation takes place mostly due to
shearing action by each tooth of the milling cutter. In such machining operations, the tangential or the main
cutting force component can be analytically evaluated by simple equations.
In plain turning, for example, of ductile metals, the tangential cutting force component (Pz = PT) is ana-
lytically evaluated from
Pz = tsots f
where t is the depth of cut (mm); so is the feed per tooth (mm/rev); ts is the dynamic yield shearing strength
of the work material (MPa); f is the form factor = z − tan g e + 1 (z is the chip reduction coefficient; ge is the
effective rake angle at the cutting edge). This equation can be rewritten as
Pz = Avp
where A is the cross-sectional area of the uncut chip at any instance = Baavg; p is the specific force; B is the
width of cut and a = uncut chip thickness. The value of p is governed mainly by ts of the material at the cut-
ting condition and also by the value of z which again depends upon the cutting edge geometry particularly
ge and the nature and extent of chip–tool interaction (i.e., friction, built-up-edge formation, etc.). From
Fig. 9.18 the average chip thickness in plain milling can be derived as
ψ d
aavg = so sin ψ avg = so sin = so (9.4)
2 Dc

where d is the depth of cut and Dc cutter diameter. Again

sm
so = (9.5)
Zc N
where sm is the feed in mm/min; Zc is the number of teeth of the cutter and N = rpm = Vc/pDc. Then,

sm d
aavg = (9.6)
Z c [Vc /π Dc ] Dc

sm d
aavg = (9.7)
mVc Dc

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 Grinding: Fast Machining and Finishing by Bonded Abrasives 347

Here, m is the number of cutting edges per unit length along the cutting periphery. We will later show that
the expression for average uncut chip thickness produced by single grit in surface grinding is very similar to
this expression for milling. The expression for average uncut chip thickness (tavg) per grit in surface grinding
under ideal condition (shearing) comes up to

vw d
t avg = (9.8)
mVc Dg

where Vc is the surface (cutting) velocity of the wheel; vw is the surface (feed) velocity of the job; d is the depth
of cut; Dg is the diameter of the grinding wheel; m is the number grits per unit length on the wheel periphery.
Equations (9.7) and (9.8) reveal the closeness of material removal actions in plain milling and grinding.

9.5.2 Mechanism of Material Removal in Grinding

The mode and mechanism of chip formation in conventional machining are quite simple and systematic for
well-defined and favourable tool geometry. However, in grinding, the spacing and geometry of cutting edges
are much unfavourable and vary randomly, which complicates the mode of chip formation. The rake angle in
grinding generally varies within − 30° and − 75°. In grinding, material removal is accomplished in different
modes in different apportionment as follows:
1. Shearing [Fig. 9.19(a)]: The mode of chip formation is similar to that found in other machining
processes like turning, milling, etc. with the only difference that the chips are microscopic in size.
These chips consist of fine lamellar structure.
2. Ploughing [Fig. 9.19(b)]: In ploughing, chips are produced by sidewise displacement of work mate-
rial by abrasive grits mainly due to pyramidal shape and high negative rakes of the abrasive grits. The
chips produced by ploughing are generally leafy in appearance.
3. Rubbing [Fig. 9.19(c)]: Two different modes of rubbing have been identified – primary and second-
ary rubbing. In primary rubbing the tip of the abrasive grain rubs against the work material along the
grit path until the local grit depth or chip thickness reaches a critical depth. Secondary rubbing is the
rubbing of wear flats with the work material. It occurs along the entire grit path of motion. Rubbing
produces fine wear debris as well as blocky microsized irregular chip particles.

Abrasive grains

Chip

Chips
Workpiece

Wear flat

(Side view) (End view) (Side view)

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 9.19 Major modes of chip formation in grinding: (a) Shearing, (b) ploughing and (c) rubbing.

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 348 Machining and Machine Tools

4. Fracturing and crushing: This mode of chip formation occurs in grinding brittle materials such as
ceramic, carbides, etc. where the chips are produced as fine powders of fractured debris for brittle
fracture of the work material ahead the grit.
5. Spherical chip formation: Inspection of grinding debris (swarf ) reveals presence of spherical chips.
These chips are produced because of oxidation and burning of smaller chips while leaving the grind-
ing zone. Chip particles at high temperature leaving the grinding zone and entering the atmosphere
would tend to oxidize and melt. During such oxidation or melting they take near-spherical shape.
Generally, super-abrasive wheels provide less rubbing and ploughing due to sharper grits and reten-
tion of sharpness of the grits during grinding.
Figure 9.19 shows different chip morphologies. Among the aforesaid modes, shearing is ideal and next to that
is ploughing. Rest of the modes are unfavourable. Figure 9.20 schematically shows the wheel–job motions
and the way of material removal in cylindrical grinding. In this figure, while the wheel at its periphery travels
from point P to R, the job at its periphery advances from point R to S. Therefore,

PR RS
= (9.9)
Vg vw

where Vg is the grinding velocity (m/s) and vw is the work feed (m/s). Again, from Fig. 9.20, the maximum
total uncut chip thickness SU can be expressed as

SU = RS sin(θ + φ )

Let m be the number of grits per unit length on the wheel periphery. Then the total number of grits, in a row,
engaged (N) are
N = m ⋅ PR
Grain depth of cut, gd

Radial cut of depth, d

Grinding wheel q
Rg
Rg
V

S M
Vg
R U r
Rw v
A
Workpiece v Rw

(a) (b)

Figure 9.20 Material removal by grits in grinding.

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 Grinding: Fast Machining and Finishing by Bonded Abrasives 349

Therefore, maximum uncut chip thickness per grit (am) will be

SU RS sin(θ + φ )
am = = (9.10)
m ⋅ PR m ⋅ PR
Combining Eqs. (9.9) and (9.10), we get
vw
am = sin(θ + φ ) (9.11)
mVg

Again, from Fig. 9.20

(Rg + Rw − d )2 = Rg2 + Rw2 + 2RgRwcos(q + f ) (9.12)

where Rg is the radius of the grinding wheel; Rw is the radius of the workpiece; D is the depth or infeed.
Combining Eqs. (9.11) and (9.12), it appears[4] that
1/ 2
2vw ⎡ d ⎛ 1 1 ⎞⎤
am = ± (9.13)
mVg ⎢ 2 ⎜⎝ Rg Rw ⎟⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
The ‘+’ and ‘−’ signs will appear when the workpiece is rotated, respectively, in the same direction and oppo-
site direction w.r.t. the wheel rotation. Further, in the case of surface grinding of flat surface by disc-type

Dry Sol. oil Liq. N2

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

Figure 9.21 Ground chips of different steels under different environments: (a) MS30 μm; (b) HCS 40 μm;
(c) CDS 40 μm; (d) HDS 30 μm and (e) HSS 40 μm.

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 350 Machining and Machine Tools

wheel, am will be expressed as

1/ 2
2vw ⎛ d ⎞
am = (9.14)
mVg ⎜⎝ Dg ⎟⎠

1/ 2
vw ⎛ d ⎞
and aavg = (9.15)
mVg ⎜⎝ Dg ⎟⎠

It is to be noted that Eqs. (9.15) and (9.8) are the same. Equation (9.15) for am has been conveniently modi-
fied[5] by entering a dimensionless parameter (l) and number of grits per unit area (c):
b
λ= (9.16)
aavg

and m = cb (9.17)
where b is the width of chip produced by a grit. Combining Eqs. (9.15)−(9.17), we get
1/ 2
⎡ v ⎛ d ⎞ 1/ 2 ⎤
=⎢ w
⎜ ⎟ ⎥
aavg (9.18)
⎢⎣ c λVg ⎝ Dg ⎠ ⎥⎦
Figure 9.21 typically shows grinding chips produced under various modes during surface grinding of different
steel specimens by alumina wheel under different environments.[6]

9.5.3 Mechanics of Grinding

Mechanics of grinding deals with analysis and evaluation of the forces associated with grinding, for example,
cutting forces in machining. The magnitude of the grinding forces and specific energy requirement are also
very important indices of grindability. The grinding forces, if large, cause not only more power or energy
consumption but also impair dimensional accuracy and surface integrity of the products. Compared to
conventional machining, grinding requires much larger cutting forces and more (5 − 10 times) specific energy
for same work material and same MRR. The main reason is the very large value of the chip reduction coef-
ficient z which directly affects the cutting forces, as

Pz = tsots (z − tan g + 1)
The value of z remains within 1.5 and 5 in conventional machining but becomes extremely large, as high as
20−40 due to large negative rake angle[7] at the cutting tips of the abrasive grains as schematically shown in
Fig. 9.22. With the increase in depth, the rake condition improves.
Figure 9.23 shows the force components that are encountered in plain grinding, such as cylindrical surface
grinding and flat surface grinding. In plain, grinding, the workpiece at the grinding zone is subjected to two
force components:
1. F − tangential component, called the main cutting force.
2. N − normal or radial force component.

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 Grinding: Fast Machining and Finishing by Bonded Abrasives 351

gp
Vc

d p

Vw

Figure 9.22 Variation in rake angle with increase in thickness of chips.

N N

Figure 9.23 Development of grinding forces.

The grinding wheel is also subjected to the same forces as reactions but obviously in opposite direction.
The grinding forces, F and N are analogous respectively to PZ and PXY of turning process. In conventional
machining Pxy usually happens to be smaller (around half ) than Pz. But in grinding, N is almost always much
greater (1.25−2.0 times) than F. This is attributed to penetration (of grits) effect.
Machinability characteristics of any tool–work combination are judged mainly by chip form, cutting
forces and temperature, tool wear and life, and surface finish. Similarly, grindability of any work material is
judged by chip formation mode, grinding forces and temperature, grinding ratio and surface quality of the
ground surfaces. Grinding behaviour of any work material is most conveniently and reasonably evaluated and
expressed by its specific energy requirement, Uc, where
Uc = Amount of energy required to remove unit volume of work material by grinding
In surface grinding, Uc can be evaluated from[8]

Ft × Vc
Uc = ( J/mm3 ) (9.19)
B × d × vw

where Ft is the tangential component of the grinding force; Vc grinding velocity (m/s); B workpiece width
(mm); d infeed (μm); vw work feed (m/s). The value of Uc is an important index of grindability of any work

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 352 Machining and Machine Tools

material. Lower value of Uc means better or more favourable grindability. The grinding forces and specific
grinding energy are required for shearing action of the grits, ploughing action and overcoming frictional
forces due to rubbing of the wear flats of the grits as well as friction at grit-chip, chip-bond, chip-workpiece
and bond-workpiece.
Considering shearing as the major or only mode of chip formation, the magnitude of the tangential (i.e.,
main) component, Ft, of the grinding force can be approximately estimated for pendulum-type surface grind-
ing using the simple expression
Ft = Ptavg B Lc m (9.20)
using the values of the parameters, if known, where Ptavg is the average tangential force per grit; Lc is the
length of wheel–job contact; m is the average number of effective grits per unit area of the grinding wheel
surface. The actual contact length Lc can be derived from

Lc = k1 Dw d (9.21)

where Dw d is the theoretical contact length; Dw is the wheel diameter and k1 is a factor, varying from 1.0
to 1.5, depending upon ductility of the work material. Combining Eqs. (9.19)–(9.21), we get
⎛U ⎞ ⎛ v ⎞ ⎛ d ⎞
Ptavg = ⎜ c ⎟ ⎜ w ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ (9.22)
⎝ m ⎠ ⎝ Vc ⎠ ⎝ Lc ⎠
Equation (9.22) clearly depicts that the magnitude of the average shearing force per grit in grinding material
in ductile mode is governed by
1. Work material property.
2. The wheel characteristics (i.e., grit concentration, m and wheel diameter, Dw).
3. Levels of the process parameters, vw, Vc and d.
The force, Ptavg apparently decreases with the increase in m, Vc and Dw and with decrease in Uc, vw and d.
The normal component of the grinding force, Fn, though does not affect power or energy consumption,
affects dimensional accuracy and product quality through elastic deflection and vibration. Besides that both
Ft and Fn are useful for the design of the grinding machine. Like Ft, Fn is also contributed by the basic chip
formation (i.e., shearing, ploughing and blocky fracturing) as well as all the associated rubbing actions. Fn is
further aggravated by the force required for penetration into the work surface after a critical depth. Usually
Fn is proportional to Ft. In conventional machining with desired geometry and sharpness, Fn remains smaller
than Ft but in grinding, the ratio Fn/Ft exceeds 1.0 due to adverse rake angle (highly negative) condition of
the cutting grits.
Generally, the values of Ft and Fn under shearing action (neglecting frictional forces) are evaluated by
Ptavg = as · p (9.23)
and Pnavg = as ⋅ n (9.24)
2
where as is the chip load, p and n are specific tangential force and specific normal force in N/mm , respec-
tively. In machining by tools of well-defined geometry, the specific force p and specific energy requirement
are same. For instance, in turning
Pz ⋅Vc P
Uc = = z ( J/mm3 ) (9.25)
(tso )Vc (tso )

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 Grinding: Fast Machining and Finishing by Bonded Abrasives 353

Again
Pz = (tso) ts f = (tso) p
Pz
or p= ( N/mm 2 ) (9.26)
tso
where tso is the chip load. It appears here that specific energy requirement Uc is equal to specific force ( p)
which means force per unit cross-sectional area of chip load depends primarily on the work material property,
ts and form factor f whose value is governed by rake angle and chip–tool friction.[4]
In grinding, specific energy requirement (Uc) becomes proportional to but different from specific force
(p) mainly for complex and random geometry of the grit-tips. Combining Eqs. (9.19), (9.20) and (9.23), it
appears that
⎛ m ⋅ Lc ⋅Vc ⎞
U c = as ⎜ p (9.27)
⎝ vw ⋅ d ⎟⎠
The average chip load (cross-sectional area) as can be approximately determined from Fig. 9.24, which shows
that each chip ideally gradually increases in length, width (b) and thickness (t) and indicates that
as ∝ bavg⋅tavg = k2⋅bavg⋅tavg (9.28)
where bavg is the average chip width per grit and tavg is the average chip thickness per grit. The values of the
constant of proportionality k2 depends upon the configuration of the grit-tip engaged in chip removal. The
values of k2 will be about two-third for spherical grit-tip[10] and half for conical tip. It is evident that bavg is
much greater than tavg in grinding and the ratio is expressed as
bavg bavg
λ= = (9.29)
(1 / 2 )t max t avg
The value of l may widely vary between 5 and 15. Combining Eqs. (9.27)−(9.29) it becomes
as = k2l (tavg)2

⎛ m ⋅ Lc ⋅Vc ⎞
and U c = k2 λ(t avg )2 ⎜ p (9.30)
⎝ vw ⋅ d ⎟⎠

bavg
as tavg

bavg
as tavg

Figure 9.24 General shape of grinding chips and their possible sections.

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 354 Machining and Machine Tools

Again, the average uncut chip thickness (tavg) has been related with the principal parameters, as

⎛ v ⎞ d
t avg = ⎜ w ⎟ (9.31)
⎝ λmVc ⎠ Dw

Combining Eqs. (9.30) and (9.31) and putting Lc = k1 Dw d we get

Uc = (k1k2) p (9.32)
Therefore, it appears that Uc is different from p in grinding due to a factor, k = k1 × k2, where k1 depends upon
actual wheel–job contact length and k2 on grit-tip configuration. However, p and hence Uc also depend upon
the actual geometry (effective rake) of the grit-tips, friction at the wheel–work interfaces in addition to the
dynamic yield shear strength (ts) of the work material at the cutting zone during grinding.
The chip formation in grinding process is almost an adiabatic process owing to high cutting velocity, very
short duration and intensive strain. The melting energy of steels is close to 10.5 J/mm3 only, which can be the
maximum specific energy required for shearing alone. But practically it becomes as high as 20 to even 100
J/mm3. Such substantial excess of specific energy requirement is attributed to additional energy required for
ploughing action and friction or rubbing between
1. Chips and grits.
2. Chips and bond.
3. Wear flats with grinding surface.
Actually, the grinding forces Ft and Nt comprises three components:
Ft = Fs + Fp + Ff (9.33)

and Nt = Ns + Np + Nf (9.34)
where Ft and Nt are total tangential and total normal forces; Fs and Ns are tangential and normal forces due
to shearing action only; Fp and Np are tangential and normal forces due to ploughing action; Ff and Nf are
tangential and normal forces due to friction and rubbing. Fs decreases with increase in Vg as it is evident from
Eqs. (9.20) and (9.22). But Fp and Ff increase with the increase in Vg for high temperature, rapid attrition
and faster rubbing.
Attempts were made to precisely determine the actual values of the grinding forces by experiments and
also to evaluate the role of variation of the major grinding parameters. A simple empirical relation has been
established[9] for Ft as
Ft = Cp Vg0.7 d 0.7 vw0.8 (9.35)

where Cp is a material constant and is equal to 2.2 for quenched and tempered steel; 2.1 for forged or rolled
steel and 2.0 for cast iron. One empirical relation for Nt has been proposed[8] based on experimental results:
x
⎛ vw ⎞ y z
Nt = K n d Dg (9.36)
⎜⎝ Vg ⎟⎠

where Kn is the specific grinding force; Dg is the wheel diameter and x, y, z are indexes of grinding velocity,
infeed and wheel diameter, respectively. The values of x, y and z vary depending upon the wheel-work materi-
als and grinding fluid application.

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 Grinding: Fast Machining and Finishing by Bonded Abrasives 355

Another model has been suggested[5] for Nt as

Nt = Ks(heq.) + Kf(heq.)α(d ⋅ Dg)(1−α)/2 (9.37)

where Ks and Kf are specific shearing and friction forces; heq. is the equivalent uncut chip thickness = vw d/Vg;
a is the material constant (e.g., 0.33 for bearing steel).

9.6 Grindability and Its Improvement

Like machinability, grindability refers to ease of grinding (i.e., effectiveness and efficiency of grinding). Grind-
ability of any work material not only depends upon the chemical, metallurgical and mechanical properties
of that material but also on the characteristics of the grinding wheel and the condition of grinding. However
grindability is judged or assessed by
1. Magnitude of the grinding forces and specific energy requirement (amount of energy required to
remove unit volume of material).
2. Magnitude and distribution of grinding temperature which affects product quality and wheel life.
3. Surface integrity including surface finish, residual stresses, surface and sub-surface micro-cracks, etc.
4. Wheel life or grinding ratio.
5. Type and mode of chip formation.
Productivity, product quality and overall economy of grinding are enhanced by improving grindability
through reduction, as far as possible, of grinding forces and specific energy requirement, grinding tempera-
ture, SR and wheel damage.

9.6.1 Grinding Forces: Causes, Effects and Control

9.6.1.1 Causes of Grinding Forces and Specific Energy Requirement
The workpiece and the wheel get subjected to grinding forces that develop at the grinding zone due to
1. Shearing of work material by the abrasive grits.
2. Primary rubbing.
3. Secondary rubbing.
4. Ploughing.
5. Fracturing or crushing of work material ahead of grit.
6. Friction between loaded chip material and work material.
7. Friction between bond material and work material.
8. Removal of re-deposited chips from ground surface.
9. Shearing of thermo-mechanical bond between the grits and the loaded chip particles.
Specific energy requirement (Ug), which is a very significant index of grindability, depends mainly upon the
grinding force Ft and is evaluated from
Ft ⋅Vc
Ug = (9.38)
B ⋅ d ⋅ vw

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 356 Machining and Machine Tools

where Ft is the total tangential force and B is the width of cut. Therefore, saving in Ug is best possible by
reducing Ft as far as possible.

9.6.1.2 Effects of Grinding Forces

During grinding, development of grinding forces is inevitable. Attempt should be made to reduce the
magnitude of these forces, without sacrificing productivity or MRR, because large grinding forces undesirably
cause:
1. More energy consumption.
2. Dimensional inaccuracy by deflection and deformation of the associated elastic members.
3. High grinding temperature.
4. Vibration that affects product quality, wheel life and also the machine tool.

9.6.1.3 Control of Grinding Forces

The magnitude of the grinding forces can be sizeably reduced, without sacrificing MRR, generally by the
following measures:
1. Proper selection of grinding wheel with sharp and stable grits.
2. Regular and proper conditioning (dressing) of the wheel to remove the ineffective abrasive grains
which become dull or clogged by wheel loading.
3. Raising or keeping grinding velocity (Vc) as high as feasible.
4. Keeping work feed (vw) low and compensating that by increasing infeed or depth (d).
5. Using strong and rigid machine–fixture–tool–work (M-F-T-W) system.
6. Proper selection and application of cutting fluid.

9.6.2 Grinding Temperature: Sources, Effects and Control

9.6.2.1 Sources or Causes of Grinding Temperature
During grinding, sizeable cutting forces develop and lot of mechanical energy is expended for the chip
removal actions like shearing, ploughing, blocky fracturing and intensive straining as well as due to friction
and rubbing in between the elements of the grinding wheel and the workpiece. Development of wear flats
and wheel loading enhance the energy requirement further. It is already mentioned that grinding requires 10
to 20 times higher specific energy when compared to conventional machining. The rate of energy input (Eg)
in grinding is generally evaluated from
Eg = Ft ⋅ Vg (9.39)
where Ft is the total tangential force; and Vg is velocity of grinding = pDg Ng (m/s). Dg is the diameter of the
grinding wheel (m) and Ng is wheel speed (rev/s). The major portion of the aforesaid mechanical energy is
converted into heat. This heat goes in different proportions
1. In the workpiece.
2. In the grinding wheel.
3. Along with the flying chips.
4. Along with the cutting fluid.

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 Grinding: Fast Machining and Finishing by Bonded Abrasives 357

Low heat flux Wheel speed Heat input Convective heat

with chips Heat source width flux (pc) T
x
Vc

20 500
400 High
40 Workpiece speed
60 Vw ′ Hig 300 (through workpiece)
80 100 μm h
he 200°C Isotherm
100 at
flu 100 Low heat flux
x
Depth below −0
surface I (μm) Conductive heat flux

Figure 9.25 Generation and distribution of temperature in the workpiece in surface grinding.

However, major portion of the heat is absorbed by the workpiece through the grinding zone. The chips and
cutting fluid also favourably carry away substantial amount of heat, often some hot or melted chips redeposit
on the ground surfaces, and transmit heat to the workpiece. The heat, absorbed by the workpiece, raises its
temperature at and around the grinding zone. Figure 9.25 typically shows how temperature is developed and
distributed in the workpiece at the grinding zone.[5]

9.6.2.2 Effects of Grinding Temperature

Grinding, unlike conventional machining, is inherently associated with much high cutting temperature due to
high specific energy requirement. Such high grinding temperature has several unfavourable and harmful effects:
1. On workpiece or product
(a) Dimensional inaccuracy.
(b) Deterioration of surface integrity by oxidation, corrosion, burning, redeposition of hot chips,
etc. and induction of tensile residual stresses and surface and sub-surface micro-cracks.
2. On grinding wheel
(a) Rapid blunting of the grit-tips by attrition, fracturing and wear.
(b) Wheel loading by clogging of ductile chips on the wheel surface. Both blunting and wheel load-
ing hamper effective chip removal.
The detrimental effect on ground product become more acute in finish grinding with very little depth but
high speed and also when the ground product is later subjected to dynamic loading which creates chance
of premature fatigue failure due to presence of tensile residual stress and micro-cracks. Blunting of the
grinding wheel for blocking of the chips space leads to an undesirable situation, namely ‘wheel loading’
which prevents meal cutting action and results in sharp increase in forces, specific grinding energy, heat
input and temperature and cause vibration and deterioration in surface integrity. Figure 9.26 shows the
mechanism of wheel loading. Wheel loading is a severe problem in grinding, producing ductile chips. It
occurs mainly by
1. Rapid wear of the grits and their non-removal.
2. Mechanical chip-clogging in the grit-spaces.
3. Chemical interaction between the grains and the work material.
4. Weld-building of chips on the wheel surface.

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 358 Machining and Machine Tools

Grain
Vg
g2
g1

Vw
Clogged chip

Figure 9.26 Mechanism of wheel loading.

Wheel loading increases with

1. Reduction in wheel sharpness.
2. Lowering of wheel porosity.
3. Increase in wheel hardness.
4. Decrease in work material hardness.
5. Inefficient cooling.

9.6.2.3 Control of Grinding Temperature

For the purpose of control or reducing grinding temperature, it is necessary to know which factors or param-
eters govern grinding temperature. It is also necessary to know the nature and extent of role of those param-
eters on magnitude of grinding temperature. A good number of models have been developed and proposed,
based on analysis and experiments, to depict the role of the salient parameters on grinding.
A simple expression has been proposed[5] to roughly estimate the temperature (q t ) at any grit-tip as

1/ 2
⎡ Vg ⎤
θt = AoU g ⎢ ⎥ (9.40)
⎣ K ′ρ ′C ′ ⎦
where Ao is a constant depending upon the wheel–work material; Ug is specific grinding energy of the work
material; K ′r ′C ′ are thermal conductivity, density and specific heat of the grit material. Increase in tempera-
ture at the grain-tips accelerates wearing of grain-tips by softening, adhesion, diffusion and decomposition.
The maximum and average temperatures at the grinding zone are of more concern to the R&D Depart-
ments and the industry. Lots of models have been developed for average grinding temperature (q g). A few
simple but quite useful models for q g have been presented here. The first model[5] appears as
1/ 2
⎡ Vg ⎤
θg = RU g d ⎢ ⎥ (9.41)
L K ρ
⎣ c ′′ ′′ ′′ ⎦
C

where R is the fraction of heat that goes in the workpiece; Lc is the length of wheel–job contact = (dDg)1/2
(where d is the infeed or depth); K ′′, r ′′, C ′′ are thermal conductivity, density and specific heat of the work
material.

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 Grinding: Fast Machining and Finishing by Bonded Abrasives 359

Another similar expression has been derived[10] as

1/ 2
τ ⎡ Vg Lc ⎤
θg = ⎢ ⎥ (9.42)
J ⎣ K ′′ρ ′′C ′′ ⎦
where t is the shear strength of the work material and J is the mechanical equivalent of heat. It has been
observed that the stiffness of the M-F-T-W system also affect grinding temperature. The magnitude and pat-
tern of distribution of grinding temperature in the workpiece can be precisely determined[11] computationally
by finite element methods (FEM) and boundary element method (BEM) using the actual experimental data.
The average grinding zone temperature (qg) is often reliably measured experimentally[12] using thermocouples
and suitable pyrometers.
The analytical relations and the experimental observations helped in taking various actions for reducing
grinding temperature without sacrificing MRR:
1. Proper selection of grinding wheel (for the given work material)
(a) Material, size and shape of the abrasive grits.
(b) Hardness and structure of the wheel.
(c) Bond material.
(d) Diameter of the wheel.
2. Proper selection of the levels of the process parameters
(a) Grinding velocity, Vg: increase in Vg also helps in reducing qg through reduction in grinding
forces and Ug but too much increase in Vg raises qg almost linearly.
(b) Work feed, vw – increase in vw raises qg.
(c) Infeed or depth, d: Increase in d obviously raises grinding forces but may help in reducing spe-
cific energy requirement and hence qg.
3. Frequent dressing of the wheel to keep it sharp by eliminating the glazed layer of the blunt grits.
4. Prevention of wheel loading and its on-line removal from the grinding wheel surface.
5. Adopting ECG[13] where feasible.
6. Proper selection and application of cutting fluid which enables substantial reduction of temperature
at the grinding zone by:
(a) Cooling the grinding zone by carrying away the heat produced.
(b) Reduction of forces and wear by lubrication.
(c) Carrying away the hot chips and debris and thus prevention of their redeposition on the grind-
ing surfaces.
The grinding fluid also provides a thin layer and protects the nascent ground surface from contamination
from harmful gases present in the atmosphere and that evolve from the boiling cutting fluid.
The cutting fluids that are commonly used in grinding include
1. Air blast.
2. Soluble oil without or with additives.
3. Thin mineral oil without or with suitable additive.
4. Cryogenic coolant like liquid nitrogen when cooling is critical
Grinding fluids are generally applied as
1. Flood.
2. Jet.

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 360 Machining and Machine Tools

3. Mist (oil in compressed air).

4. Z-Z method in which the fluid is passed through the axial hole of the wheel, which passes through
the pores and comes out from all over the wheel-periphery under centrifugal force.
For low temperature grinding, water and soluble oil are suitable and for high temperature grinding oils are suitable.
Jet cooling enables more effective action which improves with the increase in fluid pressure (20−9000 kPa).
Depending upon the grinding process and condition, the cutting fluid should be selected and employed
or otherwise for a given cutting fluid, grinding condition should be so selected that the grinding temperature
does not exceed the film boiling point of the fluid. For example, film boiling point of the water, soluble oil
and straight oil are 100°C, 130°C and about 300°C, respectively. The film boiling point of the cutting fluid
may increase (with benefit) when
1. Vg is high – for increased hydrodynamic pressure on the fluid.
2. Viscosity of the fluid is high.
3. Wheel is less porous.
Extreme pressure additive like chloride (suitable for qg = 300°C) and sulphide (more stable, suitable for qg
= 300−600°C) when added in soluble oil and straight oil improves the performance of the grinding fluid
significantly in all respects.

9.6.3 Wear of Grinding Wheel and Grinding Ratio

Apart from grinding forces and product quality, other factors which indicate the performance of any grinding
wheel are[1]
1. Metal removal rate (MRR), Q m.
2. Rate (or amount) of wheel wear, Q w.
3. Grinding ratio, G = Q m/Q w.
4. Grindability coefficient.
The value of grinding ratio G is raised as far as possible. It has been mentioned that metal removal takes place
by shearing, ploughing, crushing or fracturing and rubbing. The wheel wears out mainly, by
1. Wear and pull out of worn grains.
2. Crushing and abrasion of bond material.
3. Self-dressing or auto–sharpening.
4. Dislodgement of wheel material due to wheel loading.
Both Q M and Q w depend much on infeed or depth of cut. The grinding forces, which also depend on d,
enhance both Q M and Q w and thus affect the grinding ratio (G-ratio) as can be seen in Fig. 9.27. The rate of
wheel wear can be reduced and the value of grinding ratio can be enhanced for a given work material without
sacrificing MRR by
1. Reducing wear of the grit-tips by
(a) Reducing force per grit through reduction of chip load (i.e., uncut chip thickness per grit).
(b) Reducing grinding temperature as far as feasible.
2. Preventing or reducing premature dislodgement of the grits from the bond.
3. Prevention or reduction of wheel loading.

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 Grinding: Fast Machining and Finishing by Bonded Abrasives 361

Metal and wheel removal rates Zw and Z1(in 3/min)

Thrust force FN (N)
0 250 500 750 1000
2.5
0

QM Qw
40 2.0
G 0
Zw
Grinding ratio G

30 1.5 0
QM
Qw
20 0
1.0
Z1
0
10 0.5
0

0 0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Thrust force FN lbf

Figure 9.27 Variation of QM, QW and G with FN.

4. Selection of grinding wheel of appropriate hardness and structure.

5. Reducing friction forces by proper application of cutting fluid.
6. Proper wheel dressing.

9.6.4 Surface Quality of the Ground Products

Achieving good surface finish is a major objective in grinding particularly in finish grinding. Grinding may
cause SR due to
1. Large chip load per grit.
2. Lack of sharpness and auto-sharpening of the working grits.
3. Excessive rubbing between the elements of the wheel and job.
4. Re-deposition of hot chips.
5. Occurrence of wheel loading.
6. Vibration in the M-F-T-W system.
In addition to roughness, several other unfavourable phenomena, mostly thermally originated, impair quality
or surface integrity of the products. The inherently high grinding temperature affects surface integrity by oxida-
tion, corrosion, burning, metallurgical transformations, etc. and also by inducing tensile residual stresses and
micro-cracks. The following measures are generally taken to improve and maintain surface quality in grinding:
1. Reduce SR by
(a) Reducing chip load per grit through proper selection of wheel and the process parameters.
(b) Maintain sharpness of the wheel.
(c) Prevent wheel loading and re-deposition.
(d) Reduce vibration.
2. Reduce grinding temperature by all feasible means mentioned earlier.

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 362 Machining and Machine Tools

Vibration in grinding is generally controlled by

1. Frequent wheel dressing.
2. Using large diameter wheel.
3. Using softer wheel.
4. Lowering feed (vw) and depth or infeed (d).
5. Using lubricating type cutting fluid.
6. Increasing wheel speed, if feasible.
7. Increasing rigidity and damping of the M-F-T-W system.
8. Exciting the job at chatter frequency by adaptive control at suitable amplitude and phase.

9.7 Advanced Technology of Grinding

9.7.1 Trend and Directions of Advancement in Grinding
Grinding is not only confined to finishing but also employed for stock removal and now-a-days extended
to both stock removal at high MRR and finishing simultaneously. The performance and service life of
many engineering components of given material depend largely upon their dimensional and form accu-
racy and quality of the surfaces. Generally, such components are manufactured by first semi-finishing
the preformed blanks by conventional machining for removing material in bulk and then finishing
by grinding by removing a small volume of material. Often before grinding the machined jobs are
hardened.
The scheme is shown in Fig. 9.28. For hardened and as such hard parts, grinding is inevitable. Rapid
advancement in science and technology essentially need to use some materials which are very difficult to
machine and can only be tackled by grinding. Remarkable progress has been achieved in cutting tool material
such as high performance ceramics, cBN and diamond, and processes to meet the need of machining hard,
hardened and any exotic materials effectively giving high accuracy and surface finish. On the other hand,
grinding technology has also advanced spectacularly enabling large stock removal as well as finishing includ-
ing micro precision grinding. Therefore, question has come up whether entire semi-finishing and finishing
should be done totally by machining or only by grinding to save time and get rid of machining systems or
grinding systems and activities as indicated in Fig. 9.29.
Industrial world is gradually getting inclined towards grinding for simultaneous semi-finishing and finish-
ing mainly for the following reasons.[14]
1. Relatively very small chip load per cutting edge (abrasives) resulting in much slower deterioration of
cutting edges and much better surface finish.
2. Hard, tough, heat-resistive and abrading type materials can be more easily processed particularly
under minute chip load.
3. Unlike machining, grinding is done by a large number of cutting edges; failure of some does not
hamper the process.
4. Self- or auto-sharpening characteristics.
5. Lesser sensitiveness to work hardness and toughness and working temperature.
6. On-line dressing and truing.
In the last few years, grinding technology has advanced tremendously to meet

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 Grinding: Fast Machining and Finishing by Bonded Abrasives 363

Machining
Semi-finishing
by material
removal

Heat treatment
(If necessary)

Grinding
Finishing by small
material removal

Figure 9.28 Role of machining and grinding.

High accuracy and

Material removal rate

high removal rate

Conventional
machining

Abrasive machining

Machine accuracy

Figure 9.29 Scope of machining and grinding for future requirement.

1. The growing demands for high productivity, product quality and overall economy.
2. The challenge for processing difficult-to-machine and grind exotic materials like super-alloys, ceram-
ics, plastics, composites, etc.
3. The ever increasing demand for precision and ultra-precision in dimensions and finish.

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 364 Machining and Machine Tools

4. The present and future trend of micro-machining and nano-machining.

5. The social demand of environment-friendliness.
Grinding technology has made long strides and spectacular progress in several salient directions:
1. Development and use of more effective and efficient grinding techniques and processes.
2. Development and use of desired grinding machine with high speed, power and rigidity as well as
CNC and multi-sensor-based on-line condition monitoring and adaptive control.
3. Development and improvement in grinding wheel and their applications.
4. Production, proper selection and application of grinding fluids.

9.7.2 Advancements in Grinding Processes

The present and future trend is essentially bulk material removal in addition to finishing directly by grinding,
particularly where classical machining of hard or hardened materials is not feasible and economically viable.
This inevitable trend led to advent of some novel grinding methods as listed in Table 9.1.

Table 9.1 Comparison of different grinding processes[15]

S. No. Process Vc (m/s) vw (m/min) a (mm)

1. Conventional grinding 40−50 3−12 0.005−0.040
2. Creep feed grinding 50−100 0.02−0.05 5−30
3. Ultra-high-speed grinding 200−400 5−10 0.050−5.00
4. High performance grinding 100−250 0.5−2.0 2−20

9.7.2.1 Creep Feed Grinding

This unique process is characterized mainly by very slow work speed (vw) but very large depth or infeed (d)
which not only enables large stock removal and high MRR but also provides longer life of the grits and better
surface finish due to minute chip load (tm) on the grits as evident from the expression

2vw ⎛ 1 1⎞
tm = d ± (9.43)
mVg ⎜⎝ D D ⎟
g j⎠

where tm is the maximum chip thickness = 2tavg; m is the number of active grits per unit length on the wheel
periphery; Vg is the wheel speed or grinding velocity (m/s); Dg, Dj are diameter of the wheel and job, respec-
tively. The inherently large wheel–job contact length may cause some problems in creep feed grinding.

9.7.2.2 Speed Stroke Grinding

This process came up to compete with creep feed grinding mainly in respect of productivity particularly for
pendulum grinding, relatively easily grindable work material and semi-finish. In this process, large volume of

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 Grinding: Fast Machining and Finishing by Bonded Abrasives 365

work material is removed in reasonably shorter time by large number of passes with small infeed at very high
reciprocation frequency (as high as 400 st/min), keeping stroke length as small as possible. Since the grind-
ing forces per pass and work–tool contact length are very small, powerful, rigid and costly grinding machine
and costly wheels like cBN or diamond are not required unlike in creep feed grinding. However, application
of such process is limited for poor surface finish, inability to grind very hard materials and need for high
reciprocating worktable.

9.7.2.3 Ultra-High-Speed Grinding

It is evident from Eq. (9.43) that tm decreases with the increase in Vg resulting in large reduction in forces
and specific energy consumption per grit and SR for given MRR. This idea has led to development of ‘ultra-
high-speed grinding’ where Vg is increased even beyond 250 m/s in comparison to 30−60 m/s in conventional
grinding. The extremely small chip load per grit at such high wheel speed enables excellent surface finish and
efficient grinding of hard material. But there may be problem due to high temperature and vibrations. Special
design of cBN/diamond wheel of large diameter enabled Vg to be increased even upto 500 m/s.[16] Figure
9.30 clearly depicts how such high speed helps in getting high MRR.[14]

9.7.2.4 High Performance Grinding

To derive benefits of both creep feed grinding and ultra-high-speed grinding, a new method called high
performance grinding has recently been introduced and practiced quite successfully in some specific applica-
tions.[17] Both conventional and exotic materials of high hardness, toughness, heat resistance and abrasive
nature could be ground effectively and economically with very high MRR and product quality. However, all
these high productive grinding at high speed and depth produce undesirably very high grinding temperature
due to wide work–tool contact length and high speed, and more so when the work material is quite hard
and strong. Hence, measure needs to be taken to control such high temperature and its detrimental effects
on the performance and life of the wheels and surface integrity of the products. The following measures are
generally taken:
Spec grinding normal force, Fn (N/mm)

12.0
Vc = 100 m /s
10.0 Qn = 2.0 mm3/mm s

8.0 Vc = 130 m /s
Qn = 7.8 mm3/mm s
6.0
Vc = 150 m /s
Qn = 10.4 mm3/mm s
4.0
Vc = 175 m /s
2.0 Qn = 14.1 mm3/mm s

Vc = 204 m /s
0.0 5 10 15 20 Qn = 16.9 mm3/mm s
Spec. stock removal rate, Qn (mm3/mm s)

Figure 9.30 Increase of stock removal rate through high-speed grinding.

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 366 Machining and Machine Tools

1. Use of super-abrasive (cBN or diamond) wheels which produce lesser cutting forces and heat due to
their extreme hardness, stability and retention of sharpness over longer time.
2. Proper selection and application of cutting fluids to take away the heat from the grinding zone and
cool the job and the wheel.
3. Use of not only powerful grinding machines but also very rigid machines preferably having auto-
matic and on-line condition monitoring and control.

9.7.2.5 High-Efficiency Deep Grinding

Keeping in view the present and future trends demanding high productive grinding with large depth and
speed, high product quality and desirably effective bulk and finish grinding of conventional to very exotic
work materials (such as hard, strong and heat resistive metals, super-alloys, as well as stones, glass, plastics,
composites, etc.) a unique process, namely high-efficiency deep grinding (HEDG), has been developed. This
modern HEDG is essentially characterized by the following[18]:
1. Use of super-abrasive wheels of appropriate type and grade of abrasives depending upon the work
material.
2. Preferably use of monolayer super-abrasive wheels with uniformly spaced, widely protruded and
strongly bonded grits.
3. Appropriate selection and more effective application of cutting fluids preferably highly cooling type
and at high pressure.
4. Optimum selection of grinding parameters and their precision control, preferably with adaptive
control.
5. Need of grinding machines that are highly powerful and rigid, and possess provisions for precision
parametric control by CNC.
In HEDG, a large depth of cut, from 0.25 to 5.0 mm can be employed along with high grinding velocity
upto 250 m/s. Thus HEDG not only results in stock removal but also presents a more energy-efficient mate-
rial removal mechanism. Also in such grinding process, a large amount of the heat produced in the grinding
zone is carried away by the chips as observed in conventional machining. Due to high thermal conductivity
of cBN grits, lesser amount of heat is transmitted to the ground surface resulting in better surface integrity
of the ground component.[19] Steels reportedly require much less specific grinding energy, nearing 20 J/mm3
only if ground under HEDG as compared to when ground conventionally by Al2O3 wheels. The excellent
performance of HEDG of steels is attributed to the following[20]:
1. Extreme hardness, sharpness and stability of the cBN grits of the monolayer wheel.
2. High grinding velocity which help in reducing grinding forces and chip load per grit.
3. More effective cutting fluid action.

9.7.3 Advancements in Grinding Wheel: Development of Monolayered

Super-Abrasive Wheels
Substantial developments have taken place in grinding wheels especially in two directions:
1. Improvement in performance of conventional grinding wheels (alumina and silicon carbide) by some
simple geometrical modifications (this has been discussed under special techniques in grinding).

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 Grinding: Fast Machining and Finishing by Bonded Abrasives 367

2. Development of new type of abrasive wheels for effective, efficient and economic grinding for both
bulk material and finishing of conventional as well as exotic work materials.
Through mid-1950s, aluminium oxide and silicon carbide abrasives dominated most application though
natural diamond had been in use for grinding very hard non-ferrous material, particularly glass and ceramics,
over a very long period (since about 1890 for saws and since about 1940 for cutting tools). However, in late
1950s synthetic diamond was made available commercially by the high-pressure–high-temperature technol-
ogy. Following the same route a new super hard material – cubic boron nitride (cBN) – also came into being
in 1969. Both man-made diamond and cBN of extra ordinary hardness and durability have been widely used
by the grinding industry for specific abrasive machining. Characteristic properties[21] of both conventional
abrasives and super-abrasives are listed in Table 9.2.

Table 9.2 Comparative properties of the abrasives used in grinding

Abrasive
Super-abrasive Conventional
Properties
Diamond Cubic boron Aluminium Silicon
nitride oxide carbides
Chemical composition Carbon B4N3 Al2O3 SiC

Density (gm/cm3) 3.52 3.48 3.92 3.21

Knoop hardness HK (GPa) 60−110 40−70 21 24

Thermal conductivity at 298 K (W/cm K) 20 13 0.35 3.5
Coefficient of thermal expansion (10−6 4.8 4.6 8.6 4.5
mm/mm/°C)
Threshold temperature for degradation 800 1400 1750 1500
(ambient conditions) (°C)

9.7.3.1 Diamond Super-Abrasive Wheel

Diamond is well known for its extraordinary hardness, excellent thermal conductivity and low coefficient
of friction. Synthetic diamond is produced[22] by subjecting graphite to high temperature at extremely high
pressure in presence of catalyst/solvent such as nickel. The ability to control strength and friability of diamond
by controlling the defect structure, shape and surface morphology during manufacture has increased its use
in industry.
The various types of synthetic diamond grits available are broadly grouped into two categories mainly
monocrystalline and polycrystalline grits. Monocrystalline grits comprising single crystal of high toughness
and low friability are preferably used when large grit force is expected. Polycrystalline grits usually consisting
of an agglomerate of smaller crystal undergo micro fragmentation during use and maintain free cutting action
of the wheel.[22]

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 368 Machining and Machine Tools

Diamond wheels find extensive use in grinding a wide range of materials including cemented carbides
and non-metals such as stone, concrete, ceramics plasma spray coating and glass. Carbide tool parts and
drills are sharpened by diamond wheel. The use of diamond abrasives in cut-off operation is the basis for
a variety of precision grinding applications. Diamond grinding wheels are used to grind the glass used in
optics. A variety of low and high density ceramics used in magnet, capacitor, spark plug and similar appli-
cation are ground with diamond grinding wheels. Electric ceramic such as silicon wafers, magnetic heads,
optical fibres and sensors are also ground to tight tolerances and fine surface finish with diamond grinding
wheel. Recent trend in diamond grinding technology is ductile regime grinding of ceramic wherein the grit
penetration to the work material is limited to a depth less than that at which fracture is initiated. This new
technology ensures not only manufacture of ceramic component with precise geometry and surface finish
but also very low level surface and sub-surface damage comparable with that only achieved by post-grinding
abrasive fine polishing.
However, diamond is not absolutely free of limitation. At temperature 500−700°C diamond begins to
react with oxygen resulting in loss of diamond. Diamond also shows sign of graphitization at temperature
exceeding 1500°C under vacuum but the process is accelerated at a lower temperature (800°C) in presence
of oxygen and metal solvent/catalyst inclusions. Diamonds suffers rapid wears and chemical dissolution when
used for machining and grinding steel. Therefore, it is not recommended as an abrasive against ferrous group
of materials.

9.7.3.2 cBN Super-Abrasive Wheels

Cubic boron nitride (cBN), a man-made product, is known to be the second hardest material next to
diamond. It is also in cubic structure. In its hexagonal structure, boron nitride is similar to graphite. Like
diamond, cBN can readily be synthesized by direct conversion of HBN to cBN. Similarly, the physical
properties of cBN can be precisely tailored by control of the nucleation and growth process. Presently, cBN
grits are available as monocrystalline type with medium strength and blocky monocrystals with much higher
strength. The advent of cBN with microcrystalline structure has been considered a major breakthrough in
the field of cBN grinding technology.[22] Unlike monocrystalline cBN grits, it does not have well-defined
cleavage planes. The structure consists of micron-size single crystals bonded together by high pressure–high
temperature technique resulting in a product which breaks down in micron level during grinding and offers
much higher toughness than that provided by monocrystalline cBN grits. These microcrystalline grits are
thermally stable to 1200°C, nearly 200°C above the temperature at which monocrystalline cBN grits starts
to degrade.
Loss of cBN by thermal treatment in comparison to that of diamond is not significant. This is because
the reaction product is boron oxide which forms a protective layer around cBN crystals preventing further
degradation. Moreover, cBN has not been seen to transform to the hexagonal form at upto 1400°C in air.
Also, unlike diamond, cBN is not very reactive with iron and, therefore, is highly wear resistant in grinding
ferrous metals.
cBN wheels are used in precision production grinding of wide variety of ferrous and high nickel alloys.
Because of their better wear resistance and thermal shock resistance, cBN grits retain their cutting point
sharpness longer than aluminium oxide abrasive. Higher hardness and better thermal conductivity of
cBN abrasives provide improved surface integrity (such as low surface residual stress, better fatigue life).
cBN wheels are used in automotive, aerospace, cutting tool production, tool maintenance and many other
applications.

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 Grinding: Fast Machining and Finishing by Bonded Abrasives 369

Creep feed grinding of deep groves is one of the areas where cBN wheel has already established its
supremacy over aluminium oxide wheels. Creep feed grinding exhibits clear advantage over conventional
grinding for lesser chip load per grit resulting in slower grit wear and better surface finish. This in turn
provides better accuracy and finish in form grinding. cBN exhibits much better physical and ther-
mal properties at higher temperature than aluminium oxide. Therefore, cBN can withstand the higher
temperature arising out of higher cutting speed and wide job wheel contact length. Hence, the basic
advantages of high production creep feed grinding can be derived from cBN wheel. It is already reported
that by raising the wheel speed, performance of cBN can be improved further in creep feed grinding of
deep grooves.
Recent trend in cBN grinding technology is HEDG of both hardened and unhardened steels replacing
machining techniques such as milling or broaching. HEDG employs higher wheel peripheral speed. It also
employs almost same depth of cut as is practiced in creep feed grinding. However, the higher peripheral speed
permits the use of workpiece speed much higher than that used in creep feed grinding. Thus, the MRR can
be enhanced remarkably without increasing the specific grit force which has an overriding influence on the
grit wear. The chemical affinity of cBN to water has a major drawback with respect to wet grinding. Water
vapour dissolves the boron oxide layer and the crystal surface is then exposed to hydrolysis with the formation
of boric acid and ammonia.

9.7.3.3 Bonds for Super-Abrasive Wheels

Three bond systems are typically used in making super-abrasive wheels with composite structure:
1. Resin bond: Grinding wheels with resin bond offer[22] good resilience and vibration absorbing char-
acteristics, which reduces chatter at the grinding zone. Wheels with resin bond are easy to dress and
true and are preferred for a wide range of applications. However, the physical adhesion between the
super-abrasive grits and the resin bond is not adequate in many grinding applications leading to
premature grit dislodgement. A film of nickel deposited on the abrasive grit produces a rough tex-
tured surface and enhances mechanical anchorage of the abrasive crystal in the resin matrix. In dry
grinding application the grits are coated with a film of copper, so that highly conducting films can
take away the heat rather quickly, preventing overheating and partial oxidation or graphitization of
diamond during grinding.
2. Vitrified bond: Vitrified or ceramic bonded wheels provide[23] high bonding strength and enable
to vary basic strength and chip clearance characteristics by altering the porosity and grit density. In
addition, the composition of the bonding matrix results in a grinding wheel that is easily conditioned
by the CNC equipment to maintain uniform performance, consistent dimensional control and sur-
face finish. Chemical bonding is achieved between cBN grits and vitreous bonds, which consists of
some alkaline components. At a high processing temperature, these alkaline components present in
the bonding agent may attack cBN strongly leading to its degradation. To prevent this, cBN grits are
coated with a thin film of titanium which acts like a chemical bridge between the cBN grit and the
ceramic bonding matrix.
3. Metal bond: Metal is the toughest bonding material used in the manufacture of super-abrasive
wheels. This toughness makes these wheels very effective in those applications where form accuracy
and large stock removal are desired. However, the MRR is lower than that possible in other bonding
systems. In general metal bonded super-abrasive wheels exhibit[23]

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 370 Machining and Machine Tools

(a) Toughness and high abrasive resistance.

(b) Excellent interrupted grinding characteristics.
(c) Very long life.
(d) Higher power requirements.
(e) Excellent form holding ability.
Conventional metal bonds cannot provide chemical bonding with the abrasive grits. Retention of
grits throughout their service life depends on effective mechanical interlocking with the metal binder.
Such type of mechanical anchorage is not very effective when strong, perfect abrasive crystals with
well-developed and smooth surfaces are used in the grinding wheel.
In order to enhance bonding, a film of suitable metal is deposited on the abrasive grits.[23] This metal film
on one hand establishes a chemical bond with the abrasive grit and on the other hand establishes metallurgical
bond with the conventional metal matrix.

9.7.3.4 Super-Abrasive Wheel with Monolayer Configuration

The construction of diamond and cBN wheels was earlier same as that of conventional Al2O3 wheel. The
bond material was resin, vitrified and metal bonds. However, such super-abrasive wheels need truing, dress-
ing and grit conditioning before using for actual grinding and these pre-grinding preparation works are quite
complex unlike those needed for conventional abrasive wheels.

Galvanically Bonded Monolayer Super-Abrasive Wheel

The remarkable properties of super-abrasives, such as high wear resistance and excellent cutting edge
stability, are being used creatively to manufacture and use super-abrasive wheels of different geometries with
just a single layer of diamond or cBN grits bonded to a metal substrate by a galvanic metal layer which covers
50−70% of the grit height.[24]
A monolayered super-abrasive grinding wheel is generally made by fixing the abrasive grits in a single
layer but at suitable density on the desired surface of a steel substrate. Figure 9.31 shows a typical setup for
manufacturing galvanically bonded super-abrasive wheels. A steel core is masked where abrasive grits are not
required. The part is immersed into a bed of super-abrasives held in a container made of wire mesh which
is suspended within a nickel plating solution. When the power supply is turned ‘on’, nickel builds up on a
steel-shank (cathode) between the super-abrasive grits. The first step is called ‘tack down to steel substrate’.
After a single layer is tacked down, the loose grits are shaken out and then again the part is put into an over
plating tank to build the nickel until approximately 50−70% of the grit height is covered from their bottom
by the nickel bond. The important process parameters – bath composition, temperature, current density
and the deposition time need – to be precisely controlled in order to produce a homogeneous galvanic layer
irrespective of blank geometry.
The major advantages of galvanically bonded monolayer super-abrasive wheel over other types of super-
abrasive wheels are as follows:
1. The fabrication process is less expensive because no mould or die is required.
2. Low plating temperatures and hence less metallurgical change and thermal distortion of the
blank.
3. More flexibility is there in fabrication process for making wheel of different sizes and shapes.

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 Grinding: Fast Machining and Finishing by Bonded Abrasives 371

Power supply

Masked shank

Wire meshed container

Anode Steel core (cathode)
Diamond or cBN

Ni solution

Figure 9.31 Electroplating system.

4. Normally these tools are ready for use after fabrication, and pre-grinding wheel preparation is seldom
needed.
5. Galvanically bonded super-abrasive grits have large grit exposure in comparison to resin, metal and
vitrified bonded wheels.
The galvanic bonded super-abrasive wheels show better performance in terms of free cutting action in
comparison to resin or metal bonded wheels but also suffer from some limitation such as:
1. Super-abrasive grits are mechanically anchored to the metal substrate requiring nearly 60−70% grit
coverage.
2. Occasional outgrowth of Ni bond in the space between the grits may reduce, even suppress, the grit
exposure.
3. Relatively high bond level may cause intensive bond–chip or bond–work interactions causing build-
up of force.
4. Grit distribution on the wheel surface is more dense and non-uniform.
5. MRR is limited due to small chip pocket.
6. Overall tool life is limited because of low crystal exposure.
Figure 9.32(a) shows the various interactions at the workpiece–grinding wheel interface for a galvanically
bonded cBN wheel. These interactions are as follows:
1. Grit–workpiece interaction: This leads to chip formation and material removal.
2. Chip–bond interaction: This may occur when the bond level is too high, that is, grit protrusion is
so small that free movement of chip is somewhat retarded. Under such condition, a normal force also
exists at the chip–bond interface and chip is forced to rub over the bond surface requiring additional
energy.
3. Chip–work interaction: This will happen when the length of the deformed chip is quite large in
comparison to inter-grit space (in the case of high grit concentration). Under this condition, the chip
gets folded and starts rubbing the workpiece surface.
4. Bond–workpiece interaction: This interaction may take place when the bond surface is very close to
level of the grit tip. This may happen in a galvanically bonded wheel when the bond assumes a convex
contour because of non-uniform growth of Ni layer resulting in minimum bond level around the grit

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 372 Machining and Machine Tools

Galvanic bond Super-abrasive wheel Super-abrasive wheel

Brazed bond
cBN grit cBN grit
Wheel Wheel
rotation rotation
d d

Workpiece Vw Workpiece Vw

(a) Galvanically bonded (b) Bonded by brazing

Figure 9.32 Schematic representation of basic difference between brazed wheel

and galvanically bonded wheel.[21]

and maximum level at a point intermediate between the adjacent grits. The bond–work interaction
even in some discrete spots on the grinding wheel surface can raise the force level to a large extent.

Monolayer Metal Bonded cBN Wheel by Precision Brazing

Advent of new generation cBN-like microcrystalline variety characterized by extraordinary toughness and
high temperature stability has already opened up new opportunities for machining of cast irons, and alloy
steels, which are softer than HSS at high MRR. However, lack of sufficient space for accommodation of large
chips is a major problem in grinding those materials with a commercial galvanically bonded cBN wheel. The
principal tool wear mechanism has been found to be grit pull out resulting from wheel loading. The mean
protrusion of the active grit above the bond and mean spacing of the active grit cutting in the same path play
important roles. If the apparent rate of chip formation is higher compared to the chip storage space avail-
able, the chip will interfere with the grinding process causing an increase in grinding forces due to excessive
rubbing between the trapped chip and the work. The volume of chips to be accommodated per unit time
corresponds to the MRR.
It can be realized that more effective, efficient and durable functioning of monolayer cBN wheels essen-
tially require wider but uniform grit spacing and high grit protrusion [i.e., low bond coverage, Fig. 9.32(b)].
It is imperative that such a low bond coverage has to provide a strong adhesion for holding the grits. A pre-
cisely controlled special brazing technique using specially formulated brazing alloy suitable for enhancing
chemical bond with cBN grit[21] may fulfil those objectives in large extent. The essential requirements of an
effective brazing alloy are as follows:
1. Wetting of cBN grit with brazing alloy: The braze alloy must possess good wetting characteristics
in its liquid state so that after solidification it can form a strong envelope around the cBN grits.
2. Mechanical strength: The brazing alloy holding the abrasive grit must be sufficiently strong to with-
stand the grinding forces.
3. Ductility of the braze material: The braze alloy must be sufficiently ductile to minimize the shear
stress at the brazed joint due to differential thermal expansion and contraction between the cBN grits
and the enveloping bond.
4. Wear resistance: The brazed layer must be sufficiently wear-resistant in order to prevent rapid wear
of the bond leading to shortage of mechanical support to the working cBN grit.

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 Grinding: Fast Machining and Finishing by Bonded Abrasives 373

9.8 Some Special Techniques for Improving Grinding Performance

9.8.1 Need for Special Techniques in Grinding
Grinding is inherently characterized by very high localized heating due to high speed and very high specific
energy for adverse geometrical condition of the cutting edges of the abrasive grits. Quick plastic deformation and
attritious wear of the grits and chip-clogging in the intergranular spaces raise the grinding temperature further.
Such high temperature not only limits the wheel life but also reduces MRR and affects the job quality by causing
thermal damages and inducing micro-cracks and tensile residual stresses. These problems become more acute
while grinding the exotic materials of higher strength, toughness and hardness. Usually this high temperature is
controlled by profuse cooling. The cutting fluid is used in grinding mainly for cooling. However, such flood and
jet cooling are not as effective as expected. With the advent of the modern grinding processes like creep feed grind-
ing, ultra-high-speed grinding, etc. and exotic materials and due to demand of precision grinding, the control of
grinding temperature and increase in effectiveness and efficiency of cooling have become extremely essential.
A number of simple techniques and new technologies have recently been developed to reduce this problem.
Appropriate selection and the method of application of grinding fluid may improve grindability substantially.
While trying for more effective cooling in grinding, it is also necessary to impart enough lubricity[25] to the
cutting fluid for reducing grinding forces, wheel wear and surface roughness (SR).
Necessity of more effective cooling and simultaneously sufficient lubrication evolved some efficient ways
of cutting fluid application in grinding. Some of them are:
1. Neat oil: use of neat oil with suitable additives, instead of soluble oil, not only helps in reducing
friction and forces but also improves the cooling effect by having high film boiling point.
2. Z-Z cooling: The fluid is drawn at the bore and thrown all through the periphery by centrifugal force
and thus ensures wetting of the grinding zone.
3. Jet infusion technique: Here the coolant is projected at the grinding zone at a high pressure (around
100 bar) to penetrate the stiff air boundary layer.
4. Mist cooling: Here the atomized oil particles in a high velocity stream of compressed air are pro-
jected at the grinding zone.
The grinding technology is very rapidly advancing due to the following reasons:
1. Advent of new high productive grinding processes.
2. Widening of ranges of grinding applications.
3. Demand for high product quality.
Along with such developments, the problems posed by high grinding forces and specific energy requirement,
wide wheel–job contact, wheel loading, high cutting temperature and rapid wheel wear have also become more
acute. The necessity of reducing these problems has led to development of some special techniques in grinding.

9.8.2 Some Special Techniques for Reducing Grinding Problems

Several useful techniques have been and are still being developed for improving grinding ability and efficiency.
These techniques include the following:
1. Use of the scraperboard and coating: The efficiency of flood cooling is very small (3−5%) due to
prevention of actual contact of the coolant with the wheel by the thin but stiff layer of the air that

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 374 Machining and Machine Tools

Air film Scraper

board

(a) (b)

Figure 9.33 Effective cooling by surface coating and using scraper board.

prevails at the grinding surface, by surface tension and viscous drag. The cooling efficiency is sub-
stantially increased[26] simply by coating the side surfaces by silicon rubber and placing a card board
against the wheel surface just before the coolant jet to prevent air suction and deviate the remaining
air-layer, respectively, as shown in Fig. 9.33.
2. Dynamic grinding: Dynamic and interrupted grinding improves grinding performance through
more effective grinding fluid action, favourable chip formation and providing enough space for chip
accumulation. This helps in overcoming wheel loading and reducing temperature, particularly in
stock removal grinding and high finish grinding, respectively. Some of the effective dynamic grinding
techniques are as follows (Fig. 9.34).
(a) Relative oscillation of the job in the feed direction at proper frequency and amplitude.
(b) Equispaced straight or helical grooves on the wheel periphery which provides ample spaces for
both the grinding fluid and the chips.[27]
(c) Randomly distributed number of through axial holes, which keep on opening and providing
axial grooves on the wheel periphery after dressing.[28]

(a) (b)

Softer
matrix

(c) (d) (e)

Figure 9.34 Dynamic and interrupted grinding: (a) Micro-oscillation; (b) peripheral
grooves; (c) honey comb; (d) facial grooves; (e) dalmation wheel.

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 Grinding: Fast Machining and Finishing by Bonded Abrasives 375

(d) Vane-like shallow grooves on the faces of the disc-type wheels help the fluid to reach the grind-
ing zone particularly in constricted zones like shoulders, corners, etc.[29]
(e) Dalmation type hybrid vitrified bonded wheel having cluster of grits in softer bond distributed
in harder matrix; the smaller softer bonds wear faster and provide shallow packets for the fluid
and the chips.[28]
(f ) Ultrasonic vibration assisted grinding where the job is deliberately vibrated[28] at very small
amplitude but at ultrasonic frequency in suitable direction. This makes cutting fluid action
more effective, reduces grinding forces and improves surface finish.
3. Ultrasonic cleaning of grinding wheel surfaces: Wheel loading by clogging in the inter-grit spaces
of the wheel severely hampers grindability. This problem can be substantially reduced[5] by on-line
ultrasonic cleaning as shown in Fig. 9.35.
4. Z-Z Cooling: In this process, the grinding fluid enters through axial hole and is thrown out uni-
formly as fine droplets through the pores by centrifugal force. This often improves the fluid action
significantly.[5]
5. Electrochemical grinding: In this process, where feasible, metal gets removed 10 − 15 times faster
than conventional mechanical grinding and irrespective of strength, hardness, and toughness of the
work material mainly by electrochemical dissolution process. Here the cutting forces, temperature
and hence surface defects and wheel wear are drastically reduced. The only limitation is that the tool
and work need to be electrically conductive.[13] The basic principle of electrochemical grinding is
schematically shown in Fig. 9.36.
6. Cryogenically cooled grinding: In this remarkably successful process[12] the grinding zone tempera-
ture and hence its detrimental effects are substantially reduced by cooling using a thin but high-speed
jet of liquid nitrogen through the specially designed nozzle located at proper standoff distance and
angle. The marked benefits reportedly[6] include significant reduction in wheel loading, grinding
forces and specific energy, burning and oxidation, residual stresses (tensile) and surface cracking as
well as wheel wear mainly through favourable chip removal mode, retention of sharpness of the grits
and hardness of the work surface, drastic cooling and protection of the nascent finished surface by

Nozzle

Ultrasonic horn

Scraper

Grinding wheel

Figure 9.35 Ultrasonic cleaning of wheel surface.

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 376 Machining and Machine Tools

Non-conductive abrasives
Passive layer
Conductive Work
bond Electrolyte
− +

1
4
1
3
3
4
2

(a) Plunge grinding (b) Peripheral grinding

1 Wheel 3 Nozzle
2 Work 4 Electrolyte

Figure 9.36 Electro-chemical grinding process.

inert atmosphere. This highly efficient technique is very useful for creep feed and fast feed grind-
ing and where surface integrities are very critical. Besides the technological benefits, such cryogenic
grinding (and also machining) provides environmental friendliness.
7. Dual axis grinding: Finish grinding of free form contours (such as die cavities) after being preshaped
by copy or CNC milling is difficult with the conventional spherical wheels because the surface veloc-
ity widely varies from 0 to maximum for wheel rotation about single axis. This needs careful tilting
of wheel axis and requires time. A novel technique, namely dual axis grinding, has been developed
where the truncated spherical grinding wheel of small diameter is rotated simultaneously about two
orthogonal axes as shown in Fig. 9.37 to attain reasonable high surface speed throughout the surface.
This has not only enhanced the productivity but also the product quality.
8. Multi-sensor based on-line condition monitoring (TCM) and adaptive control in grinding: The
efficiency of any grinding process depends not only upon the work–tool pair, grinding fluid applica-
tion and selection of grinding parameters being adapted even in CNC grinding machine but also on
the maintenance of those parameters to their desired levels and self-adjustment of those parameters
according to the instantaneous change(s) in force, temperature, vibration, dimensional errors, etc.
This requires adaptive control of the speed, feed, depth of cut and environment, which not only
provide favourable grinding performance but also high overall economy.

NV
A NH q

R B
V = πd (NH sinq ± N V cosq )
R

Figure 9.37 Dual axes grinding.

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 Grinding: Fast Machining and Finishing by Bonded Abrasives 377

9.9 Super-Finishing Processes

9.9.1 Purpose and Order of Super-Finishing
The preformed blanks essentially need machining to attain the desired dimensional and form accuracy and
surface finish for the machined components to render desirably good performance and longer service life.
It is already mentioned that grinding is required after machining to improve the accuracy and finish further
through reduction or elimination of some defects like ovality, out-of-roundness and lack of straightness, flat-
ness, cylindricity, coaxiality, deviation from ideal or stipulated 2-D and 3-D contours and by reduction of SR
as far as possible. Therefore, grinding becomes inevitable for those components which are as such difficult to
machine for excessive strength and hardness or hardened after machining for dimensional stability and wear
resistance under rubbing action. Along with product quality, productivity or MRR also need to be kept in
mind. This compels for, to some extent, compromise. Besides this, conventional grinding process has some
inherent limitations. Some engineering components need to be super-finished in respect of both dimensional
accuracy and surface finish for their expected and desired performance.
Good surface finish not only provides good running performance of mating parts like bearings, pins,
bushes, shafts, etc. and aesthetic aspects but also enhances fatigue strength, wear resistance and corrosion
resistance as well as reduces frictional losses, which are essential for some critical components like hydraulic
piston-cylinder, bore of engine block, surface plates, cutting tools and several other precision components.
The need of such ultra-finishing or super-finishing generally cannot be fulfilled by classical grinding processes.
Here, development and use of suitable super-finishing methods are essential. A number of such methods are
available and getting used regularly in the industry. Among those methods, honing and lapping are more con-
cerned with dimensional and form accuracy rather than surface finish. For comparison, the orders of surface
finish (roughness) achievable by the different processes are given in Table 9.3. Micro – and super-finishing
processes also include polishing, buffing, burnishing and electrical or magnetic field assisted ultra-finishing.

Table 9.3 Surface roughness achievable by different processes

Process Surface roughness (lm)

Turning (machining) 1.25−12.50
Grinding 1.0−5.00
Lapping 0.10−0.25
Honing 0.15−1.50
Super-finishing (average) 0.01−0.25

9.9.2 Micro- and Super-Finishing Methods: Characteristics

and Applications
9.9.2.1 Lapping
This process is also an abrasive machining process like grinding but in lapping, loose abrasives are held by
a carrier fluid, called vehicle and pressed against the work surface by a solid block called lap as indicated in
Fig. 9.38. The characteristic features of lapping process [30] are:

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 378 Machining and Machine Tools

LAP

Vehicle Abrasive particle

Workpiece

Figure 9.38 Scheme of lapping process.

1. The abrasives move and work in between the work surface and the lap.
2. The lap and the grits are moved randomly without repeating the same paths.
3. Lap is generally made of grey cast iron and also often brass, copper, soft steels and even some hard
wood. Hardened steel and glass are also occasionally employed as the lap material.
4. Alumina, SiC, Cr2O3, B4C3 and often diamond grits are preferably used depending upon the work
material and the order of finish desired.
5. Machine oil and grease are used as the carrier fluid or vehicle.
The functioning of lapping and quality of the product are usually governed by
1. Average normal pressure on the grits.
2. Material, size and shape of the abrasive grits.
3. Concentration of abrasives.
4. Magnitude and pattern of speed and direction of motion of the abrasives, called lapping speed.
Lapping may be done manually using loose abrasives in vehicle or mechanically in lapping machines using
loose or bonded abrasives. Flat and external and internal cylindrical surfaces can be manually lapped for
dimensional and surface finishing.
While finishing a flat surface of any solid block by manual lapping, the block’s surface is carefully and flatly
rubbed on an accurately finished flat surface, like surface plate, with loose abrasives in oil or grease in between
the workpiece and the plate, preferably made of fine grained grey cast iron. External cylindrical surfaces
are lapped by ring or sleeve-type laps with minutely variable inner diameter as indicated in Fig. 9.39(a). In
lapping of internal cylindrical surfaces or bores, the road-shaped lap or mandil of high accuracy is oscillated
and reciprocated through the sleeve-type jobs as shown in Fig. 9.39(b).
Finishing of identical products in batch production is done in lapping machines having suitable holding
fixtures or devices and number of synchronized or random motions with adjustable features. Figure 9.40
schematically shows how the end flat faces of a number of identical bushes are lapped in a machine. Similarly,
Fig. 9.41 visualizes the method of machine lapping of rollers in batch. Here, the lap in the form of a cast iron
disc works with abrasives in oil layer. Often bonded abrasive discs are also employed.
Centreless roll lapping uses two cast iron rolls: one serves as the lapping roller and the other disc of half
diameter functions as the regulating roller. Abrasive compound is applied to the rolls rotating in the same direc-
tion. The single slender jobs, one at a time, are fed across the rolls. Such machine lapping process is generally
employed for products like plug gauges, measuring wires, straight and taper cylindrical components.
Centreless lapping is carried out with the same principle as that of centreless grinding. The bonded
abrasive lapping wheel as well as the regulating wheel is wider than those used in centreless grinding. This

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 Grinding: Fast Machining and Finishing by Bonded Abrasives 379

Lapping ring
Job

Workpiece
(a)

Abrasives inside

Lap or mandril Workpiece

(b)

Figure 9.39 Manual lapping of cylindrical surface: Lapping (a) external cylindrical surface and
(b) internal cylindrical surface.

Blank carrier
Abrasives in grease

Upper lap

Workpieces
Lower support

Figure 9.40 Machine lapping of bushes (flat faces).

technique is used to produce high roundness accuracy and fine finish; the workpiece requires multi-pass lap-
ping each with progressively finer lapping wheel. This is a high production operation and suitable for small
amount of rectification on shape or workpiece. Therefore, parts are to be pre-ground to obtain substantial
straightness and roundness. The process finds use in lapping piston rings, shafts and bearing races.
The major technological parameters that govern MRR (Q) and surface roughness SR (R) in lapping
include:
1. Unit pressure, p.
2. Abrasive or grain size.
3. Abrasive concentration, Ca (%).
4. Speed of lapping.

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 380 Machining and Machine Tools

Upper lap
Rollers
Roller-retaining ring

Lower lap

Rollers

Figure 9.41 Machine lapping of identical rollers.

Figure 9.42 schematically shows the role of variation of unit pressure, p and abrasive concentration on
MRR (Q) and SR in lapping. Figure 9.43 indicates the trend of change in MRR and R in lapping due to varia-
tion in the unit pressure, p. Therefore, the abrasive concentration and unit pressure need to be judiciously
selected to get the desired benefits in lapping.
The roughness of the surface, linear loss (LS) of job dimension and the rate of material removal while
correcting the inaccuracy and defects on the surface by lapping are also affected by size of the abrasives and
length of time of lapping as indicated in Fig. 9.44. The grain size and lapping time are selected depending
upon the requirement.
Gradual decrease in aspirity heights or irregularities and sharpness of the grits with progress of lapping
results in decrease in both MRR and SR. The mechanism of material removal and surface finishing[31] need
to be known for proper use of lapping.
MRR, Q

Q max

p4
p1 p2 p3
Ca (opt.)
Abrasive concentration, Ca (%)

Figure 9.42 Role of variation in abrasive concentration on MRR in lapping.

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 Grinding: Fast Machining and Finishing by Bonded Abrasives 381

Q maxX

MRR (Q)
SR (R)
popt.

Opt. range of p for R min

Unit pressure, p

Figure 9.43 Effect of increase in unit pressure on MRR and SR in lapping.

Q max LS
Q

R
MRR (Q)

Q
SR (R)

Preferred range of R R

Size of abrasives Lapping duration

Figure 9.44 Role of variation in grain size and time of lapping on MRR, linear loss and surface
roughness.

9.9.2.2 Honing
The finishing process, honing, is done after precision, machining and classical grinding mostly for internal
cylindrical surfaces and targeting mainly correction of errors: eccentricity, taper, out-of-roundness, barrel
shape, etc. Surface finishing is also a target. In internal honing of bores, a number of bonded abrasive sticks
held equispaced on a honing tool are axially reciprocated and rotated in one direction. Infeed (or out-
feed) is given by slight radial expansion of the bonded sticks. The honing tool is schematically shown in
Fig. 9.45.[32]
The honing stones are held against the work surface with controlled light pressure. The honing head is not
separately guided; instead floats in the hole are guided by the whole surface. Often an oscillating motion is
additionally provided along with the reciprocating motion. Such vibration honing provides better finish with
lesser glazing.
The honing stones are given a complex motion so as to prevent every single grit from repeating its path
over the work surface. The critical process parameters are:
1. Rotation speed.
2. Oscillation speed.
3. Length and position of the stroke.
4. Honing stick pressure.
With conventional abrasive honing stick, several strokes are necessary to obtain the desired finish on the
workpiece. However, with introduction of high performance diamond and cBN grits it is now possible to

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 382 Machining and Machine Tools

Universal joint

Spring for
actuating the
expanding cones

Universal joint

Body

Cones for expanding

the sticks
Holders with
abrasive sticks

Figure 9.45 Honing tool.

perform the honing operation in only a few complete strokes. Advent of precisely engineered microcrystalline
cBN grit has enhanced the capability further. Honing stick with microcrystalline cBN grit can maintain sharp
cutting condition with consistent results over long duration.
Super-abrasive honing stick with monolayer configuration (Fig. 9.46), where a layer of cBN grits is
attached to stick by a galvanically deposited metal layer, is typically found in single stroke honing application.
Honing is essentially and widely employed for finishing both the form and surface of the bores of IC engine
blocks, piston and cylinder of hydraulic motors, etc. The range of job diameter, that may be honed, is around
3 mm to even 1000 mm. The major limitations of honing are inability to improve straightness of holes and
work on tough non-ferrous metals due to glazing and loading of the projected abrasives.

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 Grinding: Fast Machining and Finishing by Bonded Abrasives 383

Super-abrasive grains Galvanic bond

Figure 9.46 Monolayered super-abrasive honing surface.

The important parameters that affect MRR and SR (R) are:

1. Unit pressure, p.
2. Peripheral honing speed (cutting velocity), Vc .
3. Honing time, T.
The variation of MRR (Q) and R with unit pressure is shown in Fig. 9.47. It is evident from the graph that
the unit pressure should be selected so as to get minimum SR with highest possible MRR.

R
MRR (Q)
SR (R )

p′ p (kg/cm2)

Figure 9.47 Effect of honing pressure on MRR and surface finish.

Figure 9.48(a) shows that an increase of peripheral honing speed leads to enhancement of MRR
and decrease in SR. Figure 9.48(b) shows how with honing time T, MRR decreases, SR decreases and
after attaining a minimum value again rises. The selection of honing time depends very much on the
permissible SR.

Favourable honing time

Q
MRR (Q )
MRR (Q)

R R
SR (R)
SR (R)

R min
Q

Vp, m/min Tp, min

(a) (b)

Figure 9.48 Role of variation of peripheral speed and duration of honing on MRR and R in honning.
(a) Effect of peripheral speed, Vp and (b) effect of honing time, Th.

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 384 Machining and Machine Tools

9.9.2.3 Super-Finishing
Figure 9.49(a) illustrates super-finishing end-face of a cylindrical workpiece. In this both feeding and oscillation
of the super-finishing stone are given in the radial direction. Figure 9.49(b) shows the super-finishing operation
in plunge mode. In this case, the abrasive stone covers the section of the workpiece requiring super-finish. The
abrasive stone is slowly fed in radial direction while its oscillation is imparted in the axial direction.
Super-finishing can be effectively done on a stationary workpiece as shown in Fig. 9.50. In this, the abra-
sive stones are held in a disc which oscillates and rotates about the axis of the workpiece. Figure 9.51 shows
that internal cylindrical surfaces can also be super-finished by axially oscillating and reciprocating the stones
on a rotating workpiece.

Vf
V0

Vw Vf
Vw

V0

(a) (b)

Figure 9.49 Schematic of super-finishing in radial plunge mode. (a) End face in radial mode
and (b) cylindrical surface in plunge mode.

Abrasive tool
rotation Abrasive tool
oscillation

Workpiece

Figure 9.50 Abrasive tool rotating and oscillating about a stationary workpiece.

Abrasive tool Abrasive tool

oscillation reciprocation

Workpiece

Figure 9.51 Super-finishing of internal surface.

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 Grinding: Fast Machining and Finishing by Bonded Abrasives 385

9.9.2.4 Burnishing
The burnishing process consists of pressing hardened steel rolls or balls into the surface of the workpiece and
imparting a feed motion to the same. Ball burnishing of a cylindrical surface is illustrated in Fig. 9.52. During
burnishing, considerable residual compressive stress is induced in the surface of the workpiece and thereby
fatigue strength and wear resistance of the surface layer increase.

Figure 9.52 Scheme of ball burnishing.

9.9.2.5 Polishing
Many engineering products as well as household articles are polished mainly for
1. Improving surface finish further.
2. Increasing resistance to rusting, corrosion, etc.
3. Reducing minute surface defects like micro-dents, micro-cracks, tensile residual stresses, etc.
4. Removal of passive layer from the surface.
5. Aesthetic purposes.
However, polishing cannot help in improving dimensional and form accuracy. Several methods of polishing
have been developed and are used depending upon the requirements:
1. Polishing by abrasive belts.
2. Tumbling.
3. Coated abrasive wheels.
4. Soft and flexible wheels made of muslin or canvas – called buffing.
5. Magnetic float polishing.
6. Magnetic field assisted polishing.
7. Electro-polishing.

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 386 Machining and Machine Tools

Magnetic Float Polishing

Magnetic float polishing (Fig. 9.53) finds use in precision polishing of ceramic balls. A magnetic fluid is used
for this purpose. The fluid is composed of water or kerosene carrying fine ferromagnetic particles along with
the abrasive grains. Ceramic balls are confined between a rotating shaft and a floating platform. Abrasive grains,
ceramic ball and the floating platform can remain in suspension under the action of magnetic force. The balls
are pressed against the rotating shaft by the float and are polished by their abrasive action. Fine polishing action
can be made possible through precise control of the force exerted by the abrasive particles on the ceramic ball.

Drive shaft

Guide ring
Magnetic fluid and
abrasive grains
Ceramic balls
(workpiece) Float
NSNSNSNSNSNS

Permanent magnets

Figure 9.53 Scheme of magnetic float polishing.

Magnetic Field Assisted Polishing

Magnetic field assisted polishing is particularly suitable for polishing of steel or ceramic roller. The process
is illustrated in Fig. 9.54. A ceramic or steel roller is mounted on a rotating spindle. Magnetic poles are
subjected to oscillation, thereby, introducing a vibratory motion to the magnetic fluid containing these mag-
netic and abrasive particles. This action causes polishing of the cylindrical roller surface. In this technique,
the MRR increases with the field strength, rotational speed of the shaft and mesh number of the abrasive.
However, the surface finish decreases with the increase of MRR.

Electro-Polishing
Electro-polishing is the reverse of electroplating. Here, the workpiece acts as anode and the material is
removed from the workpiece by electrochemical dissolution. The process is particularly suitable for polishing

Workpiece
S-pole N-pole

Magnetic fluid

Figure 9.54 Scheme of magnetic field assisted polishing.

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 Grinding: Fast Machining and Finishing by Bonded Abrasives 387

irregular surface as there is no mechanical contact between workpiece and polishing medium. The electrolyte
electrochemically etches projections on the workpiece surface at a faster rate than the rest, thus producing a
smooth surface. This process is also suitable for debarring operation.

9.10 Solved Problems

PROBLEM 1
Estimate the average uncut chip thickness for surface grinding (reciprocating, i.e., in pendulum mode) a
mild steel plate by an alumina wheel of diameter 150 mm under the following conditions:
(a) number of active grits per unit length along the wheel periphery = 20/cm
(b) grinding velocity = 50 m/s
(c) worktable feed rate = 2 m/min
(d) depth or infeed = 40 μm

Solution: Average uncut chip thickness aavg is given by

1/ 2
vw ⎛ d ⎞
aavg =
mVg ⎜⎝ Dg ⎟⎠

Given that vw = 2 m/min, Vg = 50 m/sec = 50 × 60 m/min, m = 20/cm, d = 40 μm = 0.04 mm, and

Dg = 150 mm. Therefore,
1/ 2
2 ⎛ 0.04 ⎞
aavg = ⎜ ⎟ cm = 0.0054 μm
20 × 50 × 60 ⎝ 150 ⎠

PROBLEM 2
During surface grinding of a cast iron plate at grinding velocity of 40 m/s, worktable feed of
2.5 m/min, width of cut of 12 mm and depth of cut of 40 μm, the magnitude of the tangential force
and the normal force were observed to be 200 N and 300 N, respectively. Determine the value of
specific grinding energy consumption (requirement) by the present work material under the aforesaid
grinding condition.

Solution: Given that Ft = 200 N, Vg = 40 m/s, B = 12 mm, d = 40 μm, vw = 2.5 m/min. Specific grind-
ing energy requirement Uc is given by

FtVg 200 × 40 × 60
Uc = N/mm 2
Bdvw 12 × (40/1000) × 2.5

= 2 × 200 × 1000 N/mm2

= 0.4 Nm2/m3

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 388 Machining and Machine Tools

PROBLEM 3
Determine the expected value of grinding ratio for grinding bearing steel by a 150 mm diameter alumina
wheel under the following observed conditions:
• grinding velocity = 60 m/s
• worktable feed = 2 m/min
• width of cut (width of job or width of the wheel-whichever is less) = 10 mm
• wheel wear (volume) rate = 20 mm3/min

Solution: Given that width of cut B = 10 mm; infeed d = 20 μm; table feed vw = 2 m/min and wheel
wear rate Qw = 20 mm3/min. Grinding ratio is given by

Qm Bdvw
G= =
Qw Qw

Therefore,

10 × 20 ×10 −3 × 2 ×1000
G= = 20
20

PROBLEM 4
During creep feed grinding of an HSS plate by a super-abrasive wheel of diameter 400 mm at depth of
20 mm and worktable feed of 0.10 m/min, the average uncut chip thickness was found to be close to
10 μm only. Determine approximately the number of active grits per unit length along the periphery of
that wheel.

Solution: Given table speed vw = 0.05 m/min, grinding speed Vg = 40 m/s, infeed d = 20 mm, wheel
diameter Dg = 200 mm, aavg = 0.05 μm. We have to find number of grits/cm (m). Now average uncut
chip thickness aavg is given by
1/ 2
v ⎛ d ⎞
aavg = w ⎜ ⎟
mVg ⎝ Dg ⎠
Substituting all the values we get

⎛ 0.05 ⎛ 20 ⎞ ⎞
1/ 2
0.05 × 10 −4 = ⎜ ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ ⎟ per cm
⎝ m × 40 × 60 200 ⎠
1/ 2
0.05 ⎛ 1⎞
⇒ m= ⎜ ⎟
0.05 × 10 −4 × 40 × 60 ⎝ 10 ⎠
10 × 0.3
= −2 = 12 grits/cm
10 × 24

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 Grinding: Fast Machining and Finishing by Bonded Abrasives 389

SU M M A R Y
People concerned with grinding should be essentially grinding wheel, grinding machine, speed-feed com-
aware of the basic and major aspects of grinding bination and cutting fluid application. The usual
including purposes, principles and unique character- methods of improving and maintaining grindability
istics of grinding processes, classification, configura- under both general and acute grinding requirements
tion, construction and designation of grinding wheels have been presented here. The innovations and spec-
and machines, and their various applications. All tacular progress that have taken place in grinding
these fundamental aspects, in more or less detail, have technology and applications through development
been described with lot of illustrations. of unique grinding wheels including super-abra-
The mechanisms and modes of chip formation sive wheels, grinding processes and proper selection
and the roles of the different grinding parameters and method of application of cutting fluid are also
on them have essentially been covered for the addressed for awareness and benefit of the readers.
interest and benefit of the readers and practicing Some simple but very effective and efficient special
engineers. techniques applicable in grinding have also been
Like machinability, grindability also needs to highlighted.
be improved through reduction of grinding forces The purposes, principles and the different meth-
and specific energy requirement, control of grind- ods of super-finishing including lapping and honing
ing temperature by reducing heat generation and have also been briefly described with illustrations.
application of cutting fluid and proper selection of

Multiple Choice Questions

[Answers are provided in the CD]
1. Grinding is done for (a) Rotates
(a) Surface finishing only (b) Reciprocates
(b) Dimensional accuracy (c) Oscillates
(c) Form accuracy (d) All of the above
(d) All of the above 5. Grinding is not used for finishing
2. Grinding is not employed for (a) Gear teeth profiles
(a) Surface grinding (b) Screw threads
(b) Cylindrical grinding (c) Tool and cutters
(c) Centreless grinding (d) None of the above
(d) None of the above 6. Grinding is not employed for finishing
3. Surface grinding is closely similar to (a) Flat surfaces
(a) Turning (b) External cylindrical surfaces
(b) Milling (c) Internal cylindrical surfaces
(c) Broaching (d) None of the above
(d) None of the above 7. In all grinding machines, the grinding wheel
4. Grinding wheel, while grinding operations, is mounted on their
always (a) Spindle

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 390 Machining and Machine Tools

(b) Shaft 15. cBN wheels are preferably used to grind the
(c) Axle products made of
(d) Any of the above (a) Grey cast iron
8. During grinding operation, the workpiece is (b) Mild steel
not rotated in (c) Wrought iron
(a) Cylindrical grinding machines (d) Hard steels
(b) Surface grinding (pendulum type) 16. The bond material which is not used for
machines making any grinding wheel is
(c) Centreless grinding machines (a) Vitrified
(d) Thread (screw) grinding machines (b) Concrete
9. Grinding wheels of small diameter are used in (c) Resin
case of (d) Metal
(a) Surface (flat) grinding 17. A correct way of specifying a grinding wheel
(b) External cylindrical grinding (material) is
(c) Internal cylindrical grinding (a) A-60-V-5-K
(d) External centreless grinding (b) 60-A-V-5-K
10. External centreless grinding is employed for (c) A-60-K-5-V
finishing (d) K-60-A-5-V
(a) Rod type jobs 18. Just before use, a fresh grinding wheel needs
(b) Disc type jobs (a) Balancing
(c) Plate type jobs (b) Truing
(d) Ring type jobs (c) Dressing
11. Along with the grinding wheel, a guide wheel (d) All of the above
is also essentially used in 19. The tiny chips may be formed in grinding by
(a) Surface grinding (a) Shearing
(b) Cylindrical grinding (b) Ploughing
(c) Centreless grinding (c) Rubbing
(d) All of the above (d) Blocky fracturing
12. Compared to conventional machining, grind- (e) Any of the above
ing requires more specific energy for 20. In grinding steel plates by alumina wheel, the
(a) Wider work–tool contact area ideal chip formation mode is
(b) Very low infeed (a) Shearing
(c) Unfavourable cutting edge geometry (b) Ploughing
(d) Very high cutting velocity (c) Rubbing
13. The abrasive material, other than alumina, (d) Blocky fracturing
widely used to make grinding wheels is 21. Grinding jobs of steels may produce
(a) Titanium carbide (a) Long thread like chips
(b) Silicon carbide (b) Wide leafy chips
(c) Tungsten carbide (c) Spherical chips
(d) Chromium carbide (d) All of the above
14. Carbon steel jobs are not finished by grinding 22. In surface grinding of steel plates, the chip
using thickness does not depend upon
(a) Alumina wheels (a) Wheel speed
(b) Silicon carbide wheels (b) Wheel diameter
(c) cBN wheels (c) Width of cut
(d) Diamond wheels (d) Depth of cut (infeed)

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 Grinding: Fast Machining and Finishing by Bonded Abrasives 391

23. The average rake angle at the cutting edges of (a) Grinding temperature
the small abrasive particles of grinding wheel (b) Specific energy requirement
is close to (c) Wheel-wear
(a) −90° (d) All of the above
(b) −45° 31. The correct sequence of operations is
(c) 0° (a) M → G → H
(d) +20° (b) M → H → G
24. Keeping everything same, increase in speed of (c) H → M → G
the grinding wheel will not reduce (d) H → G → M
(a) Average chip thickness where M is machining, G means grinding and
(b) Magnitude for grinding force per grit H means hardening (heat treatment).
(c) Surface roughness 32. Compared to machining, grinding provides
(d) Material removal rate (MRR) (a) More product quality and slower MRR
25. Surface finish in surface grinding cannot be (b) More product quality and faster MRR
improved by increasing (c) Lesser product quality and slower MRR
(a) Wheel speed (d) Lesser product quality and faster MRR
(b) Width of cut 33. Creep feed grinding is characterized by
(c) Depth of cut (infeed) (a) Very low wheel speed
(d) Feed rate of worktable (b) Very low depth or infeed
26. Grindability of any work material is not judged (c) Very low work-feed rate
by (d) All of the above
(a) Material removal rate (MRR) 34. Creep feed grinding is associated with
(b) Specific grinding energy requirement (a) High wheel speed
(c) Surface integrity of the ground surface (b) Large depth or infeed
(d) Wheel wear rate or grinding ratio (c) Large wheel diameter
27. During grinding, minimum heat is absorbed (d) Fast work-feed rate
by the 35. In the modern ultra-high-speed grinding, the
(a) Chips grinding velocity is taken within the range of
(b) Workpiece (blank) (a) 100−200 m/min
(c) Grinding wheel (b) 200−400 m/min
(d) Grinding fluid (c) 150−350 m/s
28. Deterioration of surface integrity in grinding (d) 500−1000 m/s
occurs mainly due to 36. In advanced grinding technology, the super-
(a) Rapid material removal abrasives refer to
(b) Large cutting forces (a) Alumina and silicon carbide
(c) High grinding temperature (b) Alumina and cubic boron nitride (cBN)
(d) Rapid wear of the wheel (c) Silicon carbide and diamond
29. Wheel-loading reduces (d) cBN and diamond
(a) Metal removal rate (MRR) 37. High-efficiency deep grinding (HEDG) is
(b) Grinding forces characterized by
(c) Grinding temperature (a) High MRR
(d) Surface roughness (b) Good surface integrity
30. Proper selection and application of cutting (c) Lesser specific energy requirement
fluid in grinding can help in reducing (d) All of the above

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 392 Machining and Machine Tools

38. Diamond (abrasive) wheel is not used to (c) Enlargement of hole diameter
grind (d) None of the above
(a) High-speed steel 42. Loose abrasives are used in
(b) Ni-based super-alloys (a) Surface grinding
(c) Ceramics (b) Honing
(d) Fibre reinforced plastics (c) Lapping
39. Uniformly brazed type monolayer super-abra- (d) All of the above
sive wheels outperform galvanically bonded 43. For lapping, the lap is made of
similar monolayer super-abrasive wheel (a) Grey cast iron
through (b) Copper
(a) Reduction of wheel loading (c) Brass
(b) Longer service life of the wheel (d) Any of the above
(c) Lesser specific energy requirement 44. Burnishing after grinding induces at the
(d) All of the above surface
40. The magnitude of forces in grinding hard alloy (a) Favourably compressive residual stress
steel like HSS can be minimized by (b) Favourably tensile residual stress
(a) Creep feed grinding (c) Unfavourably compressive residual stress
(b) Electro-chemical grinding (d) Any of the above
(c) Ultra-high-speed grinding 45. Polishing is done not for improving
(d) High-efficiency deep grinding (a) Surface finish
41. Honing is done for (b) Corrosion resistance
(a) Surface finish (c) Aesthetic feature
(b) Form accuracy (d) Dimensional accuracy

R E V I E W QU E S T I O N S
1. State the purpose of grinding in regard to that 9. Mention the materials of abrasives that are
of general machining. used for grinding. Also state the grades, rela-
2. How is material removal accomplished in tive characteristics and applications of those
grinding? different abrasives.
3. State the usual grinding requirements and 10. Name the different bond materials being used
mention their functions. in market for grinding wheels. State their
4. Classify the grinding methods with the help of characteristics and applications.
simple illustrations. 11. For a given grinding wheel, how are its grit
5. State the various industrials applications of size, grit material, strength and bond structure
grinding. designated?
6. Describe briefly the different methods and 12. How are grinding wheels specified?
applications of centreless grinding. 13. List the ranges of abrasive materials, abra-
7. List the distinguishing characteristics of grind- sive size bond materials, bond strength and
ing over conventional machining. structure (porosity) that are generally used for
8. How is construction of any grinding wheel making grinding wheels.
characterized?

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 Grinding: Fast Machining and Finishing by Bonded Abrasives 393

14. With the help of suitable sketch, illustrate the 29. What is meant by grindability and how can it
various methods of mounting (or fixing) dif- be assessed and improved?
ferent types of grinding wheels on the spindle 30. Why is specific energy requirement much
of grinding machine. higher in grinding than in conventional
15. Why grinding wheel needs balancing, truing machining?
and dressing before use? 31. Why does grinding zone become very hot?
16. How are grinding wheels dressed before use? 32. State the sources, causes and effects of high
Name different types of wheel dressers and temperature in grinding.
state the different methods of wheel dressing. 33. How can grinding temperature be reduced
17. What major factors or parameters need to be without sacrificing MRR?
controlled to govern the wheel dressing process? 34. What is meant by wheel loading in grinding?
18. Explain with the help of suitable diagrams State the possible effects of intensive wheel
the apparent similarity of grinding with plain loading and also how wheel loading can be
milling with regard to chip formation while controlled.
removing material from work surface. 35. With the help of established equations, briefly
19. What are the various possible chip formation state the role of the different grinding param-
modes observed during material removal by eters on grinding zone temperature.
grinding? Under what grinding conditions 36. Describe briefly the different methods of
those different chip formation modes occur? application of grinding fluid under different
20. With the help of simple but suitable sketches, situations.
visualize the three major or common modes of 37. How can surface finish and surface integrity of
chip formation in grinding. the product be improved in grinding?
21. What parameters or factors govern the average 38. How does grinding wheel undergo gradual
and maximum uncut chip thickness in cylin- wearing with the progress of grinding?
drical and surface grinding of ductile work 39. What is meant by grinding ratio and how can
materials and how? it be improved?
22. Derive an expression from the basic wheel–job 40. What are the possible causes and effects of
interaction to show the roles of variation of vibration in grinding? How much harmful
the relevant grinding parameters on this aver- vibration can be reduced without sacrificing
age chip thickness in surface grinding. MRR?
23. Why does increase in grinding velocity reduce 41. How can grinding almost replace machining
thickness of grinding chips? in near future?
24. Why are rotational speed and diameter of grind- 42. What are the advantages of the methods of
ing wheels preferably taken high and large? grinding with regard to productivity, product
25. With the help of a suitable sketch, visualize the quality, overall economy and applications?
two major grinding force components associ- 43. Compare creep feed grinding, high-speed
ated with surface grinding. How is specific grinding and high-efficiency grinding with the
energy required in such grinding evaluated? present conventional grinding with regard to
26. Drive an expression to depict the role of varia- ranges of the grinding parameters, productiv-
tion of the grinding process parameters on the ity and surface quality.
force per grit (at its tip). 44. State the unique characteristics of the modern
27. How are specific force and specific energy high-efficiency deep grinding (HEDG).
requirement related in grinding? 45. State the constructional features and opera-
28. What phenomena and wheel–job interactions tional characteristics of super-abrasive type
constitute the total grinding forces? grinding wheels.

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 394 Machining and Machine Tools

46. State the beneficial applications of cBN and 51. Name the methods of super-finishing includ-
diamond wheels over conventional alumina ing lapping and honing.
and silicon carbide type grinding wheels. 52. Describe briefly the process of manual lapping.
47. State the relative advantages of monolayered 53. How can MRR and surface finish be improved
super-abrasive wheels over resin and vitrified in lapping?
bonded super-abrasive wheel. 54. State the basic purposes of employing honing
48. Distinguish between galvanically bonded and and mention some of its common applications.
brazed type monolayered super-abrasive wheels 55. What are the tool–work motions involved in
w.r.t. construction, geometry and performance. honing bores of engine blocks? Explain why?
49. Name some special techniques that can 56. What factors govern performance of honing
improve grindability. Briefly describe those and how?
possible techniques and state the benefits of 57. State the purposes of polishing. Mention the
their application. different methods of polishing.
50. Briefly describe how applications of cryo-cool- 58. Describe briefly the working principle of
ant jets provide technological benefits and magnetic float polishing and magnetic field
eco-friendliness in grinding. assisted polishing.

PR O B L E M S
With Answers
1. Determine analytically the maximum possible 2. Determine the values of power requirement
uncut chip thickness for surface grinding of and specific energy requirement for surface
bearing steel (plate) by a 200 mm diameter grinding under the following conditions:
alumina wheel at speed (N) of 3000 rpm, • grinding velocity (wheel) = 60 m/s
table-feed of 3 m/min and depth of 50 μm. • worktable feed rate = 4.0 m/min
Assume number of active grits per unit length • infeed or depth =50 μm
along the periphery of the wheel. • width of cut (wheel or job) = 10.0 mm
Ans: 0.025 μm • tangential and normal forces acting at the
2. How much will be the actual length (arc) of grinding zone = 100 N and 200 N,
contact between the grinding wheel and the respectively
work surface if the wheel diameter is 100 mm 3. For surface grinding of an alloy steel plate of
and depth or infeed is 40 μm? width 6.0 mm under the following conditions,
Ans: 2.50 mm estimate the magnitude of the tangential com-
ponent of the grinding force:
• average tangential force per grit = 0.10 N
Without Answers • grinding wheel diameter = 160 mm
1. Determine the maximum uncut chip thick- • infeed or depth = 50 μm
ness for surface grinding of an HSS plate by an • average number of effective grits per
alumina wheel of diameter 200 mm, having 2 unit area of the grinding wheel surface
active grits per mm length on its periphery, at = 9 per mm2
grinding velocity of 100 m/s, worktable speed 4. By how much (%) the tangential force will
of 2.0 m/min and infeed or depth of 40 μm. increase in a surface grinding work if all the

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 Grinding: Fast Machining and Finishing by Bonded Abrasives 395

grinding velocity, worktable speed and infeed 6. What will be the average length of the chips
are doubled? in surface grinding of a mild steel plate by a
5. By how much (%) the tangential force in a 200 mm diameter grinding wheel with 100 μm
surface grinding work will decrease if the wheel- infeed?
speed (rpm) is reduced by 40% and worktable
feed (m/min) is also reduced by 50%?

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MAMT_Chapter 9.indd 396 7/21/2011 10:57:43 AM
 10 Economy and Eco-Friendliness
in Machining
Learning Objectives
The contents of this chapter would enable the readers to:
• Focus on why and how economy is taken • Realize and demonstrate how conventional
into account as a major driving force in cutting fluid application in machining and
machining. grinding causes severe environmental pollution
• Explore and visualize the role of proper selec- and health hazards.
tion and variation of the different parameters • Explore and employ techniques like cryo-
on machining economy. genic cooling to attain eco-friendliness and
• Optimize the machining process parameters other technological benefits in machining and
and tool life for deriving maximum produc- grinding.
tivity and economy.

10.1 Introduction
The main aim and objective in machining industries, like any other manufacturing industries, are to con-
tinuously enhance both volume and rate of production as well as product quality by best utilization of the
resources. Attempts are always made to innovate, explore, plan and use resources such that the machin-
ing work becomes more and more effective, efficient, economically viable and environment-friendly. This
requires knowledge or awareness of the factors which govern or influence machining economy and how. All
the aspects, for achieving the specific production target and overall economy, need to be considered while
planning and executing the different operational stages right from product design to finishing and during
inspection of the products. The basic machining requirements – the machining process and system, cutting
tools, material and geometry, values of the speeds and feeds, type and method of application of cutting fluid,
etc. – are to be appropriately selected or optimized so that the desired economy in terms of productivity,
product quality, tool life, machining cost, profit or profitability is fulfilled. This requires knowledge of both
theory of machining and optimization. Enhancement of both material removal rate (MRR) and surface finish
requires machining and grinding at high cutting velocity, but it raises the cutting temperatures. High cutting
temperature not only impairs the product quality and tool life but also severely causes environmental pollu-
tion and health hazards due to the use of conventional cutting fluid. Ample research has been done and sev-
eral attempts are being made to overcome this problem. Application of cryogenic cooling by liquid nitrogen

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 398 Machining and Machine Tools

jets has been quite successful. Such technique not only provides environment-friendliness along with cooling
but also can substantially help in improving product quality, tool life and saving energy.

10.2 Economy and Optimization of Machining

In any manufacturing, including machining, attempt is always made to fulfill one or more of the following
objectives by appropriate utilization of the resources and control of the factors associated with that manufac-
turing work:
1. Reduction or minimization of production time and thus maximization of production rate.
2. Reduction or minimization of manufacturing cost.
3. Increase or maximization of profit and profit rate.
Achieving such goals in machining needs
1. Proper process planning.
2. Proper selection of cutting tools; material and geometry depending upon the jobs.
3. Proper selection and use of machine tool and accessories.
4. s
Appropriate selection of machining parameters: cutting velocity (Vc) and feed (s).
5. Proper selection and application of machining environment (i.e., cutting fluid).
Large specific energy requirement, frequent change of cutting tools (edges) and poor surface integrity, which
restrain high production machining, are substantially controlled by proper cutting fluid application. How-
ever, cutting fluid not only favourably reduces cutting temperature, friction, tool wear and surface roughness
in machining but also causes severe pollution and health hazards, which is a tremendous social problem in
addition to other technical and financial problems. Therefore, both economy and environment-friendliness
need to be considered while planning and carrying out machining work.
Presently world is spending in the order of thousand billion dollars per year for machining work. Sizeable
saving, even by 5–10% of overall cost of machining, may therefore lead to huge saving in dollars. Ideally it
is desired to optimize all the parameters involved in machining to derive maximum benefit. However, this is
hardly feasible because all the favourable resources and situations cannot be made available or created in most
of the industries.

10.3 Optimization of Process Schedule and Machining

Parameters for Machining Economy
All the feasible aspects, for achieving the specific production target and overall economy, need to be consid-
ered while planning and for accomplishment of the different operational stages right from product design to
finishing and inspection of the products. The following processes are undertaken sequentially for production
of engineering components: product design, preforming, semi-finishing, heat treatment and finishing. A
product may be finally produced in several routes and by different methods. However, all the options should
be technologically acceptable, technically feasible, economically viable and environment-friendly as far as
possible. But, it may not be always possible to attain or maintain the ideal situation. Reasonable attempts
have been made to find and adopt the optimum feasible route.
Proper planning is usually done at all the stages like preforming, machining and so on. Finishing a job by
machining to specific form, dimensions and finish may be possible by using different machine tools, cutting

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 Economy and Eco-Friendliness in Machining 399

tools, different combinations and sequences of elementary machining operations and under different envi-
ronments. A single machining operation like turning, drilling, milling, grinding, etc. can be done at different
cutting velocities and feed. So a thorough process planning is required and done in manufacturing. Some
rules and methods are followed for such process planning. Use of computer and availability of suitable soft-
ware have enabled easy, quick and more precise process planning. This has led to, what is called, ‘computer
aided process planning’ (CAPP).
Amongst the machining process parameters, cutting velocity (Vc) plays the most significant role; next to
that is feed rate, so (i.e., uncut chip thickness). It is observed that in machining, the key role is played by the
total machining time required per piece (Tp) in fulfilling all the significant objectives – production rate (Pr),
production cost (Cp) per piece, etc. The value of Tp is given by

TC
Tp T + TC + (Tch ) (10.1)
TL
where Ti is the idle time (per piece, in min), TC is the actual machining time per piece (min), TL is the tool
life (min), Tch is the tool change time (min). The magnitude of Ti and TCT (total tool change time) could
have been reduced remarkably by incorporation of modern mechanization and automation. Tool life (TL) has
also been spectacularly raised by developing excellent tool materials such as composite coated carbides, high
performance ceramics, cBN and diamond. So, what remains is optimization of the levels of cutting velocity
and feed. Depth of cut, now-a-days is decided by machining allowance.
Drastic reduction of idle time from about 90% to 30% by mechanization and automation has raised the
significance of the actual cutting time TC and necessity of its sizeable reduction. The affect of cutting velocity
Vc and feed so on TC can be simply visualized by considering a typical example of straight turning to reduce
the diameter of a rod from D1 to D2 over a length LC by a single pass, as

π D1LC
TC =
1000 ×V
Vc s o

Increase in both Vc and so apparently helps equally in reducing TC. However, increase in feed, unlike cut-
ting velocity, also raises cutting forces and surface roughness unfavourably. However, increase in cutting tem-
perature and tool wear are more affected by increase of Vc. Hence more importance is given to optimization
of cutting velocity. Earlier, in stepped drive, optimum selection of speed was difficult but now-a-days stepless
drive has made optimization of speed or cutting velocity more easy and feasible.
Figure 10.1 schematically shows how the various time components generally vary with increase in cutting
velocity in machining operation. The idle time Ti (Fig. 10.1) remains independent of the level of Vc. On the
other hand, the actual cutting time TC decreases inversely proportionally with the increase in Vc. The total
tool changing time TCT [= (TC/TL)Tch] gradually increases with the increase in Vc due to more rapid or
frequent failure of the cutting tool and hence reduction in tool life TL (Fig. 10.1).
Similarly, the machining cost per piece Cp also changes with change of Vc. The value of Cp can be obtained
from
⎛ T ⎞ T
Cp T + TC + C Tch k1 + C k2 (10.2)
⎝ TL ⎠ TL

where k1 is the man-machine hour rate (Rs/min) and k2 is the cost of consumables per cutting edge (e.g., cost
of tool, cutting fluid, etc.). Figure 10.2 schematically shows how increase in cutting velocity alone changes
the total cost of machining per piece and its various components.

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 400 Machining and Machine Tools

Tp (total time per piece)

Time per piece (min)

Tc
( (
Tch TC
TL
Ti

Cutting velocity,
y Vc (m/min)

Figure 10.1 Role of increase in Vc on machining time.

Total cost per piece, Cp

T
Machining cost, Rs / piece

Tool change cost

T
Cutting cost

Tool cost
T

Idle cost

Cutting velocity,
y Vc (m/min)

Figure 10.2 Role of increase in Vc on machining cost per piece.

Based on the concept depicted in Figs. 10.1 and 10.2, the desired optimum values of Vc can be evaluated[1]
using Eqs. (10.1) and (10.2) and the simple Taylor’s tool life equation,
Vc(TL)n = constant(C ) (10.3)

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 Economy and Eco-Friendliness in Machining 401

Optimum Vc ′ for minimum machining time per piece Tp′ can be obtained as
−n
⎡⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎤
Vc ′ C ⎢ − 1 Tch ⎥ (10.4)
⎝
⎣ n ⎠ ⎦

and the corresponding tool life for minimum Tp′ or maximum production rate as

⎛1 ⎞
TL ′ = −1 T (10.5)
⎝ n ⎠ ch

where C and n are the constant and index of Taylor’s tool life equation [Eq. (10.3)].
Optimum cutting velocity Vcè and corresponding tool life TLè for minimum machining cost per piece Cpè
n
⎡ k1[n/(1 − n )] ⎤
Vc ′′ C⎢ ⎥ (10.6)
⎣ k1Tch + k2 ⎦
and the corresponding tool life for minimum cost of machining per piece C p′′

⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎡ k1Tch + k2 ⎤
TL ′′ = −1 (10.7)
⎝ n ⎠ ⎢⎣ k1 ⎥
⎦
The optimum process parametric combination (Vc − so) and the corresponding objective functions like profit
per piece, profit rate (Rs/min), etc. can be evaluated[2] following similar approaches and using:
1. Suitable objective functions (equations).
2. Modified Taylor’s tool life equation.
3. Practical data for the constants and market factors.
4. All relevant constraints such as power constraint, surface finish constraint, resources availability,
vibration constraints, etc.
Use of computers and software and very quick availability of information have spectacularly facilitated such
optimization process.

10.4 Environmental Problems in Machining and

Grinding and Remedial Measures
10.4.1 Problems in Machining and Grinding due to Cutting Temperature
It is already realized that the increasingly demanded and practiced high production machining and high qual-
ity finishing especially of hard and tough work materials face some problems, such as:
1. Large cutting forces.
2. Very high cutting temperature.
3. Rapid tool wear.
4. Vibration and chatter.

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 402 Machining and Machine Tools

Out of these constraints, elevated cutting temperature and its detrimental effects pose the most severe problem.
Lot of R&D as well as industrial studies have been carried out and are still going on to reduce cutting tempera-
ture without sacrificing productivity and product quality. Such attempts were made from two directions:
1. Reduction of amount of heat generation through
(a) Reducing magnitude of cutting forces by
• Using sharp and stable cutting tools with suitable geometry.
• Improving machinability characteristics of the work material with suitable additives and
treatments, if feasible.
(b) Reduction of friction and rubbing by
• Applying liquid or solid lubricant.
• Using suitable tool material.
• Employing controlled contact cutting.
(c) Optimization of the process parameters.
2. Carrying away the heat generated from the narrow cutting zone by
(a) Shifting the heat towards the chips.
(b) Using thermally conductive tool material.
(c) Application of cutting fluid after proper selection and by proper method.
Application of cutting fluid is most widely practiced in machining aiming substantial reduction in cutting
temperature. The other possible benefits of using cutting fluid, if properly selected and employed include,
1. Reduction of cutting forces.
2. Improvement in product quality by reducing thermally induced damages in the tool due to
(a) Adhesion and diffusion wear.
(b) Fracturing and flaking.
(c) Formation of built-up-edge (BUE).
3. Desired chip control or breaking.
4. Washing away of the chips and debris.
5. Protection of fresh machined surfaces from contamination.
There are also several limitations of conventional cutting fluid application, some of which are as follows:
1. Ineffectiveness: The heat, intensive temperature and their major detrimental effects originate at
the narrow cutting zone comprising primary shear zone, chip–tool interfaces and tool flanks. The
conventionally employed cutting fluid can hardly penetrate at those stringent zones, particularly in
machining ductile materials and at high speed where the chip–tool contact is fully plastic or bulk
contact. Besides, the cutting fluid becomes ineffective after reaching its film boiling point.
2. Inconveniences: Spreading of the cutting fluid makes the working zone dirty, slippery and thus
causes inconvenience to the operators and the other people in the vicinity.
3. Impair machining systems: The cutting fluid causes rusting or corrosion of salient machine parts
such as slides, guides, centres, rests, etc. The cutting fluid may also mix with the lubricant and
hydraulic fluid used in the machine tool.
4. Pollution of working zone and health hazards: Lot of smoke, gases and aerosols are produced
which are hazardous for the working people.
5. Soil contamination and water pollution: Severe health cum social problems arise from usual care-
less disposal of used up cutting fluids.

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 Economy and Eco-Friendliness in Machining 403

6. Cost of the cutting fluid (CF): The cost (16%) of CF is almost double of tool cost (7%).
7. Additional cost for space and the system: The system for conventional cutting fluid application
requires lot of space and units for storage, pumping, cooling, filtering and recycling.
The following are possible health hazards due to use of conventional cutting fluids (soluble oil and mineral oils):
1. Direct contact of cutting fluid in liquid state causes
(a) Irritation, allergy and cancer of skin.
(b) Irritation and further problems in eyes.
(c) Bacterial growth which not only degrades the fluids but also causes various skin diseases.
2. Prolonged inhalation of mist or aerosol produced by atomization and/or evaporation/condensation
causes
(a) Breathing problems, bronchitis and asthma.
(b) Cancer of throat, lungs, pancreas, rectums, etc.
3. Emission and inhalation of gases caused by breakdown of the oil base fluids may cause
(a) CO2 – inadequacy of oxygen in air.
(b) CO – fall of blood viscosity and heart attack.
(c) SO2 – internal erosion of respiratory channel.
(d) NXOY – poisonous and breaks blood.
(e) Chlorine gas, if any – severe suffocation.
Since the beginning of 20th century, people were concerned[2] with possible harmful effects of different cut-
ting fluid applications. It was estimated[3] that about a million workers are exposed to cutting fluids in the US
alone. Since cutting fluids are complex in composition, they may be more toxic than their constituents and
may be irritant or allergenic. Both bacteria and fungi can also effectively colonize the cutting fluids and serve
as source of microbial toxins. The effects of exposure to such fluids on health have been studied for over 50
years. Investigations revealed[4] that the used mineral oils are carcinogenic.
Skin exposure is the dominant route of exposure, and it is believed that about 80% of all occupational
diseases are caused by contact between skin and fluids.[5] Cutting fluids are reasonable causes of occupa-
tional contact dermatitis, which may involve either irritant or allergic mechanisms. Water-mixed fluids
generally causes irritant contact dermatitis and allergic contact dermatitis when they are in touch with
workers’ skin. Non-water-miscible fluids usually cause skin disorders such as folliculitis, oil acne, keratoses
and carcinomas.
Besides skin and eye contact, occupational exposure can also be due to inhalation. Mists are aerosols con-
taining liquid particles (less than 20 μm). During machining process, a considerable amount of heat is gener-
ated for which the cutting fluid may attain a temperature sufficiently higher than the saturation temperature.
The vapour is produced at the solid–liquid interface as a result of boiling. Vapour may be generated also at the
liquid–air interface when the fluid vapour pressure is less than the saturation pressure, namely as evaporation
phenomena. Vapour generated then may condense to form mist. The non-aqueous components of the cut-
ting fluid, such as the biocide additives, appear as fine aerosol that can enter the workroom air. Additionally,
the cutting fluids get in contact with both stationary and rotating elements within the machine tool system,
which leads to mechanical energy being transmitted to the fluid. Thus, the cutting fluid has higher surface
energy, becomes less stable and disintegrates into drops (atomization). Mist also may be generated by spray
of fluid. A total fluid loss of 5–20% may occur due to evaporation, atomization, splashing and drag out pro-
cesses. Whether formed by atomization or evaporation/condensation, small droplets may remain suspended
in the air for several hours or for even several days in the workers breathing zones. These drifting droplets tend

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 404 Machining and Machine Tools

to evaporate further. Inhaled particles (with aerodynamic diameters less than 10 μm) deposit in the various
regions of the respiratory system by the complex action of the different deposition mechanisms. The particu-
lates below 2.5 μm aerodynamic diameter deposit primarily in the alveolar region which is the most sensitive
region of lung. The particulates of sizes ranging from 2.5 μm to 10 μm deposit primarily in the airways. The
potential health effects of exposure to cutting fluid mists have been the subject of epidemiological studies in
the automotive industry. The mist droplets can cause throat, pancreas, rectum and prostate cancers, as well as
breathing problems and respiratory illnesses.[2]
Several other epidemiological studies have also suggested that exposure to fluid mist may be associated
with increased risk of airway irritation, chronic bronchitis, asthma and even laryngeal cancer.[5] The Occupa-
tional Safety and Health Administrations (OSHA) standard for airborne particulate (largely due to fluid mist)
is 5 mg/m3, and the United Auto Workers (UAW) has proposed a reduction in the standard to 0.5 mg/m3.
The oil mist level in a plant ranged from 4.2 to 15.6 mg/m3 but fell to value in between 0.47 and 1.68 mg/m3
when a different cutting fluid was substituted in the system.[6]
Anti-misting compounds, such as a polymethacrylate polymer, polyisobutylene and poly-n-butane in con-
centrations of 0.2% as well as poly 1, 2-butene oxide, have been suggested for addition into cutting fluids.[5]
However, consideration must be given to the effects of these chemicals upon humans. The most effective
way to control mist exposure is to use mist collector to prevent mist from entering plant air. Many collec-
tors use several stages of filters in series for the purpose. Other collectors use centrifugal cells or electrostatic
precipitators as intermediate stages. Any collector using a 95% Dioctyl Phthalate (DOP) or High-Efficiency
Particulate Air (HEPA) filter as a final collection stage has been tested as high efficiency when new. However,
its efficiency decreases with time. Moreover, the oil droplets may undergo partial or complete evaporation as
they travel to collector. The generated organic vapours may return to the room and affect workers’ health, and
may recondense on the cool surfaces causing safety and maintenance problems.
Pollution-free manufacturing is increasingly gaining interest due to recent development of pollution-preven-
tion legislation, European initiatives on product take-back or recycling which affect many industries in the US
and also a growing consumer-demand for greed products and production processes. Concern for the environ-
mental, health and safety of the operators, as well as requirements of occupational safety and health regulations
are compelling the industries to consider finding viable alternatives of conventional cutting fluid application.
The problems arising out of high cutting temperature, its adverse effects and necessity of its control are
more acute in the case of grinding. Grinding is inherently associated with very high cutting temperature
due to excessive specific energy requirement and very high cutting velocity. Such high temperature not only
affects grindability but also quality and service life of the finished products. So, all the aspects of cutting fluid
application need more serious consideration in cases of grinding.

10.4.2 Control of Machining and Grinding Temperature and Its Effects by

Cryogenic Cooling
10.4.2.1 General Considerations for Cutting Fluid Applications
Research is being continuously done in the area of cutting fluid application in machining including grinding
mainly aiming for
1. Saving in cutting fluid use.
2. Technological and overall economical benefits.
3. Control of pollution and health hazards.

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 Economy and Eco-Friendliness in Machining 405

Various techniques have been tried to increase the performance efficiency of cutting fluid. Some of them are:
1. Profuse flood cooling.[7]
2. Impinging cutting fluid in the form of jet at high pressure (upto 100 bar)[7,8]: reasonable improve-
ment but expensive.
3. Mist cooling with compressed air[2,7]: improvement is economically not justified.
4. Dry machining like hard turning by cBN or diamond tools[9]: pollution-free but shorter tool life and
inadequate surface integrity.
5. Near dry machining with minimum quantity lubricant (MQL)[10,11]: reduced pollution and enabled
large saving in fluid and reasonable benefit from lubrication and cooling.

10.4.2.2 Cryogenic Machining and Grinding

Proper application of cryogenic cooling in machining and grinding has been found to be very effective and
successful.
1. Environment-friendliness: Free from inconveniences, helps prevent machine parts to be harmed and
reduces pollution and health hazards.
2. Technological benefits: Improvement in tool life, product quality and to some extent energy saving.
Cryogenic cooling has been recognized as a promising new technology in high production as well as finish
machining and grinding. Cryogenic generally refers to use of media (called cryogen) whose working tempera-
ture is below −50°C. Cryogenic cooling in machining was first (1961) attempted[13] by using liquid CO2 at
around −72°C, which provided visible improvement in tool life. At that stage it was not economically viable.
Later (in 1972), liquid nitrogen, which is cooler, less expensive and not harming, was tried in turning with
little benefit for improper application.
Proper application[14,15] of liquid nitrogen in the form of high speed jet(s) in machining steels started
providing substantial technological benefits in addition to environment friendliness. For cryogenic cooling,
liquid nitrogen is reasonably chosen because it
1. Keeps the working zone dry, clean and cool.
2. Does not impair the machine parts and other fluids used in machine tool.
3. Removes pollution and health hazards.
4. Is amply available and inexpensive (for being a byproduct of liquid oxygen plants).
However, despite having so many benefits, the industries intended to know the effects of application of
such cryogenic cooling on technological benefits and overall economic gains. Keeping this in view, R&D
work is going on rapidly and widely in several countries including India. Some recent observations on tech-
nological benefits of cryogenic cooling in machining[16] and grinding[17] have been briefly presented here.
Liquid nitrogen drawn from a self-pressurized dewar was impinged in the form of thin but high speed
jets from two nozzles set close to the tool tip. Five different steel specimens (AISI 1040, 106, E4340C,
4320 and 4140) were turned by uncoated carbide tools (P-30 grade) of two different configurations
(SNMG-120408-26 and SNMM-120408) at wide ranges of cutting velocity (60−150 m/min) and feed
(0.12−0.24 mm/rev).
There is a common belief that cutting temperature would decrease drastically due to cooling by liquid
nitrogen (−196°C). Practically the temperature decreased upto 35% only reasonably because even liquid
nitrogen jets cannot reach the intimate chip–tool interface where temperature is maximum. However, even

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 406 Machining and Machine Tools

(a) (b)

(c)

Figure 10.3 Reduction of tool wear by cryogenic cooling and application: (a) Dry machining, 45 min;
(b) wet machining, 45 min; (c) cryogenic machining,45 min.

such amount of reduction in cutting temperature is expected to provide reasonable benefits in the other
machinability aspects.
Along with the reduction in cutting temperature, the cutting forces also decreased significantly (upto
50%) due to cryogenic cooling. Similar results (more or less) were noted for all steels checked. Such reduction
is attributed mainly to favourable interaction such as reduction in friction and BUE formation for cryogenic
cooling when the chips were smoother and lighter in colour. Extreme cooling also enables retention of sharp-
ness of the tools. Figure 10.3 typically shows how cryogenic cooling enabled substantial reduction in tool
wear unlike soluble oil which did not help at all.
It is evident from Fig. 10.4 that for limiting value of flank wear as 0.3 mm, the tool life can increase by
100−200% due to application of liquid nitrogen jets which reduce damage and wear of the cutting edges
usually caused by the temperature-intensive wear like adhesion and diffusion and also by BUE formation. The
detrimental notching and grooving wear also almost disappeared (Fig. 10.3) expectedly due to less tempera-
ture and removal of air or oxygen by inert nitrogen in those regions.
The increased stability of the tool tip against wear, chipping, notching and BUE formation under cryo-
genic cooling also enabled substantial reduction in dimensional deviation and surface roughness as can be
seen in Figs. 10.5 and 10.6. Almost similar benefits due to cryogenic cooling application were also observed
in the case of the other steels and both the type of carbide tools checked.
Machinability of the Ti-based and Ni-based super-alloys is also substantially improved by application of
cryo-jet cooling. Figure 10.7 typically shows how application of liquid nitrogen jets enhanced tool life of
TiAlN-coated carbide inserts in turning of Inconel 718 at low and medium cutting velocities.

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 Economy and Eco-Friendliness in Machining 407

500 500
Work material: C-40 steel SNMM 120408 TTS

Average flank wear, VB, μm

Average flank wear, VB, μm Cutting velocity: 135 m/min
400 Feed: 0.2 mm/rev 400
Depth of cut: 2.0 mm
300 300

200 200

100 100 Environment:

Dry
SNMG 120408-26 TTS Cryogenic cooling
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Machining time, min Machining time, min
(a) (b)

Figure 10.4 Growth of flank wear in turning C-40 steel rods at V = 135 m/min under dry and cryogenic
conditions: (a) SNMG insert; (b) SNMM insert.

500 500 Workk material: Ni-Cr steel

Environment:
Dimensional deviation, μm
Dimensional deviation, μm

Dry Blank size: φ160 × 600 mm

250 250 Cutting velocity: 130 m/min
Cryogenic cooling
Feed: 0.2 mm/rev
200 SNMG 120408-26 TTS 200 Depth of cut: 1.5 mm
SNMM 120408 TTS
150 150

100 100

50 50

0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 0 100 200 300 400 500
Length of cut, LC, mm Length of cut, LC , mm
(a) (b)

Figure 10.5 Dimensional deviations in turning Ni–Cr steel rod under dry and cryogenic conditions.

Machining temperature and its detrimental effects are obviously more intensive and acute in grinding opera-
tions. So, cryogenic cooling is expected to be more effective in grinding. Figure 10.8 typically shows that
unlike conventional cutting fluid application, cryogenic cooling could substantially reduce the grinding zone
temperature. This is more or less true for the other steels also.
The favourable role of cryogenic cooling on reduction in grinding forces and specific energy consumption
observed is typically shown in Fig. 10.9. Such reduction has been possible due to retention of the grits’ sharp-
ness, reduction of ductility and stickiness of the chips and absence of wheel loading under cryogenic cooling.
Cryogenic grinding produced mostly sheared thin chips unlike dry grinding which produced lot of leafy chips
and spherical chips indicating adverse chip formation modes. Wet grinding could not appreciably improve
from dry grinding. Such beneficial effects of cryogenic cooling on grinding forces have been observed in the
case of other steels also.

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 408 Machining and Machine Tools

10 10
SNMG 120408-26 TTS insert SNMM 120408 TTS insert

Surface roughness, Ra, μm

Surface roughness, Ra, μm

8 8

6 6

4 4

Workk material: 17CrNiMo6 steel

2 2 Environment:
Cutting velocity: 103 m/min
Feed: 0.2 mm/rev Dry
Depth of cut: 2.0 mm Cryogenic cooling
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Machining time, min Machining time, min

Figure 10.6 Surface roughness observed while machining 17NiCrMo6 steel rod under dry and
cryogenic conditions.

Vc Machining environment

m/min. Dry Soluble oil Cryogenic

45

T∗ =20 min T∗ =30 min T∗ =35 min

60

T∗ =15 min T∗ =10 min T∗ =25 min

80

T∗ =5 min T∗ =8 min T∗ =15 min

Figure 10.7 Tool condition after turning Inconel 718 rod by TiAlN coated carbide inserts under dry,
wet and cryogenic cooling.

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 Economy and Eco-Friendliness in Machining 409

1250 1250

1000 1000
Temperature (°C )

(°C )
750 750

Temperature
500 500

250 250

T
Hot die steel High speed steel
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
Infeed (micron) eed (micron)

Figure 10.8 Temperature recorded while grinding C20 steel under different environments: dry ( ),
wet (Δ) and liquid nitrogen (◊).

30 125
Mild steel Dry
Coarse dressing Wet
25
100
Specific energy (J/mm3 )

Lq. N2
F
Force (N/mm)

20 N
75
15
50
10

25
5

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
Infeed (micron) Infeed (micron)

Figure 10.9 Reduction in grinding forces and specific energy by cryogenic cooling.

1500 1500
Residual stress (MPa)

Residual stress (MPa)

1000 1000

500 500

0 0

Hot die steel High speed steel

−500 −500
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
Infeed (micron) Infeed (micron)

Figure 10.10 Reduction in surface residual stress by cryogenic cooling: dry ( ), wet (Δ) and liquid
nitrogen (◊).

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 410 Machining and Machine Tools

The extent of possible reduction in the tensile residual stress by application of liquid nitrogen jet is evident
from Fig. 10.10. Wet grinding could not reduce such stress; rather, in some cases it raised it.
Plenty of micro-cracks were noted when seen under SEM on the dry ground surfaces as shown in
Fig. 10.11. Application of soluble oil aggravated that further. However, no such cracks were visible on
the finished surfaces when these steels were ground with liquid nitrogen. Such reduction in residual
stresses and micro-cracks is reasonably attributed to favourable chip formation mode, lesser grinding
forces and temperature, and absence of wheel loading due to cooling by liquid nitrogen jet. The afore-
said favourable effects also resulted in significant improvement in grinding ratio through reduction of
wheel wear.

Dry Wet Liquid nitrogen jet

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

30 μm

Figure 10.11 Surface conditions of different steels ground under different environments: (a) MS,
(b) HCS, (c) CDS, (d) HDS and (e) HSS.

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 Economy and Eco-Friendliness in Machining 411

10.5 Solved Problems

PROBLEM 1
How much time in total will be required per piece if
(a) Idle time per piece = 5 min
(b) Actual cutting time = 20 min
(c) Life of each tool tip = 10 min
(d) Time of changing a tool tip = 2.5 min

Solution: Given that idle time Ti = 5 min/piece; actual machining time TC = 20 min/piece; tool life
TL = 10 min; the tool change time TCT = 2.5 min. Time required per piece Tt is
TC 20
Tt T + TC + (TCT ) = 5 + 20 + × 2.5 = 30 min
TL 10

PROBLEM 2
Evaluate the machining cost per piece in a batch production by turning if
(a) Idle time per piece = 5 min
(b) Actual machining time per piece = 10 min
(c) Life of each tool tip = 10 min
(d) Time of changing a tool tip = 5 min
(e) Man-machine hour rate, K1 = Rs. 60 per hour
(f ) Cost of each new tool tip, K2 = Rs. 5

Solution: Given that idle time Ti = 5 min; actual machining time TC = 10 min; tool life TL = 10 min,
tool change time TCT = 5 min, man-machine hour rate K1 = Rs. 60/hour = Rs. 1/min; cost of tool tip
K2 = Rs. 5. Now machining cost per piece Cp is given by
TC
Cp Tt K1 + K2
TL
where
TC
Tt Ti + TC + (TCT )
TL
Therefore,
⎛ 10 ⎞ 10
C p = 5 + 10 + × 5 1 + 5 = 25 Rs/piece
⎝ 10 ⎠ 10

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 412 Machining and Machine Tools

PROBLEM 3
For the machining condition given in Problem 1, determine the optimum value of the cutting velocity
for minimum total machining time per piece, if the Taylor’s tool life equation for the tool–work
combination is considered to be VT 0.5 = 500. Also determine the life of each tool tip when machined at
the optimum cutting velocity.

Solution: Given that C = 500, n = 0.5, Tch = 2.5 min. Optimum cutting velocity Vc is given by
−n −0 5
⎡⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎤ ⎡⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎤
Vc′ = C ⎢ − 1 Tch ⎥ = 500 ⎢ − 1 2.5⎥ = 316 m/min
⎣⎝ n ⎠ ⎦ ⎣ ⎝ 0 5 ⎠ ⎦
Again,
316(TL)0.5 = 500
Therefore
2
⎛ 500 ⎞
TL = = 2.5 min
⎝ 316 ⎠

PROBLEM 4
Under the machining condition given in Problem 2, determine the optimum cutting velocity and the
corresponding tool (tip) life for minimum machining cost per piece, if, the Taylor’s tool life equation is
VT 0.2 = 200 and values of K1 = Rs. 2 per min and K2 = Rs. 5 per tool tip.

Solution: Given that C = 200, n = 0.2, K1 = Rs. 2, K2 = Rs. 5, Tch = 5 min. Optimum cutting velocity
Vc′ is given by
n
⎡ K [n /(1 − n )] ⎤
Vc′ = C ⎢ 1 ⎥
⎣ K 1Tch + K 2 ⎦
02
⎡ 2[0.2 /(1 − 0.2 )] ⎤
= 200 ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 2 5+5 ⎦
02
⎡0 5⎤
= 200 ⎢ ⎥ = 101.3 m/min
⎣ 15 ⎦
Also
101.3 × (TL)0.2 = 200
Therefore,
1/0.2
⎛ 200 ⎞
TL = = 30 min
⎝ 101.3 ⎠

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 Economy and Eco-Friendliness in Machining 413

SU M M A R Y
Economy is the major driving force behind planning inherently associated with generation of high cutting
and execution of manufacturing including machin- temperature. It not only impairs the product quality
ing. Economic production means getting work done but also the tool life. Conventionally cutting fluid is
to desired productivity and product quality with employed for cooling along with lubrication. Why
minimum effort, time, environmental pollution and and how such conventional cutting fluid applica-
the running expenses. The primary targets in manu- tions are effective, harmful and hazardous have been
facturing by machining and the basic principles and described in this chapter. One potential technique,
methods of achieving those targets by appropriate namely cryogenic cooling, has been described here.
selection of the machines, cutting tools, levels of the The method of application of liquid nitrogen jets in
process parameters and machining condition have machining and grinding and its remarkable socio-
been presented with illustration and examples. The economic benefits have been presented with practi-
methods of optimizing cutting velocity and tool life cal evidences. Such technique, if properly employed,
for maximum economy of machining through min- eliminates most of the problems related to application
imization of machining time and machining cost of conventional cutting fluids, prevents environmen-
have been explained. tal pollution, saves from any health hazards and also
Any process, techniques or material associated provides lot of technological benefits including longer
with any manufacturing including machining work tool life, accuracy and surface integrity of the prod-
essentially need to be environment-friendly in addi- ucts and reduction of cutting forces. All these aspects
tion to being effective, efficient and economic viable. have been highlighted here. With the next chapter we
Machining and grinding, especially at high speeds, are will discuss various aspects of machine tools.

M U L T I P L E CH O I C E QU E S T I O N S
[Answers are provided in the CD]
1. What is the objective of manufacturing by (d) Increasing feed and depth of cut
machining? 4. With the gradual increase in cutting velocity
(a) Maximization of production rate in turning, the total time required for machin-
(b) Minimization of machining cost ing per piece will
(c) Maximization of profit rate (a) Gradually increase
(d) Any of the above (b) Gradually decrease
2. Application of cutting fluid does not help in (c) Gradually decrease and then increase
reducing (d) Remain constant
(a) Cutting forces 5. With the gradual increase in cutting velocity,
(b) Cutting temperature the machining cost per piece
(c) Machining time (a) Remains unchanged
(d) Surface roughness (b) Gradually decreases
3. The idle time involved in machining each (c) Gradually decreases and then increases
piece can be reduced by (d) Gradually increases
(a) Increasing cutting velocity 6. Cutting temperature in turning a given rod at
(b) Mechanization or automation given MRR is least affected by
(c) Proper selection of work material (a) Cutting tool geometry

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 414 Machining and Machine Tools

(b) Cutting tool material (d) Liquid CO2

(c) Cutting velocity 9. Due to application of liquid nitrogen jets the
(d) Depth of cut average grinding temperature decreases by
7. Application of conventional cutting fluid in (a) 0−10%
high speed machining and grinding may cause (b) 10−20%
(a) Health hazards (c) 20−40%
(b) Environmental pollution (d) 40−75%
(c) Damage of some machine parts 10. In grinding steels, application of liquid nitro-
(d) All of the above gen jets enables reduction of
8. In machining and grinding, cryogenic cooling (a) Specific grinding energy requirement
will be effective and economic if done by (b) Wheel loading
(a) Liquid air (c) Tensile residual stress
(b) Liquid nitrogen (d) All of the above
(c) Liquid oxygen

R E V I E W QU E S T I O N S
1. What aims and objectives are generally taken 9. What harmful effects are caused by the high cut-
into consideration while manufacturing prod- ting temperature in machining and grinding?
ucts by machining and grinding? What steps 10. How can cutting temperature be reduced,
need to be taken for achieving those goals? without sacrificing productivity, in machining
2. What factors govern the total time required and grinding?
for making a product by machining? 11. State the purposes of application of cutting
3. How can production rate be increased in lot fluid in machining and grinding.
production by machining? 12. Mention the problems that arise due to appli-
4. How and why the idle time, actual machining cation of conventional cutting fluid (water,
time, tool change time and total time per piece oil, mixture of the two, etc.) in machining and
vary with increase in cutting velocity? grinding.
5. How does tool life affect machining cost per 13. How does use of oil-base general cutting fluid
piece? affect health of the workshop people?
6. How and why machining cost per piece vary 14. What socio-economic problems may arise due
with the increase of cutting velocity? to application of conventional cutting fluid?
7. How is optimum cutting velocity in plain 15. State the possible socio-economic benefits of
turning operation evaluated for (a) minimum application of cryogenic cooling in machining.
total machining time per piece and (b) mini- 16. How does application of liquid nitrogen jets
mum machining cost per piece? improve machinability and grindability for
8. Describe briefly how the cutting velocity can given tool–work pair?
be optimized for maximizing (a) profit per
piece and (b) profit rate.

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 Economy and Eco-Friendliness in Machining 415

PR O B L E M S
With Answers Without Answers
1. How many identical pieces of given jobs will 1. For machining condition given in Problem 1 in
be produced per hour by machining under the ‘With Answers’ section, how much will be the
following conditions: optimum value of the cutting velocity for mini-
• idle time per piece = 14 min mum total machining time per piece? Assume
• actual machining time per piece = 12 min Taylor’s tool life equation, VT 0.25 = 400.
• life of each tool/cutting edge = 6 min 2. For the machining conditions given in Prob-
• time of changing a tool tip = 2.0 min lem 2 in ‘With Answers’ section, determine the
Ans: 2 piece/hour optimum cutting velocity and the correspond-
2. Determine the cost of machining 10 identical ing tool (tip) life for minimum machining
jobs by milling under the given conditions: cost per piece. Assume
• idle time per piece = 10 min
• Taylor’s tool life equation, VT 0.25 = 300
• actual machining time per piece = 20 min
• man-machine hour rate, K1 = Rs. 50
• life of each tool tip = 10 min
• cost of each new tool tip, K2 = Rs. 10
• time of changing a tool tip = 2 min
• man-machine per hour rate K1 = Rs. 60 3. For the machining condition given in Problem
• cost of each new tool tip = Rs. 20 2 determine the optimum values of the cut-
Ans: Rs. 740 ting velocity for minimum production time
per piece and minimum total cost of machin-
ing per piece if VT 0.25 = 200. Other param-
eters remaining unchanged.

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MAMT_Chapter 10.indd 416 7/21/2011 11:49:14 AM
 PART B
Machine Tools

Chapter 11
Introduction to Machine Tools
Chapter 12
Functional Principles of Machine Tools
Chapter 13
Machine Tool Power Drives
Chapter 14
Role and Forms of Kinematic Structure in Machine Tools
Chapter 15
Methods of Changing Speed and Feed in Machine Tools
Chapter 16
Design of Speed Gear Box of Machine Tools
Chapter 17
Automation in Machine Tools
Chapter 18
Classification of Machine Tools
Chapter 19
Specification of Machine Tools

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 Chapter 20
Conventional Machine Tools and Their Features and Characteristics
Chapter 21
Kinematic Systems of Conventional Machine Tools
Chapter 22
Machining Applications of Conventional Machine Tools
Chapter 23
Methods of Mounting Blanks ad Cutting Tools in Machine Tools
Chapter 24
Design and Application of Jigs and Fixtures for Aiding Machining
Chapter 25
Computer Numerical Controlled Machine Tools
Chapter 26
Foundation, Inspection and Testing of Machine Tools

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 11 Introduction to Machine Tools
Learning Objectives
The contents of this chapter would enable the readers to:
• Express the exact roles of machining and • List the elementary machining operations gen-
machine tools in manufacturing. erally carried out in the conventional machine
• Define machine tools, identify their common tools.
features and state the functions of their major • Identify the major aspects associated with
components. machine tools.
• Visualize the basic configurations of the pri-
mary machine tools.

11.1 Introduction
Finishing by machining through gradual material removal from blanks started about thousand years ago.
For instance, logs of irregular sizes and shapes were machined to produce cylindrical rods with the required
dimensional accuracy and finish for specific advantageous applications. The machining was done by sharp-
edged stones as cutting tool and employing reasonable tool–work motions and energy manually.
Need for strong and hard materials, such as various metals and alloys; innovation; development; and grow-
ing demand for rapid production and good product quality result in improvement of design, development
and wide use of machine tools starting from centre lathes, drilling machines, shaping, planing and slotting
machines, milling machines and so on. With time and demand several other machine tools such as boring
machines, gear shaping and hobbing machines, broaching machines, etc. have also come up.
The common features of all such conventional machine tools include (a) firm holding of the job and the
tool, (b) kinematic system to transfer motions and power from the power source(s), mostly electric motors, to
the job and tool and (c) the strong and robust body structure. A number of machine tools are used to accom-
plish different types of machining operations – turning, drilling, boring, shaping, milling, etc. – to produce
cylindrical surfaces, flat surfaces, contour surfaces and parting, slitting, slotting, grooving, etc. Machine tool
engineering covers several aspects: planning, design, manufacture, installation, inspection, operation and
maintenance of machine tools. All such points have been briefly highlighted in this chapter.

11.2 Definition and Role of Machine Tool

With the rapid and vast developments in science and technology, innumerable techniques and processes
of manufacturing products, of various materials, configuration and precision have been innovated and

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 420 Machining and Machine Tools

incorporated.[1,2] All these processes are grouped into four major categories – forming, joining, removal and
regenerative.[3,4] The removal process in manufacturing is accomplished by machining and grinding by which
jobs are semi-finished or finished to desired dimensional accuracy and surface finish for proper functioning,
improved performance and longer service life of the products. Preforming like casting, forging, rolling, etc.
cannot provide such accuracy and finish, hence most of the engineering products need machining after pre-
forming. Machining and grinding inevitably require use of some powerful and robust machines called machine
tools. Therefore, without machine tools not only several engineering components but also other machines and
equipments cannot be produced. Hence, manufacturing industries and socio-economy are extremely depen-
dant on machine tools. Machine tool can be defined in several ways[1,5,6]; one comprehensive definition is:
A machine tool is a non-portable and power operated device or system of devices in which energy is expended to pro-
duce jobs of desired dimension and finish by machining, that is, removing excess material from the preformed blank(s)
in the form of chips with the help of cutting tool(s) moved past the work surface at controlled speeds and feeds.

11.3 Major Components of Machine Tools and Their Functions

Any machine tool (e.g., lathe, drilling machine, milling machine, etc.) essentially comprises some major
components as common features such as:
1. Devices for holding the blank and the cutting tool(s) properly and firmly.
2. Devices for providing motions and power to the tool(s) and the workpiece.
3. Kinematic system for transforming and transmitting the motions and power from the power source(s)
to the tool(s) and workpiece.
4. Automation and control systems.
5. Heavy structural body to support and accommodate those systems quite strongly, rigidly and safely.
Machining in any machine tool needs proper contact and relative motions between the workpiece and the
tool. The firmly held tool and the workpiece receive the desired motions and the cutting power from the power
drive of the machine through a kinematic system comprising various types and number of mechanisms. The
cutting tool or workpiece may be mounted on a table, which is made to slide along the guides provided on
the machine tool body. The robust structural body of the machine tool comprises a base, bed, column, legs,
etc. depending on the type and size of the machine tool. The base or columns of the machine tool are firmly
grouted on a proper foundation. The bed and columns of the machine tool are provided with guides to enable
the slides holding the work or tool move in desired directions. Besides this, a machine tool essentially also
possesses systems of various types for manual or automatic control of the tool–work motions.

11.4 General Configuration of Common Machine Tools

and Their Uses
11.4.1 Centre Lathes
Lathes, especially centre lathes, are most widely used[1,2] in machine shops for their versatility. General con-
figuration of centre lathe is shown in Fig. 11.1. The major components and their functions in a centre lathe
are as follows:
1. Headstock: This heavy housing, being mounted on the bed at its left end, receives power and motion
from the motor and transmits the same to the workpieces through a clutch, speed gear box (SGB)

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 Introduction to Machine Tools 421

Tool post Job(rod) Tailstock

Tool
Headstock
SGB

FGB
Rack
Feed rod
Leadscrew
Bed
Carriage

Figure 11.1 Configuration and salient features of centre lathe.

and the spindle contained in the headstock housing. Thus, the headstock enables rotating the work-
piece at different speeds as required.
2. Tailstock: This relatively smaller body can be shifted and fixed at any location on the lathe bed coaxi-
ally with the headstock. The main functions of the tailstock are to provide support to long and heavy
workpieces and often hold and move some cutting tools for operations like drilling, reaming, etc.
3. Carriage: This heavy part with a number of mechanisms and parts in it is made to slide along the
lathe bed. The carriage firmly holds the tools and moves it at different feed rates. The carriage derives
motions usually from the spindle through a feed gear box (FGB) and a feed rod or lead screw.
4. Bed: This rigid bulky horizontal beam stands firmly on two legs or columns. On the bed, the head-
stock remains bolted, the tailstock is shifted and clamped and the carriage slides.
5. Work–tool holding devices: The blanks are usually mounted in between centres or chucks, whereas
cutting tools are generally held in the tool post which is mounted on the saddle. Tools are also often
held in the tailstock quill.
The common and frequent uses of centre lathes include the following:
1. Turning, which is of two types external and internal. These can be further subdivided into straight,
taper, stepped, contour.
2. Facing, chamfering, grooving, parting, etc.
3. Centering, drilling, reaming, boring, etc.
4. Thread cutting: external and internal.
5. Knurling.
Some of these operations are schematically shown in Fig. 11.2. Several other operations can also be done in
centre lathes using suitable attachments.

11.4.2 Shaping Machine

The general configuration of shaping machine[1,2] is shown in Fig. 11.3. The major components and their
functions in a shaping machine are as follows:
1. Ram: This salient part is made to reciprocate horizontally along a fixed guide and provides the cut-
ting motion to the tool being mounted in front of the ram.

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 422 Machining and Machine Tools

Turning Facing Grooving Forming Threading

External

Internal

Figure 11.2 Some common machining operating done in centre lathe.

2. Bed: This heavy rigid body moves slowly along the horizontal guides to provide feed motions to the
blank mounted on the bed.
3. Housing (body) with base: This hollow but rigid large structure accommodates the main driving
mechanisms and provides support to the moving ram and the bed.
4. Power drive: It is the source of power and motion with speed and feed change mechanisms.
Shaping machines are generally used for machining flat surfaces in different planes, grooving, splitting, etc.
Because of poor productivity and process capability, use of shaping machines has now-a-days been limited to
only piece production and maintenance work in small industries.

Clapperbox
Ram
Tool
Housing
Job
Vice
Power drive

Bed

Base

Figure 11.3 Configuration of shaping machine.

11.4.3 Planing Machine

The general configuration of planing machine[2] is shown in Fig. 11.4. Planing machines also do almost the
same type of machining operations as done in shaping machines. However there are some differences; the
major ones are as follows:

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 Introduction to Machine Tools 423

Frame

Tool

Job
Table
Power
Bed drive
Base

Figure 11.4 General configuration of planing machine.

1. In planing, the table with the job reciprocates to impart cutting motion and the tool moves slowly
for the feed motion unlike in shaping machine.
2. Planing machines are usually much larger and heavier than shaping machines and are used for large
jobs and heavy duty work.

11.4.4 Drilling Machine

Drilling machines are used[1,2] mainly to produce straight cylindrical holes in solid bodies with the help of
drill bits. Drilling machines widely vary in configuration and size. Figure 11.5 typically shows configura-
tion of a commonly used column type drilling machine. Drilling machine (column type) comprises the
following:
1. Column: A long hollow but rigid vertical structure which stands on its base and provides support to
the other components.
2. Drilling head: This box type body accommodates the power drive and the gear boxes to adjust speed
and feed.
3. Spindle: This rod-like component is rotated and axially moved along with the coaxially mounted
drill to impart both cutting motion and feed motion to the tool.
Drilling machines of different sizes and configurations are used
1. Mainly for creating or enlarging straight cylindrical holes.
2. Occasionally for boring, counter boring, counter sinking, etc.
3. Often for cutting internal threads in objects like nuts using suitable attachments.

11.4.5 Milling Machine

The general configuration of typical knee type conventional milling machine[1,2] with horizontal arbour is
shown in Fig. 11.6. Its major parts are as follows:
1. Milling arbour to hold and rotate the cutter.

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 424 Machining and Machine Tools

Drilling
head Feed
gear Speed gear
box box

Spindle

Column
Drill
Job

Bed

Base

Figure 11.5 Configuration of a typical drilling machine.

Ram

Cutter
job

Speed
gear
Feed box
gear
box

Base

Figure 11.6 Configuration of a typical drilling machine.

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 Introduction to Machine Tools 425

Surfacing Slotting Grooving Slitting Forming

Figure 11.7 Some common milling machines.

2. Ram to support the arbour.

3. Machine table on which job and job holding devices are mounted to provide the feed motions to
the job.
4. Power drive with speed and feed gear boxes to provide power and motions to the tool-work.
5. Bed which moves vertically upward and downward and accommodates the various drive
mechanisms.
6. Column with base which is the main structural body to support other parts.
Milling machines are also quite versatile and can do several operations[7] such as:
1. Making flat surfaces in different planes.
2. Grooving, slitting and parting.
3. Helical grooving.
4. Forming 2-D and 3-D contoured surfaces.
Figure 11.7 shows some of the aforesaid milling operations. More detailed discussions with several illustra-
tions are provided in the subsequent chapters.

11.5 Major Aspects of Machine Tools

The major aspects of machine tools engineering and their functional interrelations are indicated in
Fig. 11.8. A machine tool manufacturing industry first makes a proper planning and critically decides,
after thorough survey of the market demands and socio-economy, the category, type, capacity, precision,
automation, etc. of machine tools they will manufacture. After selection, the machine tools are designed
and then manufactured accordingly. At different stages and completion of manufacture, each prototype is
inspected and tested. The customer or the users first select from these manufactured and available machine
tools according to their need and satisfaction. After purchase, the machine tool is mounted and installed on
a suitable foundation. Before regular use or operation, the machine tool has to be properly commissioned
and tested. During and after operations, the performance of that machine tool is assessed mainly in terms
of productivity and product quality. If the performance is not satisfactory, the causes are analysed and the
experts prepare a list of corrective measures to be undertaken by the operator, maintenance section or even
designer and manufactures of that machine, immediately or later for desirably good or better performance
of that machine tool.

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 426 Machining and Machine Tools

Design Manufacture Selection Foundation and installation

Testing
Operation

Maintenance
Assessment

Modification / Analysis
improvement Corrective measure

Figure 11.8 Major aspects associated with machine tools.

SU M M A R Y
The roles of machining and machine tools in The general applications of the different classical
manufacturing industries and on socio-economy machine tools have been mentioned here.
have been highlighted. A reasonable definition of Machine tool engineering has obviously become
machine tool has been provided. All the conven- a great concern in manufacturing and a field of pro-
tional machine tools possess some common features fessional interest of several sections of people. The
and components for serving specific purposes. This major aspects and the interactive modules of activi-
has been briefly addressed. The general configura- ties that are associated with machine tool engineer-
tion, major parts and their features and purposes ing have been highlighted in this chapter. The actual
have been presented with respect to some primary work done in machine tools through generation of
machines: drilling machine and milling machine. geometrical surface by using Generatrix, Directrix
The elementary machining operations that are car- and tool–work motions is discussed in the next
ried out in these machine tools are also illustrated. chapter.

M U L T I P L E CH O I C E QU E S T I O N S

[Answers are provided in the CD]

1. Machine tool helps manufacturing products (c) Do not deal with any energy
by (d) Both produce and use energy
(a) Joining process 3. The machine that can be called machine
(b) Metal forming process tool is
(c) Removal process (a) Stamping machine
(d) Regenerative process (b) Shearing machine
2. Machine tools (c) Rolling machine
(a) Produce energy (d) All of the above
(b) Utilize energy (e) None of the above

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 Introduction to Machine Tools 427

4. While machining, the workpiece rotates in (b) Drop forging

(a) Lathes (c) Hot rolling
(b) Drilling machines (d) Machining
(c) Shaping machines 8. The operation that cannot be done in lathes is
(d) Milling machines (a) Enlarging cylindrical hole
5. While machining, the cutting tool always (b) Internal thread cutting
rotates in (c) Parting
(a) Centre lathes (d) Knurling
(b) Shaping machines (e) None of the above
(c) Planing machines 9. The oldest machine tool is
(d) Milling machines (a) Lathe
6. The process which cannot be called preform- (b) Shaping machine
ing is (c) Planing machine
(a) Rolling (d) Milling machine
(b) Forging 10. Flat surfaces are not produced in
(c) Machining (a) Lathe
(d) Welding (b) Drilling machine
7. Maximum dimensional accuracy and surface (c) Shaping machine
finish can be achieved by (d) Milling machine
(a) Sand casting

R E V I E W QU E S T I O N S
1. How can ‘machine tool’ be defined? What the tool, workpiece, base, spindle, column and
socio-economic roles are played by machine motor in that machine.
tools for the industries and the nation? 7. Show by line diagram, a milling machine and
2. Name the major components common to all visualize its ram, column, bed and tool–workpiece
conventional machine tools and the functions mounted in that machine.
of those components. 8. Show by suitable diagrams some (at least five)
3. Show by simple diagrams the various ma- common machining operations that are con-
chining operations that are generally done in ducted in milling machines.
lathes. 9. Where and how the cutting tool and the
4. State the locations and functions of the head- workpiece are mounted in shaping machine
stock, tailstock and carriage in centre lathes. and planing machine?
5. How are planing machines different from 10. Describe briefly, with the help of a block dia-
shaping machines? gram, the major aspects that are associated
6. By sketching a simple line diagram of a drilling with machine tools engineering. Also show the
machine, visualize the location and position of inter-connections amongst those aspects.

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MAMT_Chapter 11.indd 428 7/21/2011 11:28:42 AM
 12 Functional Principles of
Machine Tools
Learning Objectives
The content of this chapter would enable the readers to:
• Realize and demonstrate that machine tools • Visualize the different tool–work motions essential
actually do not produce jobs but help in manu- to produce different surfaces in machine tools.
facturing products by imparting or providing • Identify and illustrate the possible means of
some essential geometrical surfaces: flat, cylin- obtaining the required Generatrix and Directrix.
drical and 2-D or 3-D contour surfaces with • Establish and visualize the interconnections
desired accuracy and finish through the process amongst Generatrix and Directrix, tool–work
of machining. motions and the sources of the Generatrix and
• Grasp and utilize the concept of Generatrix Directrix for various machining operations in dif-
and Directrix required for producing various ferent machine tools.
types of surfaces in different machine tools.

12.1 Introduction
Machine tools do not actually produce or manufacture products but help in manufacturing solid products
by machining through generating or imparting some geometrical surfaces on the preformed blanks with high
accuracy and finish. Generation or production of any geometrical surface requires use of Generatrix and
Directrix which are basically two line vectors. While machining in any machine tool the required Generatrix
and Directrix are created or provided mainly by the formative motions of the tool and job. Generally, the
cutting motion (velocity vector) imparted to the workpiece or the tool provides the Generatrix and the feed-
motion of the tool or job originates the Directrix. In forming and contouring operations, the tool profile
functions as the Generatrix. However, for clearly understanding the ways of producing various geometrical
surfaces in any machine tool, it is necessary to conceptualize Generatrix and Directrix, their interconnections
with the tool–work motions and the sources of these Generatrix and the Directrix. All the machining opera-
tions carried out in machine tools for producing parts and features bounded by various geometrical surfaces
can be clearly explained and demonstrated by the combinations of the Generatrix and Directrix and the
motions and forms of the tools and jobs. This concept and knowledge facilitate design and use of machine
tools for their various applications.

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 430 Machining and Machine Tools

The major aspects of professional interest about machine tools are their planning, design, manufacture,
installation and inspection, operation and maintenance.

12.2 Basic Functions of Machine Tools

It is already stated that preformed blanks are essentially finished by machining in the machine tools to
desired dimensional accuracy and surface finish. The functions of the machine tools like lathes, drilling
machines, shaping machines, milling machines, etc.[1−4] are basically to produce or impart on the solid
blank, one or more desirably accurate and well-finished geometrical surfaces like flat surfaces, cylindri-
cal surfaces or contoured surfaces, which are generally mathematically expressible. Production of such
surfaces in machine tools needs appropriate relative positioning and motions of the cutting tool and the
workpiece.

12.2.1 Concept of Generatrix and Directrix[5]

12.2.1.1 Generation of Geometrical Surfaces in Machine Tools
Generation of Flat Surfaces
Figure 12.1 typically shows the principle, where on a flat plain a straight line called Generatrix (G) is traversed
in a perpendicular direction called Directrix (D) resulting in a flat surface.

Generation of Cylindrical Surfaces

The principles of generation of various cylindrical surfaces (of revolution) are shown in Fig. 12.2 where
1. A long straight cylindrical surface is obtained by a circle (G) being traversed in the direction (D)
parallel to the axis as indicated in Fig. 12.2(a).

G D

D G
(a) (b)

Figure 12.1 Generation of flat surfaces by Generatrix and Directrix.

D
G

D D
D
G G G
(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure 12.2 Generation of cylindrical surfaces of revolution.

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 Functional Principles of Machine Tools 431

2. A cylindrical surface of short length is obtained by traversing a straight line (G) along a circular path
(D) as indicated in Fig. 12.2(b).
3. Form cylindrical surfaces are obtained by traversing a curved line (G) along a circular path (D) as
typically shown in Figs. 12.2(c) and (d).

12.2.2 Tool–Work Motions in Machine Tools

The lines representing the Generatrix and Directrix are usually produced by the locus of a point moving in
specified directions and are actually obtained by the motions of the tool-tip (point) relative to the work sur-
face. Hence, for machining flat or curved surfaces the machine tools need relative tool–work motions, which
are categorized in following two groups:
1. Formative motions, namely
(a) Cutting motion (CM).
(b) Feed motion (FM).
2. Auxiliary motions, such as
(a) Indexing motion of work or tool.
(b) Additional feed motion as in gear shaping machine.
(c) Relieving motion as in relieving lathe, gear shaper, etc.
The Generatrix and Directrix, tool and the work and their motions generally remain interconnected. How-
ever, they are interconnected in different ways for different machining work. Such interconnections are shown
in Fig. 12.3 for straight turning and in Fig. 12.4 for shaping. In case of straight longitudinal turning as shown
in Fig. 12.3(a), the connections are:
Generatrix (G) − Cutting motion (CM) − Work (W)
Directrix (D) − Feed motion (FM) − Tool (T)
It is to be noted that while producing flat surfaces in shaping machine, the Generatrix is provided by the
cutting motion imparted to the cutting tool and the Directrix is provided by the feed motion of the work.
The connections are
G − CM − T
D − FM − W

CM
Cutting motion

D
D G
G

Feed motion
FM

(a) (b)

Figure 12.3 Principle of turning (cylindrical surface): (a) Longitudinal turning; (b) transverse turning.

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 432 Machining and Machine Tools

Tool

Work
G

Desired flat surface

CM D
FM

Figure 12.4 Principle of producing flat surface in shaping machine.

Flat surfaces are also produced by planing machines, mainly for large jobs, where the cutting motion is
imparted to the work and the feed motion to the tool. In such cases the connections will be
G − CM − Work
D − FM − Tool

12.2.3 Sources of Generatrix and Directrix

The Generatrix and Directrix can be obtained in four ways:
1. Tracing (Tr): Here the continuous line is attained as a trace or path of a moving point as shown in
Figs. 12.3 and 12.4.
2. Forming (F): Here the Generatrix is simply the profile or form of the cutting edge as indicated in
Figs. 12.2(c) and (d).
3. Tangent Tracing (TTr): Here the Directrix is taken as the tangent to the series of paths traced by the
cutting edges as in milling (Fig. 12.5).

CM

G Work Work FM

Figure 12.5 Directrix formed by tangent tracing in plain milling.

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 Functional Principles of Machine Tools 433

4. Generation (G): Here the Generatrix or Directrix is obtained as an envelope being tangent to the
instantaneous positions of a line or surface which is rolling on another surface. Gear teeth generation
by hobbing or gear shaping is an example (Fig. 12.6).
Figure 12.5 typically shows the tool–work motions and the corresponding Generatrix (G) and Directrix
(D) while producing flat surface by a plain or slab milling cutter in a conventional horizontal arbour milling
machine. The G and D are connected here with the tool–work motions as
G−x−T−F
D − FM − W − TTr
CM − T
Here G and D are independent of the cutting motion and the G is the line of contact between the milling
cutter and the flat work surface. Since the present cutter is of roller shape, G has been a straight line and the
surface produced has also been flat. Form milling cutters will produce formed surfaces as shown in Fig. 12.7
where G is nothing but the tool-form.
For making holes in drilling machines both the cutting motion and the feed motion are imparted to the
cutting tool, that is, the drill bit whereas the workpiece remains stationary. This is shown in Fig. 12.8. The G
and D are linked with the tool–work as
G − CM − T − Tr
D − FM − T − Tr
Boring machines are mostly used for enlargement and finishing of existing cylindrical holes. Boring ma-
chines are of two types:

Rolling

Tool

Gear tooth profile

Blank

Figure 12.6 Generatrix (or Directrix) in gear teeth cutting by generation.

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 434 Machining and Machine Tools

CM CM

FM G FM

D D

Figure 12.7 Tool–work motions and G and D in form milling (grooving).

CM
G
FM

G D

Figure 12.8 Tool–work motions and G and D in drilling (machine).

1. Vertical boring machine: low or medium duty and high precision, (e.g., jig boring machine).
2. Horizontal axis boring machine: medium or heavy duty.
In respect of tool–work motions and G and D, vertical boring and drilling are same. In horizontal boring
machine, the feed motion is imparted to the work to provide the Directrix by Tracing.

12.3 Generatrix, Directrix and Tool–Work Motions for Various

Machining Work
The principles and methods of production of various features or types of jobs in different machine tools in
respect of Generatrix, Directrix and tool–work motions are shown in Table 12.1.

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 Table 12.1 Tool–work motions and Generatrix and Directrix involved in different machining operations

MAMT_Chapter 12.indd 435

Serial Generatrix Tool or Sources of
Machining operation Illustration Motions
number and Directrix work G and D

(1) Turning CM
G CM W Tr
1(a) External G
D
(i) Straight plain D FM T Tr
FM

CM
G CM W Tr
G
(ii) Taper
D
D FM T Tr
FM

CM
G G CM W Tr
G
(iii) Facing

D FM (Cross) T Tr
FM D

CM
G – T F
D
(iv) Grooving and forming

CM W
G D Tr
FM FM T

(Continued )
Functional Principles of Machine Tools 435

7/21/2011 11:30:03 AM
 Table 12.1 (Continued)
436

Serial Generatrix Tool or Sources of

MAMT_Chapter 12.indd 436

Machining operation Illustration Motions
number and Directrix work G and D

CM Vf
1(a) G – T F

D
(v) Threading
Vc
D
D CM + FM W+T Tr
FM G
Machining and Machine Tools

CM
1(b) Internal G CM W Tr
G
D
FM
(i) Straight D FM T Tr

CM
G CM W Tr
G
(ii) Taper
D
FM D FM T Tr
D

CM
G – T F
G
(iii) Grooving
FM CM W
D Tr
G FM T

7/21/2011 11:30:03 AM
 Table 12.1 (Continued)

Serial Generatrix Tool or Sources of

MAMT_Chapter 12.indd 437

Machining operation Illustration Motions
number and Directrix work G and D

CM
G – T F
1(b)

(iv) Threading D
FM
D CM + FM W+T Tr
G

CM
G CM T Tr

2(a) Shaping
D
D FM W Tr
G FM

FM G CM W Tr

2(b) Planing G

D FM T Tr
D CM

CM G – T F
G

2(c) Slotting
CM W
D Tr
D FM T
Functional Principles of Machine Tools 437

7/21/2011 11:30:04 AM
 438

Table 12.1 (Continued)

MAMT_Chapter 12.indd 438

Serial Generatrix Tool or Sources of
Machining operation Illustration Motions
number and Directrix work G and D

FM
CM G G CM T Tr

3. Drilling G D

D D FM T Tr
Machining and Machine Tools

4. Boring G CM T Tr
CM
G
G
D
(a) Vertical/jig boring FM D D FM T Tr

CM
G CM T Tr
G
(b) Horizontal
D D FM W Tr
FM

5. Milling CM G – T F

(a) Plain/slab mill-

D FM W
ing (producing flat D T Tr
G FM
CM T
surface.)

7/21/2011 11:30:05 AM
 Table 12.1 (Continued)

Serial Generatrix Tool or Sources of

MAMT_Chapter 12.indd 439

Machining operation Illustration Motions
number and Directrix work G and D

CM
(b) End milling
G – T F
(slotting)
FM D

G D
(Producing flat G
FM W
D T Tr
surfaces) CM T

CM
(c) Face milling
G – T Tr
(slotting)

D
(Producing flat FM W
D T Tr
surfaces) G CM T
FM

G – T F

CM
(d) Form milling gear
teeth (involute)
D
G FM W
D T Tr
FM CM T
Gear teeth milling
Functional Principles of Machine Tools 439

7/21/2011 11:30:06 AM
 Table 12.1 (Continued)
440

Serial Generatrix Tool or Sources of

MAMT_Chapter 12.indd 440

Machining operation Illustration Motions
number and Directrix work G and D
6. Broaching (flat sur- CM
face & forming)

G – T F

D
Tooth rise
G
Machining and Machine Tools

CM T
D Tr
feed tooth rise

D
G

7. Gear (Spur) teeth by FM (intermittent)

CM
machining G – T F

A. Forming methods D
G CM T
D Tr
(a) Shaping FM W

FM (intermittent)
G – T F

(b) Planing
D CM
G CM W
D Tr
FM T

7/21/2011 11:30:06 AM
 Table 12.1 (Continued)

Serial Generatrix Tool or Sources of

MAMT_Chapter 12.indd 441

Machining operation Illustration Motions
number and Directrix work G and D

CM
(c) Milling G – T F

D
FM
(i) Disc type cutter G

FM W
D T Tr
CM T

CM
8. Gear teeth making
G – T F
A. Forming method
D
(a) Milling
(i) End milling G D FM W
T Tr
CM T
FM

CM
D
(b) Broaching G – T F
(i) External gear
t
CM
D Feed = tooth T Tr
G (entire gear Broach
rise
teeth profile) Blank
Functional Principles of Machine Tools 441

7/21/2011 11:30:07 AM
 Table 12.1 (Continued)
442

Serial Generatrix Tool or Sources of

Machining operation Illustration Motions

MAMT_Chapter 12.indd 442

number and Directrix work G and D
8 (B) Gear teeth produc- D (entire periphery) G (entire periphery)
tion by Generation
(a) G – cutting motion (T)
D – entire teeth profile (T + W )

Basic principles Gen- (b) G – entire teeth profile (T + W )

eration method D – axial FM (W )
G D
Machining and Machine Tools

(a) (b)

V = w R (rolling)

R Blank
G CM T Tr
(a) Single teeth action
Cutter
(Matterson’s method) D G
working principle w
– (a) CM
V FMs
D T+W Gen
w and V − feed and rolling motions (V & w )
generating principle type (a)

V = w R (rolling)

w G CM T Tr
(b) Sunderland method
(using rack type D R
G
cutter) working V CM
principle – (a)
FMs
D T+W Gen
Cutter (V & w )
Generating principle type (a)

7/21/2011 11:30:08 AM
 Table 12.1 (Continued)

MAMT_Chapter 12.indd 443

Serial Generatrix Tool or Sources of
Machining operation Illustration Motions
number and Directrix work G and D

CM
Feed (tangential)
motion (FM)
Indexing motion (IM)
9. Gear teeth making G CM T Tr
Radial
feed
Cutter motion

Generation method Blank

(a) Gear shaping work- FMs (FMf +

ing principle –(a) D T+W Gen
IM)

Relieving motion

G (entire teeth profile) Gear blank

G FM + IM T+W Gen
IM

(b) Hobbing working

principle – (b)
D

FM FM T
D T Tr
CM T

CM

CM, cutting motion; D, Directrix; F, forming; FM, feed motion; G, Generatrix; Gen, generation; T, tool; TTr, tangent tracing; Tr, tracing; W, workpiece.
Functional Principles of Machine Tools 443

7/21/2011 11:30:08 AM
 444 Machining and Machine Tools

SU M M A R Y
The actual role of machine tools in manufacturing different machine tools adopting the proper com-
engineering products and how that role is played binations of Generatrix and Directrix, tool–work
have been highlighted. The generation of various motions and form of the tools have been presented
geometrical surfaces like flat, cylindrical and 2-D with simple diagrams.
and 3-D contours employing Generatrix and Direc- The major aspects of professional interest associ-
trix has been illustrated. It is also demonstrated how ated with machine tool engineering have also been
the Generatrix and Directrix are interconnected indicated in this chapter. Proper power drives are
with their sources and the tool–work motions and selected and used in different machine tools. Types
tool forms. The methods of producing various prod- of power sources and their way of selection are pre-
ucts or features, bounded by geometrical surfaces, in sented in the next chapter.

MU LT I P L E CH O I C E QU E S T I O N S
[Answers are provided in the CD]
1. Both cutting motion and feed motion are im- (b) Producing gear teeth in hobbing machine
parted to the cutting tool in (c) Producing gear teeth by broaching
(a) Lathe (d) Producing gear teeth in milling
(b) Drilling machine 6. The Generatrix is not the replica of the form of
(c) Milling machine cutting tool in producing teeth of spur gears by
(d) Shaping machine (a) Milling using disc type cutter
2. Only one tool–work motion is required in (b) Milling using end mill type cutter
(a) Shaping machine (c) Gear hobbing
(b) Planing machine (d) Broaching
(c) Slotting machine 7. In respect of G/D, CM/FM and T/W, slotting
(d) Broaching machine (machine) is same as
3. With respect to Generatrix and Directrix, the (a) Planing (machine)
way of their tool–work motions, drilling (ma- (b) Shaping (machine)
chine) is similar to (c) Broaching (machine)
(a) External turning in lathe (d) Gear (teeth) shaping (machine)
(b) Internal turning in lathe 8. In straight turning in centre lathe, the Genera-
(c) Vertical boring (machine) trix is provided by
(d) Horizontal boring (machine) (a) The cutting motion and the tool
4. The Directrix is obtained by tangent tracing (b) The feed motion and the tool
(TTr) in (c) Cutting motion and the workpiece
(a) Plain milling (d) Cutting motion and the tool
(b) End milling 9. The Generatrix is provided in the form of a
(c) Hobbing (machine) circle and its diameter gradually decreases in
(d) All of the above (a) Straight turning in lathe
5. Both the tool–work motions combined (b) Internal turning in lathe
together provide the Directrix in (c) Facing in lathe
(a) Thread cutting in centre lathe (d) Grooving in lathe

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 Functional Principles of Machine Tools 445

10. While machining cylindrical holes, the work- (c) Horizontal boring
piece rotates while (d) Broaching
(a) Drilling in centre lathe
(b) Drilling in drilling machine

R E V I E W QU E S T I O N S
1. Machine tools basically produce some geo- (c) Workpiece (W) and tool (T)
metrical surfaces on solid bodies – justify the (d) The way of getting the ‘G’ and ‘D’ in case
statement. of
2. Briefly explain with the help of suitable (i) Taper turning: external and
diagrams the principle of production of flat internal
surfaces and cylindrical surfaces with the help (ii) Groove forming in a rod in a lathe
of Generatrix and Directrix. (iii) Internal thread cutting
3. Classify, with examples, the motions that are 10. With the help of suitable illustrative diagrams,
imparted to the workpiece and the cutting connect the ‘G’ and ‘D’ with CM/FM, T/W
tools for machining in machine tools. and the ways of getting ‘G’ and ‘D’, that is,
4. Visualize with the help of suitable sketches the Tr/F/TTr/G in cases of
connection of Generatrix and Directrix with (a) Shaping
the tool–work motions in (b) Planing
(a) Straight turning (c) Slotting
(b) Shaping (d) Broaching (for flat surfaces)
(c) Drilling 11. Distinguish between
5. What are the different methods or ways of ob- (a) Drilling (machine) and vertical boring
taining the lines Generatrix and Directrix in (b) Vertical (jig) boring and horizontal.
various machine tools? Explain with specific Boring w.r.t. G/D, CM/FM, T/W and
examples. Tr/F/TTr/G.
6. How do drilling machines produce internal 12. Distinguish between plain (or slab) milling and
cylindrical surfaces by their tool–work mo- end milling w.r.t. configuration and motion of
tions as well as Generatrix and Directrix? the tool–work, ‘G’ and ‘D’ and their linking.
7. Draw suitable diagrams to visualize how straight 13. Compare all the methods of producing the
grooves of Vee section and semi-circular section teeth of straight-toothed spur gears by machin-
are produced in milling by Generatrix and Di- ing with respect to
rectrix and the imparted tool–work motions. (a) Tool–work motions (CM/FM)
8. Show the Generatrix and Directrix in external (b) Generatrix and Directrix (G/D)
(and internal) thread cutting in centre lathe. (c) Way of getting G and D
Connect the Generatrix and Directrix, cutting (d) The links amongst those G/D, CM/FM,
motion and feed motion, tool and workpiece T/W and Tr/F/TTr/G
and also indicate how the Generatrix and Di- 14. Distinguish between forming and generation
rectrix are obtained. in respect of producing gear teeth by machin-
9. With the help of suitable illustrations connect ing in different machine tools.
(a) The Generatrix (G) and Directrix (D) 15. Distinguish between gear shaping and gear
(b) Cutting motion (CM) and feed motion hobbing w.r.t. G/D, CM/FM, T/W and T/F/
(FM) TTr/G as well as applications.

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MAMT_Chapter 12.indd 446 7/21/2011 11:30:09 AM
 13 Machine Tool Power Drives
Learning Objectives
The content of this chapter would enable the readers to:
• Understand the necessity and functions of • Estimate maximum torque, speed and power
power drives in machine tools. requirement before selecting the rated power
• State the definitions of machine tool power and speed for the power sources and design-
drive. ing the entire power drive system for the given
• Classify, characterize and select power sources machine tool.
for different machine tools. • Know and exploit the basic requirements,
• Acquire knowledge which will help to select advantages, limitations and scope of applica-
and design the power drive systems for dif- tion of hydraulic drive in specific machine
ferent machine tools. tools.

13.1 Introduction
Machine tools need adequate power to accomplish chip formation and overcome friction, inertia forces,
etc. while machining. All machine tools are provided with some power sources and also kinematic systems
to transmit power and motion from the power sources to the moving job and tool. Several types of power
sources of different rated capacities and characteristics are available from which the appropriate one is to be
selected depending upon the machining requirements of the machine tool concerned.
While designing the power drive system and selecting power sources (e.g., motors, etc.) for any machine
tool, the total maximum torque, speed and power requirement need to be assessed taking all the possible
factors into account. This obviously requires knowledge and experience of machining theories. Hydraulic or
electro-hydraulic drives have few advantages as well as limitations. Selection, design and application of such
drives become essential and also economically viable for some machine tools such as heavy duty grinding
machines, broaching machines and even horizontal drilling and boring machines. Machine tool designers,
hence, essentially need to be aware of the types, characteristics and the standard rated capacities of the various
power sources which are feasible and available. They should also know how to estimate the maximum forces,
torque, speed and power that may be required by the concerned machine tool.

13.2 Power Sources Used in Machine Tools

Any machining work essentially needs relative motions and cutting power for the desired tool–work interac-
tions. All machine tools must possess one or more power sources to provide such cutting power and tool–
work motions.

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 448 Machining and Machine Tools

Machine tool drives actually refer to the source(s) of motion, torque and power and the kinematic system(s)
that transform and transmit those motions and power to the tool and work for necessary machining work.
Machine tool drive also includes the system that is used to regulate speed and feed.
Machine tool drives may be one of the following types:
1. Electro-mechanical type drives: These are more common where main source(s) is electrical motor(s)
from which power and motions are transmitted to the tool and work through several mechanisms.
2. Electro-hydraulic type drives: They are common where power and motions are derived from elec-
trical motor(s) and transmitted through several hydraulic systems.
3. Combination of electro-mechanical and electro-hydraulic drives.
Electro-mechanical type machine tool drives comprise generally of electrical motor(s) and a number of indepen-
dent or interdependent kinematic chains of several mechanisms. Electro-hydraulic drives usually consist of
1. one or more hydraulic power packs, each comprising a suitable hydraulic pump such as vane pump,
radial piston pump, etc. being driven by an electric motor and the allied reservoir, strainer, foot valve
and a relief valve.
2. hydraulic motor or actuator, generally piston–cylinder system.
3. a hydraulic circuitry comprising several valves for transmitting and regulating pressure, force and
travelling speeds and directions.
Some heavy duty and precision machine tools such as broaching machines, grinding machines, etc. are
designed to have both mechanical and hydraulic drives. Electrical motors are most widely used as power
source(s) in machine tools. Motors of different types and sizes are used depending upon the type and
application of the machine tools. Machine tool drives, in terms of tool–work motions, are further classi-
fied as:
1. stepped drive or stepless drives.
2. positive type drives or non-positive type drives.
The differences and examples of all such possible machine tool drives have been presented[1−3] in Chapters
12, 14 and 15.
The types of electric motors, which are generally used for electro-mechanical drives in machine tools, are
as follows:
1. For stepped drives
(a) induction motors having only one or two fixed speeds.
2. For stepless drives
(a) variable speed induction motor with frequency converter.
(b) DC motors.
(c) Ward–Leonard system of motor–generator–motor set.
3. For NC and CNC machines
(a) stepper motor.
(b) AC and DC servo motors.
In induction motors, the speed of the spindle Ns is obtained as
f r × 60
Ns = rpm (13.1)
N pp

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 Machine Tool Power Drives 449

where fr is the frequency (Hz) and Npp is the number of effective pairs of magnetic poles. In some induction
motors, Npp can be changed from 4 to 2 giving two speeds.
In electro-hydraulic drives, generally robust and powerful AC motors are used to run the pumps of the
hydraulic power packs.

13.3 Estimation of Power Requirement for Machine Tool Drives

Machine tool drives need power
1. to provide cutting power for chip formation (separation).
2. to overcome friction forces and power consumed at the sliding surfaces.
3. to overcome inertia forces.
4. for auxiliary motions and work.
5. to accommodate dynamic and overload factors.
For instance, the maximum power requirement (Um) from the motor in a centre lathes may be estimated
from
[U cmax + U fmax + U Imax ] × f d × f ol
Um = (13.2)
ηe × ηm

where Ucm is the maximum power required for machining; PzVc is the cutting power required; PxVf is the feed
power required; Ufmax is the maximum friction power; UImax is the maximum inertia power; fd, fol are dynamic
and overload factors (in the order of 1.0 to 1.25); and he, hm are the electrical and mechanical efficiencies of
the entire drive systems. Now the maximum power required for machining is given by

Ucm = (PzVc + PxVf ) max (13.3)

However, while selecting and purchasing the motor, its rated power must be standard, available and not less
than Um estimated. The kinematic systems for transforming, transmitting and regulating motions in different
machine tool drives have been schematically shown and explained in Chapters 14–16 and 21.

13.4 Hydraulic Drives in Machine Tools

Hydraulic drive is employed in some machine tools requiring noiseless smooth operation and heavy forces
during tool–work interactions. Hydraulic drive is generally incorporated for tool or work-feed motions. High
speed rotary motions are attained by electric motors as usual. For hydraulic drive, a machine tool needs use of
one or more hydraulic power pack, where basically an oil as hydraulic fluid is pressurized by a pump-motor set
and that high pressure fluid, after desirably regulated by a relief valve, is used to drive one or more hydraulic
motors, preferably linear type such as piston–cylinder system. Usually the piston moves in stationary cylin-
ders to move the table or any slide with the tool or the workpiece. Occasionally the piston remains stationary
and the cylinder holding the tool or the job moves as in hydraulic copying lathe (Fig. 21.24, Chapter 21).
Figure 21.23 schematically shows a typical hydraulically driven machine tool where the rotating drill is moved
at steplessly varying feed rate. The hydraulic fluid at high pressure raised by pump and regulated by relief valve
is passed into the piston–cylinder type hydraulic motor via direction control valve. The speed of travel of the

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 450 Machining and Machine Tools

piston (i.e., tool–feed rate) is regulated by a throttle valve assisted by pressure reducing valve. The relative
advantages of hydraulic drive are:
1. Smooth operation.
2. Precision (stepless) speed control.
3. Less jerk, vibration and noise.
4. Hardly needs separate lubrication.
5. Lesser wear and tear.
6. Easier connections by flexible tubings.
In spite of such merits, wide application of hydraulic drive in machine tools is constrained for the following
reasons:
1. Needs more floor space.
2. Chances of leakage of fluid, which not only causes inconveniences and hazards but also affects feed
rate control.
3. More difficulties in repair and maintenance.
Hydraulic drives are preferably and often essentially used in some machine tools which need high strength
and rigidity and stepless precision control of feed motions without jerk and noise under heavy cuts (such as
heavy duty precision grinding machines, broaching machine and heavy duty boring machines).

13.5 Solved Problems

PROBLEM 1
If the frequency (fr ) is 50 and the number of effective pairs of magnetic poles (Npp) is 2, then calculate
the spindle speed.
Solution: The spindle speed is given by
f r × 60 50 × 60
Ns = = = 1500 rpm
N pp 2

PROBLEM 2
An induction motor is to be selected while designing a centre lathe to be used under the following
conditions:
(a) max. value of the main cutting force, Pz = 800 N
(b) max. value of cutting velocity, Vc = 240 m/min
(c) feed-power required (PxVf ) = 10 % of cutting power
(d) power needed to overcome frictions (Uf ) = 15% of cutting power
(e) power needed to overcome inertial force (Ut) = 5% of cutting force
(f ) overload factor, fo = 1.50
(g) dynamic factor, fd = 1.20
(h) efficiencies of the electrical system, he = 0.95
(i) efficiency of the mechanical systems, hm = 0.90

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 Machine Tool Power Drives 451

Determine the standard rated power of that motor to be purchased from the market.
Solution: The value of maximum total power is given by

[( PzVc + PxVf )max + U f + U i ] f o f f

UT =
ηe ηm
where the cutting power Uc equals PzVc. Here,

Uc(max) = 800 × 240 Nm/min = 3200 Nm/sec = 3.2 kW

So, maximum power required for machining only (Um) is given by

Um = (PzVc + PxVf ) max = 3.2 + 0.1 + 3.2 = 3.52 kW

Therefore,

(3.52 + 0.15 × 3.2 + 0.10 × 3.2)1.25 × 1.2

UT = = 9.47 kW
0.95 × 0.90

The nearest higher standard power available is 11 kW. Therefore, for the present lathe, a 11 kW induction
motor has to be used.

SU M M A R Y
The necessity and functioning of power drives in while designing the power drive system of any
machine tools have been briefly pointed out. The machine tool specified for any particular range of
definition of machine tool power drive is also work.
stated. The power sources being used in machine Hydraulic or electro-hydraulic drives are often
tools have been classified. The characteristics and preferably employed in some machine tools. The
applicability of those types are also mentioned. The basic principle, requirements, relative advantages,
principles of selection of type and rated capacity limitations and applicability of such hydraulic drives
of power sources, which are feasible and available have been briefly included in this chapter for the
in market, depending upon the machining require- benefit of the readers and practicing engineers. Next
ments have been briefly discussed. It is also simply to power drive, the most important part of any ma-
demonstrated how the maximum power require- chine tool is its kinematic structure. This has been
ments are assessed. This is essential and important dealt in the next chapter.

MU LT I P L E CH O I C E QU E S T I O N S
[Answers are provided in the CD]
1. A machine tool drive deals with (c) Regulation of tool–work motions
(a) Power requirement (d) All of the above
(b) Transmission system

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 452 Machining and Machine Tools

2. Machine tool drive cannot be (c) Vane pump

(a) Electro-mechanical type (d) Radial piston pump
(b) Electro-hydraulic type 7. Ward–Leonard system of motor–generator–
(c) Pneumatic types motor set up is used in some lathe for
(d) Combination of electro-hydraulic and (a) Stepped drive
electro-mechanical (b) Stepless drive
3. Machine tools having stepped drive (spindle- (c) Any of the above
speed) are powered by (d) None of the above
(a) DC motor 8. Hydraulic drive is used in broaching machine
(b) Induction motor for
(c) Servo motor (a) Stepless cutting velocities
(d) Stepper motor (b) Stepless feed rate
4. Servo motors are used for feed drives of (c) Stepped cutting velocities
(a) Hydraulic copying lathe (d) Stepped feed rates
(b) Broaching machine 9. In hydraulically driven broaching machine the
(c) CNC milling machine cutting velocity is varied by regulating
(d) Capstan lathe (a) Relief valve
5. In some machine tools, hydraulic drive is used (b) Foot valve
for (c) Throttle valve
(a) Stepped drive (d) Pressure reducing valve
(b) Stepless drive 10. Application of hydraulic drive in machine
(c) For both of the above tools is constrained or limited due to
(d) None of the above (a) More floor space required
6. The pump, which is not used in hydraulic (b) Chances of leakage of fluid
drive of any machine tool, is (c) More difficult maintenance
(a) Gear pump (d) All of the above
(b) Centrifugal pump

R E V I E W QU E S T I O N S
1. What are the functions of machine tool devices? 8. What factors need to be considered while
2. How can machine tool drives be classified? selecting motor for any machine tool
3. What type of power sources are generally used drive?
in different machine tool drives? 9. How is the power of the main motor of any
4. How are machine tools provided with stepless centre lathe and any drilling machine select-
drives? ed for purchase?
5. Describe briefly the principle of Ward–Leon- 10. Describe briefly with the help of suitable
ard system used to provide stepless drive in diagram the construction and working of
machine tool. hydraulic-feed drive of any machine tool.
6. How can speed be changed in induction motor?
7. State the advantages and limitations of hydraulic
drive over mechanical drive in machine tools.

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 14 Role and Forms of Kinematic
Structure in Machine Tools
Learning Objectives
The contents of this chapter would enable the readers to:
• Define machine tool kinematic structure and • Suggest and illustrate the different mechanisms
address its necessity and functional roles in which are commonly used in machine tools for
machine tools. conversion of rotation to rotation and rotation
• Demonstrate the construction and constitu- to translation while transmitting power and
ents of machine tool structures. motion from the sources to the tool and the
• Classify machine tool kinematic structures workpiece.
into elementary, complex and compound • Define and demonstrate the working principle
structures and explain them with the help of of some simple differential mechanisms which
illustrations and examples. are essentially used in the kinematic structure
• Identify the various mechanisms and their of some machine tools.
functional roles in kinematic chains and
kinematic structures for achieving different
tool–work motions in machine tools.

14.1 Introduction
Kinematic structure is an essential and the most creative part of any machine tool. It is required to transmit
power and motions from the power source(s) to the tool–work for machining work. A kinematic structure of
any machine tool comprises a number of kinematic chains depending upon the number and types of tool–
work motions. Each kinematic chain again comprises a number of mechanisms as required. Machine tool
kinematic structures are classified into three categories – elementary, complex and compound – depending
upon whether the kinematic chains are independent or interdependent. Different machine tools use different
types of kinematic structures of different levels depending upon their functional characteristics. A designer
of machine tools requires thorough knowledge about the types, composition, selection and incorporation
of kinematic structures. A kinematic system of any machine tool is finally composed of a large number of
mechanisms of different types to transform and transmit motion and power. The mechanism is mostly used to
convert rotary motion to rotary motion (different speed and direction) and rotation to translation. Therefore,

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 454 Machining and Machine Tools

the machine tool designer must be conversant with the types, configurations, working principles and the
applicability of different mechanisms available. In some machine tools such as hobbing machines, differential
mechanisms are essentially used for some specific requirement.

14.2 Role and General Constituents of the Kinematic Structure

of Machine Tools
The desired formative and the auxiliary motions (along with power) of the tool–work in machine tools are
derived from the power source(s) with the help of a number of kinematic chains (KC) Each of the tool–work
motion needs a separate and usually different KC which comprises a number of mechanisms or devices con-
nected in series. For example, the KC that derives job rotation from the main motor in a centre lathe com-
prises a belt–pulley system, a clutch, a speed gear box and the spindle which are connected in series. Again,
the gear box itself is made of a number of mechanisms.[1]
KCs usually accomplish the following:
1. Transfer of motion (and power) from the source(s) to the tool and work.
2. Transformation of motion
(a) Rotation to rotation (different speed).
(b) Rotation to translation (and often vice-versa) or oscillation.
(c) Change in direction of motion.
(d) Splitting of one speed into multiple speeds (rpm).
The overall system of all the KCs taken together in a machine tool is called kinematic structure of that
machine tool. This is schematically depicted in Fig. 14.1. In the figure, Si denotes power sources (i = 1, 2, … ),
KCi denotes kinematic chains (i = 1, 2, … ), mij denotes mechanisms and Mi denotes motions (i = 1, 2, … ).
Mathematically the relations can be expressed as

KC1 = ∑m
j
1j ( j = 1, 2, 3,…) (14.1)

Sources (S) Tool–work

Kinematic chains
(motors) motions (M)
KC1

S1 m11 m12 m13 M1

KC2

S2 m21 m22 m23 M2

KC3

S3 m31 m32 M3

KCn

Sn mn1 mn2 mn3 mn4 Mn

Figure 14.1 Constitution of kinematic structure of machine tools.

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 Role and Forms of Kinematic Structure in Machine Tools 455

KS = ∑ KC
i
i (i = 1, 2, 3 …) (14.2)

KS = ∑ ∑m
i j
ij (14.3)

where KS is the kinematic structure.

14.3 Different Forms of Machine Tool Kinematic Structures

It is known that the kinematic structure of any machine tool consists of all its KCs which with the help of a
series of several mechanisms transmit power and motions from the power sources (after desired transforma-
tions) to the tool and work.
The kinematic structure of any machine tool may be broadly classified into three types depending upon
the nature of interconnections of the KCs, as follows:
1. Elementary kinematic structure: This is the simplest type of kinematic structure where all the KCs
are independent. Hence the number of KCs is equal to the number of power sources, which is also
obviously equal to the number of tool–work motions. This kind of structure can be symbolically
denoted as Eii where E stands for elementary, the first i stands for the number of power sources and
the second i stands for the number of KCs. The value of i may be 1, 2, 3, ….
2. Complex kinematic structure: This is a very common kinematic structure where all the KCs are
interconnected or interdependent, and hence, the number of power sources is only 1 (one) irrespec-
tive of the number of KCs. Complex structures are symbolically expressed by C1j , where j = 2, 3, 4,
… indicates the number of KCs.
3. Compound kinematic structure: This is actually a combination of E and C-type structures. Here,
some KCs are independent and some are interdependent. Compound structures are symbolically
expressed as Kij, where i is the number of power sources (i = 2, 3, 4, …) and j is the number of KCs
(j = 3, 4, 5, …). For example,

K23 = C12 + E11 (14.4)

We next discuss the applications of different types of kinematic structures in machine tools.

14.3.1 Elementary Structures (Eii)

One typical application of E22 is schematically shown in Fig. 14.2. The cutting motion and the feed motion
imparted to the job and the tool, respectively, are provided from two individual motors by two independent
KCs. Such lathes are used when the feed rate needs precision control by DC or a stepper motor independently
of cutting velocity. Other examples of Eii structure are as follows:
1. E11: for broaching machines having only one motion (tool) by only one KC and one power source.
2. E44: for three-axis CNC milling machine where the spindle rotation and the three feed motions are
provided by four independent sets of power source and KC.[2−6]

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 456 Machining and Machine Tools

KC1 CM

S1 BP C SGB

KC2
FM

S2 C FGB

Figure 14.2 Kinematic chains for the tool–work motions in centre lathe. BP, belt and pulley; C, clutch;
CM, cutting motion; FM, feed motion; FGB, feed gear box; SGB, speed gear box.

14.3.2 Complex Structures (C1j)

Two typical applications of C12 and C13 are shown in Figs. 14.3 and 14.4, respectively. Figure 14.3 visualizes
a typical C12-type complex kinematic structure of a centre lathe where the two KCs are interdependent and
derive the cutting motion and the feed motion from only one motor. Some lathes have provision for simul-
taneous longitudinal and cross feed for the tool for turning taper, etc. The kinematic structure of such a lathe
would be C13 type as indicated in Fig. 14.4, where three KCs, producing rotation of the job, and two feed
motions of the tool are interconnected having only one power source.
Figure 14.5 visualizes another application of the C13 structure in a hobbing machine while cutting the
teeth of straight-toothed spur gears. There are three tool–work motions needed – cutting motion (CM) for
tool rotation, indexing motion (IM) for gear blank rotation and tool (hob) feed motion (FM).
All these three motions are derived from a single motor by three interconnected KCs, which are:
1. Motor: KC1 → rotation of tool (hob), CM.
2. Tool rotation: KC2→ indexing motion IM of blank.
3. Blank rotation: KC3 → tool feed motion FM.
where
KC1 → C1 − C2 − SGB − C3 − C4

KC2 → C4 − C5 − D − IGB − C6

CM

S1 BP C SGB

FM

FGB

Figure 14.3 Typical complex kinematic structure of type C12 for centre lathe.

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 Role and Forms of Kinematic Structure in Machine Tools 457

CM

M BP CL SGB
Cross feed

FM

FGB

Cv
FGB

Figure 14.4 C13-type complex kinematic structure of a centre lathe.

IM

CM

C4
FM

C2 SGB C3

M C1

C5 D IGM FGB C7
C6

Figure 14.5 Kinematic structure (C13) of hobbing machine.

KC3 → C6 − FGB − C7 − feed screw

Here, SGB, IGB and FGB are the speed gear box, indexing gear box and feed gear box, respectively. The nodal
points indicated by C1, C2, C3, etc. are also some mechanisms. D is a summation (differential) mechanism.
Actually, the kinematic structure of gear hobbing machines is C14 type having another interdependent KC
needed for cutting the teeth of the helical gear.

14.3.3 Compound Structure (Kij)

An application of a basic type of compound kinematic structure K23 is schematically shown in Figure14.6.
Here the KCs which provide job-motion (rotation) and tool–feed motion, are interdependent and con-
nected to a motor M1 and thus constitute a C12 structure. Grinding motion provided by another motor

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 458 Machining and Machine Tools

WFM

C SGB

M2
CM
M1 BP
FM

FGB

Figure 14.6 Compound kinematic structure of type K 23. BP, belt pulley; C, clutch.

M2 can be taken as E11. Thus, the combination of C12 and E11 results in the compound structure K23
(= C12 + E11). Similarly, kinematic structures like E55, C15 and K24 also exist and are used in different
machine tools.

14.4 Mechanisms Commonly Used in Machine Tool

Kinematic Systems
Mechanisms are generally referred to the devices or systems that are used for transformation of motion from
one form to another desired form and/or transmission of motion from one point to another desired point.
For example, the screw–nut system is a very common mechanism that enables transformation of rotation (of
the screw) into translation or linear motion (of the nut). The belt–pulley system, with an open belt and two
pulleys of the same diameter, is another common mechanism which only transmits rotation from one point
to another point.
The following classes of mechanisms are most widely used in machine tools:[1,5]
1. Mechanisms for transmission of rotation and its transformation w.r.t. speed, direction and axis of
rotation, that is, Rotation to rotation.
2. Mechanisms for transformation of rotation to translation or reciprocation, that is, Rotation to
Translation.
3. Differential mechanisms for summation of two or three motions into one.

14.4.1 Mechanisms for Transforming Rotation to Rotation

These mechanisms refer to those elementary mechanical units that are used to change rotation in respect of one
or more speeds, direction, location of action and axis of rotation. Such mechanisms are further classified [1] as
1. Stepped drives and stepless drives.
2. Non-positive drives and positive drives.

14.4.1.1 Stepped Drives and Stepless Drives

Stepped drives refer to having a discrete number and values of speeds (rpm) as output from a given input
speed, that is, if input speed is NI, output speed(s), No will be N1, N2, N3, …, Nn. On the other hand, a

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 Role and Forms of Kinematic Structure in Machine Tools 459

Input (speed), N I NI

Output (speed), No
N6 N5 N4 N3 N2 N1 NI NI Ng
(a) (b)

Figure 14.7 Difference between (a) stepped and (b) stepless drives.

stepless drive refers to deriving any speed Ni as output within a range, say from Nl (lowest) to Ng (greatest),
from a given single input speed, NI, that is, for NI, No = NI where Nl ≤ NI ≤ Ng.
Figure 14.7 schematically presents the basic difference between a stepped drive and a stepless drive.
Stepped drives have wider use in conventional machine tools. Stepless drives help in using the desired opti-
mum speed.

14.4.1.2 Non-Positive Drives and Positive Drives

The drive where there are chances of slip and non-constancy of transmission ratio is considered to be non-
positive, viz. belt–pulley drive, friction roller drive, etc. Whereas the positive drive refers to the prevention of
slip and constant transmission ratio, viz. gear drives, chain and sprocket drive, etc.
The best example of a non-positive drive is the wide application of belt (mostly Vee-type and often flat
type) and pulley (step or cone type) system in machine tools. The main advantages are as follows:
1. Safety, by slipping at overloading.
2. Easy transmission over long distance.
3. Prevention of transfer of vibration, etc., from the motors to the machine tool.
The major limitation of a non-positive drive is the chance of slip and the undesirable change in transmis-
sion ratio. Hence, non-positive drives are avoided where motions need to be synchronized, such as in the
rotations of the gear blank and the cutter in the hobbing machine. The best examples of positive drives are
as follows:
1. Chain and sprocket system.
2. Gearing system, shown in Fig. 14.8, for transmission (as well as transformation) of rotation between
(a) Parallel shafts.
(b) Non-parallel shafts whose axes, if extended, intersect.
(c) Non-parallel and non-intersecting shafts.

14.4.1.3 Stepless Drive

For best machining economy, the speed (rpm) of rotation of the blank (in turning) or the cutter (mill-
ing, drilling, etc.) need to be optimized considering the tool–work materials, tool geometry, environment,
machine capacity and the tool–work diameter. But this calculated optimum speed (rpm) may not be available

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 460 Machining and Machine Tools

Shafts (axes) Type of gears Illustration

Parallel shafts Spur gears NI
Straight toothed

No

Helical (single) toothed NI

No

Double helical (a)

herringbone (b)
No
NI

(a) (b)

Intersecting (axes) Bevel gears NI

Straight toothed

No

Helical toothed No

NI

Non-parallel non-intersecting Worm and worm wheel Worm

wheel
No

NI
Worm

Skewed bevel gear

Spiral gear

No
NI

Figure 14.8 Gearing systems for transformation and transmission of rotation.

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 Role and Forms of Kinematic Structure in Machine Tools 461

in step drive. For instance, if in a turning operation, the optimum job-speed comes up to be 890 (say) rpm,
the nearest lower and higher spindle speeds available (in case of stepped drive) in that lathe may be 625 rpm
and 900 rpm, then the operator is compelled to take 625 rpm and thereby huge amount (about 30%) of loss
in MRR, that is, productivity and hence in economy will occur. Such losses can be overcome by stepless drive.
This is more essential in the case of flexibly automatic and costly CNC machine tools.
However, non-positive stepless drives like cone pulley and friction rollers are not used in machine tools.
Even positive type stepless drives like PIV (positively infinity variable) drive[1] are also not used now-a-days in
any machine tool. Presently, the benefits of stepless drive for both speed and feed are attained by using vari-
able speed (frequency) AC motors, DC or AC servo motors, etc. and also often using hydraulic drive.

14.4.1.4 Mechanisms for transforming rotation to translation

Various types of mechanisms are used in different machine tools for transforming rotary motion into linear or
translatory motion, especially to attain controlled tool–work cutting motions and feed motions. The follow-
ing mechanisms, schematically shown in Fig. 14.9, are widely used for the aforesaid purpose:
1. Screw–nut system: Typical applications of this mechanism in machine tools are
(a) Lathes – cross feed and longitudinal feed (using half nut) of the tool(s).
(b) Shaping and planing machines – feed motions of the worktable and tool(s), respectively.
(c) Drilling machines – vertical positioning of the radial arm and drilling head in a radial drilling
machine.
(d) Milling machines – job feed motions; longitudinal, cross and vertical.
(e) Grinding machines – positioning or feed motions (cross and vertical) of the workpiece.
(f) CNC machine tools – tool or work feed motions, preferably by recirculating balls type screw–nut
system.
2. Rack-pinion system: Rack-pinion mechanisms are also used in machine-tool kinematic systems.
Some common applications are:
(a) Lathe – longitudinal travel of the carriage over the bed.
(b) Drilling machine – feed travel of the drilling spindle.
(c) Planing machine – reciprocation of the large table with the workpiece.
(d) Small surface grinding machine – longitudinal reciprocation of the worktable.
3. Crank and connecting rod mechanism: These mechanisms are often used to produce reciprocat-
ing motion of the cutting tool from rotary motion, for example, in slotting machines, gear shaping
machines, etc. where stroke length needs to be large. This system is simple and inexpensive but resil-
ient and does not have quick return effect.
4. Eccentric mechanism: This mechanism, like the crank and connecting rod mechanism, is used in
power saw machines and gear shaping machines that require more rigidity but shorter stroke length.
5. Oscillating lever mechanism: This mechanism has a quick return effect and is very commonly used
in shaping machines.
6. Whitworth mechanism: This is very similar to the oscillating lever mechanisms but provides longer
stroke length and consistent quick return effect irrespective of stroke length.
7. Cam and cam-follower system: These mechanisms are generally used in semi-automatic and auto-
matic (fixed or hard automation) machine tools, for example, single-spindle and multi-spindle auto-
matic lathes, to provide short-length linear tool travels from the rotation of the cam shaft(s). The
following types of cams are generally used in automatic (fixed type) lathes

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 462 Machining and Machine Tools

Mechanism Illustration

Screw-nut system

Rack and pinion

+

Crank-connecting rod

Whitworth mechanism
L
R
r
e

Eccentric mechanism e

Oscillating lever mechanism

Cam–cam follower Cam follower

(a) Plate cam

Lobe
Cam

(a) Eccentric cam (b) Lobe cam

Figure 14.9 Different mechanisms for transformation of rotary motion into linear motion.

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 Role and Forms of Kinematic Structure in Machine Tools 463

(b) Cylindrical cam

Figure 14.9 Continued.

(a) Plate cams:

• Disc type eccentric cam.
• Disc type with desired peripheral profiles, mostly Archimedean spiral (for constant feed rate).
(b) Cylindrical cams: Typical applications of cylindrical cams are in single-spindle lathes for feed-
ing the radially moving tools and to operate the single revolution clutches for turret indexing
and changing spindle speed and in Swiss type automatic lathes for headstock travel.
(c) Lobe cams: These are nothing but small steel plates, which can be easily replaced and shifted to
desired positions on the periphery of a rotating drum. Such cams are typically used to control
the movements of cutting tools in some multiple-spindle automatic lathes.
(d) Wedge cam: It is like a taper rod or plate which is made to reciprocate by a rotating system
and produces in the follower, small oscillatory motions synchronized with the other tool–work
motions. The relieving motion of the cutter (or the blank) in gear shaping machines is an
example of the application of such wedge cams.

14.4.2 Other Mechanisms Used in Machine Tools

These are basically mechanical devices designed and used to produce an output motion from multiple simul-
taneous input motions. The symbol and two typical configurations of such devices used in machine tools are
schematically shown in Fig. 14.10
The input and output motions (speed) of such differential mechanisms are related as

N o = (1 − e )N a + eN i (14.5)

where No is the single output speed (rpm), Ni is the input speed, Na is the arm speed (another input) and e is
the transmission ratio between the input gear and the output gear, given by

No
e=± (‘+’ for internal gears)
Ni

For example, if Na = 100 rpm, Ni = 10 rpm and e = −1, output No will be 190 rpm. One very common appli-
cation of such a differential mechanism (four-level gears type) is in gear hobbing machine while cutting teeth
of helical spur gears. Several other mechanisms are also used in some machine tools, such as
1. Telescopic shaft and universal joints.
2. Over running clutch.

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 464 Machining and Machine Tools

M1

Mn
D Output motion

M2

(a)

No
NI Na

Na
NI No

Gears
(b) (c)

Figure 14.10 Principle of differential mechanism and their two common configurations.
(a) Symbol, (b) epicyclic gear train, (c) four bevel gears.

3. Single revolution clutch.

4. Ratchet and Paul.
5. Geneva mechanism.
The configuration, working principle and application of these mechanisms have been shown and explained
in Chapter 21.

14.5 Solved Problems

PROBLEM 1
If, in a differential mechanism shown in Fig. 14.11, the values of Ni = 10 rpm and No = 100 rpm, then
what will be arm speed (Na)?

Solution: We know that in a differential mechanism with two inputs and one output, the input–output
speeds are related as
No = (1 − e)Na + eNi
where No is the output speed (rpm), Na is the arm speed (rpm) – one input; Ni is the input speed (rpm); e is
the transmission ratio between the input and output speeds. Here, given that Ni = 10 rpm, No = 100 rpm
and
60
e=− = −2
30

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 Role and Forms of Kinematic Structure in Machine Tools 465

No
Ni

Na

30 teeth

60 teeth

Figure 14.11 Solved problem 1.

Therefore,
100 = (1 + 2)Na − 2 × 10
Thus
Na = (100 + 20)/3 = 40 rpm

PROBLEM 2
In a differential mechanism shown in Fig. 14.12, the arm speed (Na) and the input speed (Ni) are 50 rpm
and 20 rpm, respectively. Determine the output speed (No).
Solution: We know that in the given type of differential mechanism, the different speeds are related as
No = (1 − e)Na + eNi
Here, given input speed, Ni = 20 rpm, arm speed, Na = 50 rpm and transmission ratio, e = − 1. Therefore,
output speed No is
No = (1 + 1)50 − 1 × 20 = 80 rpm

50 teeth
NA

N1 N0

40 teeth

Figure 14.12 Solved problem 2.

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 466 Machining and Machine Tools

PROBLEM 3
If a slide is reciprocated along a straight guide by a crank of radius 100 mm and a connecting rod of
length 200 mm, then how much will be the stroke length and quick return ratio?
Solution: We know that in crank and connecting rod mechanism, the stroke length (St) is given by
St = 2 × crank radius
Therefore,
St = 2 × 100 = 200 mm
We also know that in such mechanism there is no quick return effect. Therefore, quick return ratio = 1.0.

SU M M A R Y
Any conventional machine tool inevitably possesses and each kinematic chain again comprises a number
a kinematic structure to transmit power and motion of mechanisms connected generally in series. This
from power source(s) like motors to the workpiece chapter has briefly addressed the various but com-
and the cutting tool for machining work. The trans- monly used mechanisms (especially those which are
formation and the splitting of the speed of motions used in different machine tools) to convert rotary
over desirably wide ranges are also achieved through motion into rotary motion (different speed and/or
the kinematic structure. The important roles, gen- direction) and rotation to translation. The types,
eral construction, constituents and classifications configurations, working principle and application of
of machine tool kinematic structures have been such mechanisms have been illustrated in detail.
highlighted. The different categories of kinematic The need and basic principle of some simple dif-
structures of different levels and their applications ferential mechanisms and their applications have
in different machine tools have been presented with been visualized briefly. The necessity and methods
illustrations and examples. A machine tool kinematic of changing speed and feed are discussed in the next
structure comprises a number of kinematic chains chapter.

M U L T I P L E CH O I C E QU E S T I O N S
[Answers are provided in the CD]
1. In machine tools, a kinematic chain comprises (a) Elementary (E) type
(a) A number of mechanisms (b) Complex (C) type
(b) All the power sources (c) Compound (K) type
(c) A power source and a mechanism (d) None of the above
(d) A number of mechanisms and the tool 3. The kinematic structures of CNC machine
and work tools are
2. The kinematic structure of a broaching (a) Elementary (E) type
machine is (b) Complex (C) type

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 Role and Forms of Kinematic Structure in Machine Tools 467

(c) Compound (K) type 11. The advantage of belt–pulley drive over gear
(d) Any of the above drive is
4. If all the kinematic chains are interconnected (a) Safety by slipping in case of overload
(or interdependent) in any machine tool then (b) Easy transmission of rotation over long
its kinematic structure will be called distance
(a) Elementary type (c) Lesser chance of transmission of vibration
(b) Complex type (d) All of the above
(c) Compound type (e) None of the above
(d) Combination type 12. The axes of the input shaft and output shaft
5. The kinematic structure is complex in are non-intersecting in
(a) Conventional centre lathes (a) Skewed bevel gear drive
(b) Conventional shaping machine (b) Worm and worm wheel
(c) Conventional milling machine (c) Spiral gear drive
(d) All of the above (d) All of the above
(e) None of the above (e) None of the above
6. Of the following, the non-positive type drive is 13. The mechanism which transforms rotary motion
(a) Belt–pulley drive into linear (or translatory or reciprocating)
(b) Chain and sprocket drive motion is
(c) Gear drive (a) The nut and screw system
(d) None of the above (b) The rack and pinion
7. PIV drive is a (c) The crank and connecting rod mechanism
(a) Non-positive and stepless drive (d) The eccentric mechanism
(b) Positive and stepless drive (e) All of the above
(c) Non-positive and stepped drive 14. The rack and pinion mechanism (or system) is
(d) Positive and stepped drive not used to transform any rotary motion into
8. Spur gears are used to transmit rotation linear (or translatory) motion in
between two (a) Centre lathes
(a) Parallel shafts (b) Drilling machines
(b) Intersecting shafts (axis) (c) Milling machine
(c) Non-parallel and non-intersecting shafts (d) Planing machine
(d) None of the above 15. The oscillating lever mechanism is used for
9. Helical and double helical gears transmit rota- transforming rotation into linear motion in
tion between two (a) Shaping machines
(a) Parallel shafts (b) Planing machines
(b) Intersecting shafts (axis) (c) Broaching machines
(c) Non-parallel and non-intersecting shafts (d) Gear shaping machines
(d) None of the above 16. Cam and cam-follower systems (or mecha-
10. Rotation is transmitted between two intersecting nism) are used to transform rotary motion to
shafts (their axes) by linear motion in
(a) Spur gears (a) Centre lathes
(b) Helical gears (b) Capstan lathes
(c) Bevel gears (c) Turret lathes
(d) Worm and worm wheel (d) Single spindle automatic lathes

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 468 Machining and Machine Tools

17. Differential mechanism deals with (d) More than one output from more than
(a) One input motion producing one output one input motions
motion 18. A differential mechanism is used in
(b) More than one output motions from (a) Gear shaping machines
only one input motion (b) Gear hobbing machines
(c) Only one output from more than one (c) Broaching machines producing gear teeth
input motions (d) Automatic lathes

R E V I E W QU E S T I O N S
1. State the basic functions of the kinematic any machine tool.
structure of machine tools. Also, mention the 8. Which machine tools are characterized by
functional principle of each kinematic chain in E11- and E44-type kinematic structures? How
the kinematic structure of any machine tool. many power sources and tool–work motions
2. Show schematically using a block diagram are there?
the positions and roles of several mechanisms, 9. Illustrate with examples the difference between
kinematic chains and the overall kinematic (a) stepped drive and stepless drive.
structure in deriving power and motions from (b) positive drive and non-positive drive
the power source(s) for the tool–work. in respect of machine tools.
3. With the help of a simple block diagram, show 10. State the relative merits and demerits of stepped
that in machine tools, drive over stepless drive in respect of transmis-
sion of motion and power in machine tools.
KS = ∑ KC = ∑ ∑ M
i ij 11. Name and schematically show the different
i i j mechanisms that are used in machine tool
kinematic systems for transforming rotary
where KS stands for kinematic structure, KCi
motion to rotary motion (of different speed
stands for the ith kinematic chain and Mij for
and direction of rotation).
the jth mechanism of the ith KC.
12. Compare spur gears of different types with
4. Classify types of machine tool kinematic struc-
bevel gears and worm-worm wheel pair w.r.t.
tures and explain their basic differences using
their configuration, transmission ratio and
suitable block diagrams.
applications in machine tools (kinematics).
5. Show symbolically how kinematic chains
13. Name the mechanisms which transform rotary
enable us to obtain tool–work motions from
motion into translatory (or linear) motion in
the power sources in centre lathe having E22
and C12 kinematic structures. various machine tools. Also state the advan-
tages and limitations of those mechanisms.
6. Name the machine tools which possess com-
14. How are the reciprocating (but linear) motions
plex kinematic structure of category
of
(a) C13
(a) a cutting tool in a shaping machine
(b) C14
(b) a worktable in a planing machine
(c) C15
(c) a cutting tool in a slotting machine
Show symbolically the kinematic structure of
obtained from rotational input motion?
any one of the aforesaid type of machine tools.
15. State the relative merits, demerits and applica-
7. Briefly describe with the help of a simple dia-
tions of
gram, the construction and functioning of a
(a) crank and connecting rod mechanism
K23-type compound kinematic structure of

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 Role and Forms of Kinematic Structure in Machine Tools 469

(b) oscillating lever mechanism 16. Show schematically a differential mechanism

(c) screw–nut mechanism and briefly state its working principle and
(d) rack and pinion application in machine tools.
(e) cam–cam follower
when used in kinematic chains of different
machine tools.

PR O B L E M S
With Answers
1. Determine the value of output speed No for 2. In a shaping machine driven by Whitworth
epicyclic gear train shown in Fig. 14.9(a) mechanism, the length of the crank is 100
where the arm speed is 50 rpm, input speed mm, length of the bigger crank (R) is 300 mm
(Ni ) is 25 rpm and the number of teeth of and that of the connecting rod is 400 mm.
both the input and the output gear are 30. Determine the stroke length of the block-head
Ans: 75 rpm that is slided along a straight guide.
2. What will be the speed (rpm) of the output 3. In an epicyclic gear train, determine the rpm
shaft of a 4-gear type differential mechanism, of the output gear if the arm rotates at 1 rpm,
if the speed of the arm shaft is 120 rpm and transmission ratio between the input and
the speed of the input gear is 20 rpm? output gear is –1 and the input gear remains
Ans: 220 rpm stationary.
3. A worm wheel is driven by a double start 4. In a 4-gear type differential mechanism, how
worm. If the worm rotates 200 revolutions much should be the speed (rpm) of the input
then by how many revolutions the worm gear such that output speed will be 2 rpm for
wheel will rotate? Assume, number of teeth of the arm speed Na = 1 rpm?
the worm wheel is 40.
Ans: 10 revolutions

Without Answers
1. Schematically draw a mechanism suitable for
transmitting rotation from a shaft to another.
non-parallel non-intersecting shaft at trans-
mission ratio of 1:20.
Hint: It would be a pair of a single start worm
and a 20 teeth worm wheel.

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MAMT_Chapter 14.indd 470 7/21/2011 11:32:16 AM
 15 Methods of Changing Speed
and Feed in Machine Tools
Learning Objectives
The contents of this chapter would enable the readers to:
• Understand and justify why the conventional of the feed from the ranges available or fea-
machine tools need to possess and use large sible in the machine tool.
number of speeds and feeds which can be • Design, develop and use different methods of
varied or controlled mechanically. changing speed and feed.
• Identify which factors govern the selection • Physically change the speed and feed using
of cutting velocity for machining in different the appropriate method and devices in case of
types of machine tools and how. stepped and stepless drives as well as positive
• Conceive the reasons and identify the factors and non-positive type drives mechanically,
which govern variation and selection of value electrically or hydraulically.

15.1 Introduction
Machine tools essentially need and possess high speed in terms of rpm where the tool or job rotates or in
terms of number of strokes per minute where the tool or the job reciprocates. Similarly, a large number of
feeds are also provided in terms of mm/rev, mm/stroke or mm/min within desirably wide ranges.
The selection of spindle speed in lathes, drilling machines, boring machines, milling machines, etc. is
governed by the diameter of the job or cutter and the selected value of the cutting velocity. Again selection
of cutting velocity for any machining operation is governed by several factors. In reciprocating type machine
tools, the speed (number of strokes per minute) is decided by the desired stroke length and the cutting veloc-
ity (m/min).
Considering all the factors that govern selection of cutting velocity, appropriate speed is evaluated and
employed for various machining operations in different machine tools. Similarly, selection of feed is also
governed by several factors and requirements. The designer and user of machine tools should know why and
how speed and feed are selected, physically changed and implemented under different situations to fulfill the
requirement and to derive benefits. There are several methods and devices to change speed and feed mechani-
cally, electrically or hydraulically for both stepped and stepless drives as well as positive and non-positive type
drives. However, for convenience, the values of the speeds and feeds are made available within reasonably
wide ranges in different machine tools. The ranges and numbers of such available speeds and feeds vary
depending upon the type and versatility of the machine tool.

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 472 Machining and Machine Tools

15.2 Need of Large Number of Speeds and Feeds in Machine

Tools
In any machine tool operation, the principal machining parameters are cutting velocity and feed. In most of
the machine tools such as lathe, drilling machine, boring machine, milling machine and hobbing machine,
either the blank or the cutting tool rotates and thus imparts cutting velocity Vc (m/min) as

π DN
Vc = m/min (15.1)
1000

where D is the diameter of the job (as in lathes, etc.) or the cutter (as in drilling, milling, etc.) and N is speed
of rotation in rpm. Therefore,

1000Vc
N = (15.2)
πD

Hence, N is decided based on the desired value of Vc and the diameter of the job or the tool. However, the
final selection of N is subjected to standards and availability in the concerned machine tool. Again, selection
of Vc is governed by several factors such as:
1. Workmaterial: softer material can be machined at higher Vc and vice-versa.
2. Material (and also type and geometry) of the cutting tool(s): harder tools can work at higher Vc and
vice-versa.
3. Machining environment (i.e., application of cutting fluid): type and method of application.
4. Desired productivity (i.e., MRR).
5. Nature of the machining operation: for same tool–work materials, Vc is usually kept low in
(a) Shock initiated cutting such as shaping, planing, slotting, gear shaping, etc.
(b) Interrupted cutting such as milling and hobbing.
(c) Screw thread cutting.
(d) Reaming, etc.
6. Maximum cutting power available in the machine tool.
7. Stipulated surface integrity of the product.
8. Condition of the machine tool in respect of rigidity, stability, how old and free from defects.
Therefore, machine tools are essentially provided with wide range of speeds. In the case of stepped drive, vari-
able speeds with different values in proper steps are made available. In the case of reciprocating or linear type
cutting – as in shaping, planing, slotting, gear shaping, etc. – the cutting velocity is obtained as

St × N st
Vc = (15.3)
K q ×100

where St is the stroke length, Nst is the number of strokes per min, and Kq is the factor depending upon quick
return ratio, = 1/2 for having no quick return system. Here also Vc is decided as stated earlier. Similarly,
machine tools are also provided with a wide range of feeds for slow travel of the tool or job against the job or
tool rotating or reciprocating at high cutting velocity.
In the case of stepped drive, large numbers of feeds of different values in proper steps are provided to
enable reasonable selection of feed based on

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 Methods of Changing Speed and Feed in Machine Tools 473

1. Surface finish desired.

2. Productivity or MRR desired.
3. Maximum cutting power availability.
4. Maximum cutting forces permissible.
5. Tool–work materials.
6. Pitch or lead of screw threads to be produced (in lathes).
7. Condition of the machine–fixture–tool–work system.

15.3 Methods of Changing Speed and Feed in Machine Tools

15.3.1 Change of Speed
The cutting velocity Vc in machine tools is changed as per requirement generally by
1. Changing the speed (N, rpm) of rotation of the job or tool of given diameter as in lathes and mill-
ing machine, respectively.
2. Changing the number of strokes per minutes (Nst) for given stroke length of the tool or job, as in
shaping machine and planing machine, etc. where Nst is equal to the speed of rotation of the crank
or pinion.
3. Changing the speed of linear travel of the cutter, as in broaching machine.

15.3.1.1 Change of Speed in Stepped Drive

The tool-work motions in most of the conventional machine tools are accomplished by stepped drives. In
these machine tools, the speed (of rotation) N of the spindle (of lathe, drilling machine, milling machine, bor-
ing machine and hobbing machine) or crank shaft (in shaping machine, planing machine, slotting machine,
gear shaping machine, etc.) is changed by combination of the following methods:
1. Changing number of pair of active poles of the main motor,
Frequency
N = × 60 rpm
No. of pair of poles
2. Shifting belt on stepped pulley – becoming obsolete.
3. Operating gearing system in speed gear box (SGB).
Different types of gearing systems are available for changing speed in steps:
1. Shifting key: almost obsolete for several limitations.
2. Engaging clutches: shown schematically in Fig. 15.1.
3. Shifting cluster gears: most widely used for speed gear boxes requiring higher strength and robust-
ness. Figure 15.2 shows the working principle of cluster gears.
4. Ruppert drive (by gears and clutches).
5. Pre-optive drive using variable position clutch.
Figure 15.1 typically shows how by shifting the clutches (C1, C2, etc.) left or right, large number of output
speeds (2, 4, …) No are produced from one single input speed NI. Here the speed No can be changed by
proper combination of position of the clutches. The configuration and principle of speed change by shifting
or positioning of cluster gears is illustrated in Fig. 15.2.

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 474 Machining and Machine Tools

NI
Input shaft
C1

C2 No
Output shaft

Figure 15.1 Change of output speed by operating clutches.

NI
Input shaft

No
Output shaft

Figure 15.2 Change of speed by shifting cluster gears.

A cluster gear usually (for compactness and economy) comprises two or three spur gears of same module but
different number of teeth in a single block which is made to slide along a spline shaft to get engaged through
a particular pair of gears as indicated in Fig. 15.2. Here, it appears how six different output speeds (No) can
be attained by properly positioning the cluster gears. Since cluster gears generally have two or three gears, the
number (ns) of output speeds (No) can be

ns = 2m × 3n (m and n = 0,1,2,3, …)
= 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 12, 16, 18, …

15.3.1.2 Change of Speed in Stepless Drive

The speed of rotation of the workpiece or the cutting tool for desired cutting velocity in stepless drive of
machine tools is accomplished by several methods:
1. By regulating DC motor for low duty machine tools.
2. By using variable frequency converter in AC motors – more common (including CNC machine
tool).
3. By regulating the throttle valve or metering valve in hydraulically driven speed drive as in broaching
machine.
4. By using PIV drive, but it is almost obsolete in the case of machine tools.

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 Methods of Changing Speed and Feed in Machine Tools 475

15.3.2 Change of Feed

Compared to speed drives, feed drives require very low torque and power to be transmitted because the feed
force is lesser than the main cutting force component and the travelling velocity of the work or tool for feed
motion is also very low compared to the cutting velocity. So the feed drives for changing feed need not be that
strong and robust as the speed drives. Feed also may be changed in steps (more common) or steplessly.

15.3.2.1 Change of Feed in Stepped Drive

Change of feed (rate in mm/rev, mm/stroke or mm/min) in step is done in machine tools by one or more of
the following gearing systems:
1. Cluster gears of smaller size as in drilling machine, milling machine, etc.
2. Norton drive (Fig. 15.3) – preferably used in centre lathes for compactness, very large number of
steps required.
3. Meander drive (Fig. 15.4) – used for multiplication where very large number of feeds are required as
in screw cutting lathes.
4. Pre-optive drive with variable position clutches.
5. Ratchet and Pawl system as in shaping and slotting machines.
Norton gear drive is not as strong and rigid as cluster gear drive but is very compact; due to this it is suit-
able for feed gear box (FGB) in centre lathes. Norton gear drive consists mainly of a Norton system of seven
to nine gears of same module but gradually increased number of teeth fixed serially on the input shaft as
shown in Fig. 15.3. The tumbler gear along with the idle gear slides along the output shaft. By unlocking the
spring loaded pin, the tumbler is pulled and swung outward and then shifted to the suitable position. It then
swings back to a different gear on the Norton for changing the speed of the output shaft (feed rod or lead
screw) and ultimately changing the feed (rate).

Norton gear

NI

No

Tumbler

Knob motions

Figure 15.3 Change of feed rate by Norton gear.

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 476 Machining and Machine Tools

Output, No

30
60 45 30 18 Output, No
30 60 30
60 30 NI
NI
60
Input speed
30 45 60 72
1 1 1 1 1 1 2 4
1 2 4 8 2 1 1 1
(a) Type-I (b) Type-II

Figure 15.4 Gearing systems of Meander drive for multiplication of number of speeds.

The configuration and working principle of Meander drive is schematically shown in Fig. 15.4. Mender
drive multiplies the input speeds into large number to provide larger number of choices of speeds or feeds for
more precise selection. Meander drive may be of two types as indicated in Fig. 15.4.
In type-I Meander drive, the tumbler gear along with the idle gear is shifted and engaged with any one gear
on the previous shaft and thus getting four different speeds corresponding to each input speed. The transmis-
sion ratios are multiple of 2. In type-II Meander drive, one of the four (maybe five or even six) gears on the
output shaft is engaged with the corresponding gear fixed on the input shaft. Because of fixed centre distance
of the two shafts, the summation of teeth of each mating pair of gears is kept constant (90 in the typical case
shown). Here also from each input speed, four (maybe five or even six) different output speeds are obtained.
For instance, in a centre lathe, there can be 28 feed rates available through 28 different speeds of rotation of
the feed or lead screw, connected to the feed gear box having seven Norton gears and a Meander drive of four
steps. The number of feeds in screw cutting lathes may be even upto 45 (= 9 × 5).

15.3.2.2 Change (or Control) of Feed in Stepless Drive

Like speed (for cutting velocity), feed rate of the tool or job also can be steplessly varied. This can be done in
the following ways:
1. By regulating the speed of the DC motor which drives the feed rod or the lead screw.
2. By changing the speed of rotation of cam where work/tool feed motion is provided by cam and cam
follower as in automatic lathers.
3. By regulating the stepper motor or servo motor if used as in CNC machine tools.
4. In the case of hydraulic feed drive, the tool or work feed is changed or controlled by regulating
throttle or metering valve.

SU M M A R Y
Machine tools essentially possess large number sons, purposes and benefits of having such large
of speeds and feeds spread over reasonably wide number and ranges of speeds and feeds have been
ranges depending upon the type and working highlighted. The factors that govern, and how, the
range or versatility of the machine tool. The rea- selection of suitable speed and feed under different

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 Methods of Changing Speed and Feed in Machine Tools 477

situations, requirements and constraints have been with illustrations for both stepped drive and step-
presented with example. The number, values and less drive as well as positive and non-positive type
ranges of both the speeds and feeds made available drives in machine tools. All this information and
in the machine tool, for convenience, are standard- knowledge would help both the designer and us-
ized. Several methods and devices with the help ers of the machine tools. The method of designing
of which speed and feed are physically changed gear box, which is a very important part of ma-
or shifted, mostly mechanically and also electri- chine tool kinematics, has been presented in detail
cally and often hydraulically, have been described in the next chapter.

M U L T I P L E CH O I C E QU E S T I O N S
[Answers are provided in the CD]
1. During turning a rod in a centre lathe, the (d) Norton gear
spindle speed is selected based on 6. Any conventional machine tool having stepped
(a) Cutting velocity chosen drive cannot have
(b) Diameter of the workpiece (a) 8 spindle speeds
(c) Material of the cutting tool (b) 9 spindle speeds
(d) All of the above (c) 10 spindle speeds
2. The selection of working speed, Nst (no. of (d) 12 spindle speeds
strokes per min), in shaping machine does not 7. In hydraulically driven machine tool, the feed
depend upon rate is controlled or varied by
(a) Length of stroke (a) Relief valve
(b) Position of stroke (b) Foot valve
(c) Quick return ratio (c) Pilot valve
(d) Work material (d) Throttle valve
3. In centre lathes, spindle speed is changed by 8. The rate of feed motion of the workpieces in
operating (or adjusting) shaping machine is controlled or changed by
(a) Clutches only (a) Rack and pinion
(b) Norton gear (b) Cam and cam-follower
(c) Cluster gears (c) Ratchet and Pawl system
(d) Meander drive (d) Chain and spocket
4. For changing feed, Norton gear system is used 9. Mender drive is used to change feed rate in
in (a) Centre lathe
(a) Centre lathe (b) Capstan lathe
(b) Drilling machine (c) Single speed automatic lathe
(c) Shaping machine (d) Drilling machine
(d) Milling machine 10. For changing speed or feed, tumbler is associ-
5. In machine tools, non-positive stepped drive is ated with
accomplished by (a) Cluster gear drive
(a) Clutch (b) Clutch and gear drive
(b) Belt–pulley system (c) Norton gear drive
(c) Cluster gear (d) Hydraulic drive

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 478 Machining and Machine Tools

11. The lead screw, used for changing feed rates 12. In machine tool, spindle speed can be changed
of the worktable in CNC machine tools, is steplessly but positively by using
driven by (a) Notron gear drive
(a) Induction motor (b) Meander drive
(b) Synchronous motor (c) Chain and spocket system
(c) Servo motor (d) PIV drive
(d) None of the above

R E V I E W QU E S T I O N S
1. Why are centre lathes provided with large 9. How is spindle speed changed in the machine
number of spindle speeds and feed rates? tools having stepless drive?
2. Why are drilling machines and milling ma- 10. Name the different commonly used methods
chines provided with large number of spindle of changing feed-rate in conventional machine
speeds? tools.
3. State the purposes of having large number of 11. Describe briefly how the rate of feed is changed
spindle speeds and feeds in boring machines. in shaping machine and planing machine.
4. What factors need to be considered while 12. Describe briefly with the help of suitable
selecting the magnitude of cutting velocity sketches the construction and working prin-
and feed for any turning operation in lathes? ciple of Norton gear drive used for changing
5. How are spindle speeds selected before feed in centre lathes.
machining any job in drilling machine and 13. How are spindle speed and feeds of worktable
milling machine? changed in CNC machine tools?
6. Mention the different methods of chang- 14. What is Meander drive? How is it used to
ing spindle speeds in conventional machine change rotational speed in stepped drive?
tools having (a) stepped drive and (b) stepless 15. How is cutting velocity changed in hydrauli-
drive. cally driven broaching machine?
7. Show schematically and briefly describe how 16. Show schematically and describe briefly how
rotational speed (rpm) is changed by clutch. four different speeds (rpm) can be obtained
8. Describe briefly with the help of suitable dia- from a single input speed with the help of spur
gram the method of changing speed (rpm) by gears using (a) clutches only and (b) cluster
cluster gears. gears.

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 16 Design of Speed Gear
Box of Machine Tools
Learning Objectives
The contents of this chapter would enable the readers to:
• Identify and list the procedural steps to • Be aware of the standardization and availability
be sequentially followed while designing of spindle speeds in different machine tools.
the speed gear box for any machine tool, • Select appropriate gear layout and optimum Ray dia-
most of which possess positive and stepped gram and design the gear box accordingly.
drive. • Determine the number of teeth of all the gears
• Decide range and number of speeds and according to the gear layout chosen.
determine the values of all the speeds laid • Evaluate the module and overall size of the gears
down in AP or GP series. of properly selected materials.
• Realize and demonstrate the advantages of • Estimate and fix the dimensions of the shafts
speed layout in GP series than in AP series. and the hollow spindle as in lathes.

16.1 Introduction
Speed gear box (SGB) is a very important and essential unit in the kinematic structure of most of the
conventional machine tools having positive stepped drive for the rotation of the job or the cutting tool.
SGB not only receives power and motion from the power source, that is the main motor, and transmits to
the spindle but also splits the received rotational speed into a large number of values as required for various
machining operations under different conditions.
The SGB is designed following sequential steps starting from speed layout followed by gear layout and
determination of size of the gears and the shafts including the spindle. Speed layout includes deciding the
range and number of speeds, selection of series (i.e., AP or GP) and accordingly determination of values of all
the spindle speeds subjected to standardization. GP is preferred to AP for spindle speeds for several reasons.
Generally and preferably cluster gears are used for SGBs in most of the conventional machine tools having
stepped and positive drives. Next to speed layout, appropriate gear layout and the optimum Ray diagram
(RD) are selected from selected feasible options. Then the number of teeth of all the gears are calculated and
fixed. Now the module and dimensions of the gears of reasonably selected materials are determined. Finally,
the diameter of the shafts and dimensions of the spindle are decided through proper design-calculations and
standardization.

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 480 Machining and Machine Tools

16.2 Procedural Steps in Design of SGB

Most of the conventional machine tools both rotary and reciprocating types have stepped drive and for that
possess an SGB. An important part of designing of such machine tool is the design of its SGB including the
spindle(s).
The sequential steps involved in the design are as follows:
1. Speed layout (for the spindle holding the job or tool).
2. Gear layout and selection of Ray (speed flow) diagram.
3. Determination of number of teeth and dimensions of the gears.
4. Design of the shafts and spindle and their mounting.
5. Design of the gear box housing and assembly.

16.3 Layout of Spindle Speeds in Machine Tools

It is known that the tool or workpiece, in conventional machine tools with step drive, receive its cutting
motion from the main power source, through a kinematic chain which generally comprises a belt–pulley
system, clutch and then an SGB. In reciprocating type machine tools, the rotation of the output shaft of the
SGB is further converted into reciprocating or linear motion by another suitable mechanism.
The main function of the SGB, apart from transfer of rotation and power from the source to the tool or
work, is to create and provide large number of speeds of rotation in suitable steps to enable selecting appropri-
ate speed (rpm) for the desired cutting velocity (m/min).
Speed layout, in case of stepped drive of machine tools,[1–4] refers to determination of the following aspects
of speeds of rotation N (or reciprocation, Nst) leading to cutting motion:
1. Minimum or lowest speed, Nl , rpm.
2. Maximum or greatest speed, Ng, rpm.
3. Number of speeds, Zn.
4. Nature of distribution or progression of speeds.
5. Values of all other intermediate speeds, rpm.
It will be easy to understand speed layout if we proceed with a particular category of machine tool of very
common and wide use, like centre lathe. The relation between cutting velocity Vc and the rotating speed N of
the workpiece (i.e., spindle of lathe) is depicted by Eqs. (16.1) and (16.2):

1000Vcmax
Ng = rpm (16.1)
π Dmin

1000Vcmin
and Nl = (16.2)
π Dmax

where D is the diameter of the workpiece (tool in the case of drilling, milling, etc.). It has been already men-
tioned that Vc is selected based on the work-tool materials, the machining operation and the capacity and
condition of the machine tool. Obviously very low Vc has to be taken when (a) the work material is very hard
and strong (e.g., high alloy steel, super alloys of Ti, Ni, etc.), (b) the tool material is weak or relatively soft
like HSS, (c) the machining operation is critical like threading, reaming, etc., (d) machining environment is

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 Design of Speed Gear Box of Machine Tools 481

unfavourable (dry) and (e) the machine tool capacity and condition are poor. However,

Ng Vcmax Dmax
= × (16.3)
Nl Vcmin Dmin

or RN = RV × RD (16.4)
where RN is the speed range, RV is the velocity range and RD is the diameter range. In earlier days, all the
aforesaid ranges (R) were kept high for more versatility of the machine tools.[1,4] However presently, for more
economical use of machine tools, those ranges are substantially reduced as indicated in Table 16.1.
Earlier, the values of Nl and Ng were decided based on[4] some norms suggested by Nicolson and Smith.
These speeds reasonably appeared to be very low and very high, respectively. The present and future trend of
specialization and economization necessitates raising Nl and lowering RN with increased number of speeds (in
steps) Zn.

Table 16.1 Speed ranges for conventional machine tools

Machine tool RV RD∗ RN

Centre lathes 4–8 4–8 16–32
Drilling machine 2–4 3–4 6–16
Milling machine 4–6 4–8 16–24
Boring machine 4–8 4–6 16–48
Automatic lathe 2–4 1.5–2 3–8
∗
In the case of drilling, milling, etc. RD stands for range of tool diameter.

Example 16.1 Let maximum and minimum diameter of the workpiece to be machined be 150 and
50 mm respectively. Also max. and min. cutting velocities to be adopted be 320 and 40
m/min, respectively. Calculate: (a) minimum or lowest speed; (b) maximum or greatest
speed; (c) the speed range; (d) the number of spindle speeds.

Solution: Given Vcmin = 40, Vcmax = 320, Dmax = 150, Dmin = 50. Using Eqs. (16.1) and (16.2), we get

1000 × 40
Nl = = 85 rpm approximately
π × 150

1000 × 320
and Ng = 2050 rpm approximately
π × 50

Again using Eqs. (16.3) and (16.4) we get that the speed range is given by
150 320
RN = RD × RV = × = 24
50 40

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 482 Machining and Machine Tools

The number of spindle speeds Zn will depend on the functional utility of the lathe. However, since the
SGB mostly uses cluster gears, the value of Zn will have to be
Zn = 2m × 3n (m and n = 0, 1, 2, 3, …)
= (1, 2, 3), 4, 6, 8, 9, 12, 16, 18, 24, 27, 32, etc.
All the speeds in any stepped drive are usually distributed in a suitable series for the convenience of speed
layout, design, manufacture and operation of the SGB. The speeds can be simply distributed in arithmetic
progression (AP) or geometric progression (GP). Speed layout in AP and GP and their relative advantages
and limitations[4] are discussed next using an example of a lathe having a wide speed range. In both the
cases the values we would use are: Nl = 40 rpm, Ng = 1800 rpm, Zn = 12.

16.3.1 Speeds in AP
If the speeds are in AP, then the common difference b is evaluated from
Ng = Nl + (Zn – 1)b (16.5)
This implies
Ng − Nl 1800 − 40
b= = = 160
Zn −1 11
The value of the 12 speeds (rpm) will be
N1 (N1) = 40 N7 = 1000
N2 = 200 (40 + 160) N8 = 1160
N3 = 360 N9 = 1320
N4 = 520 N10 = 1480
N5 = 680 N11 = 1640
N6 = 840 N12 (Ng ) = 1800
The disadvantageous characteristics of speed layout in AP are evident from the sawtooth diagram shown
in Fig. 16.1.
In industries, general-purpose machine tools like centre lathes, milling machines, boring machines, etc. are
generally used more at their lower speeds and relatively larger diameters of workpiece or the tool. However,
speed layout in AP causes unfavourable distribution of the speeds.
Figure 16.1 reveals that there is scarcity of speeds at its lower levels whereas major section of the speeds are
crowded with insignificant difference at the higher levels of the speed which are much less frequently needed
or used. Such unfavourable distribution of speeds due to AP also results in huge loss in overall productivity.
In machining, productivity or MRR is proportional to the cutting velocity. It can be seen, for instance, in
Fig. 16.1 that if the maximum permissible cutting velocity V ∗ is 300 m/min, then turning at the available
speed, 360 rpm (say), will provide maximum MRR or productivity when the job diameter (D) is 265 mm as

1000V ∗
D= (16.6)
πN
However, if the job diameter exceeds 265 mm then the job has to be machined at the next lower speed avail-
able (i.e., here 200 rpm only), which will lead to cutting velocity almost equal to
π × 265 × 200
= 166 m/min
1000

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 Design of Speed Gear Box of Machine Tools 483

400
Spindle speeds, N, rpm

1800
350

148 0
0
0
m

0
0 rp

164

00
132

0
116
68

84
0 pm

10
52 0r
36
V ∗ = 300
Cutting velocity, Vc, m/min

250
0
20
200

150

100

50 N I = 40 rpm

0
0 53 82 114 140 184 265
Workpiece diameter, mm

Figure 16.1 Characteristics of speed layout in AP.

This means that non-availability of any speed in between 360 rpm and 200 rpm would reduce productivity
drastically for being compelled to reduce cutting velocity from 300 m/min to 166 m/min if the job diameter
exceeds, even slightly, 265 mm. Such productivity loss will increase miserably further if the job diameter
compels reduction of speed from 200 to 40 rpm.
Figure 16.1 reveals that actual productivity loss will depend upon the working diameter and the gaps
between the available speeds. For example, in Fig. 16.1, speed or productivity loss will decrease if the work
diameter gradually increases from 184 mm until it exceeds 265 mm.
In general, maximum possible percentage of speed loss or productivity loss (% PL), in case of speed layout
in AP, will be given by

V ∗ −V
%PL = × 100
V∗
π DN j − π DN j −1
= × 100
1000V ∗
π
= D[ N j − ( N j − b )]
10V ∗
π
= Db (16.7)
10V ∗
where D is the job diameter and b is the common difference between the succeeding speeds, rpm. Thus, Eq.
(16.7) clearly reveals that in case of speed layout in AP, the maximum productivity loss increases with the
increase in workpiece diameter D as well as values of the common difference b.

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 484 Machining and Machine Tools

16.3.2 Speeds in GP
If the speeds are distributed in GP, then the common ratio f is evaluated from

N g = N l ⋅ (φ )Z n −1 (16.8)

1/( Z n −1)
⎛ Ng ⎞
φ=⎜ = ( RN )1/( Z n −1) (16.9)
⎝ N l ⎟⎠
For the present speed range assumed, we get
1/(12 −1)
⎛ 1800 ⎞
φ=⎜ = 1.413 ( ≅ 2 )
⎝ 40 ⎟⎠

In such case the values of the 12 speeds are (approximately)

N1 (=Nl ) = 40 rpm N7 = N1 × f 6 = 320
N2 = N1 × f = 56 N8 = N1 × f 7 = 450
N3 = N1 × f2 = 80 N9 = N1 × f 8 = 640
N4 = N1 × f3 = 112 N10 = N1 × f 9 = 900
N5 = N1 × f4 = 160 N11 = N1 × f10 = 1280
N6 = N1 × f5 = 224 N12 (=Ng) = N1 × f11 = 1800
It is evident that unlike AP layout, GP favourably provides more number of speeds at lower level and only a
few speeds at higher levels as desired. Figure 16.2 shows the sawtooth diagram depicting speed loss pattern
in GP layout.

350
1800

640
1280

0
900

450

4
0

16
22
32

V ∗ = 300
2
11

250
Cutting velocity, Vc, m/min

200 80

150 m
56 rp
N2 =
100

50 N 1 = 40 rpm

0
0 150 215 305 429 610 857
Workpiece diameter, D, mm

Figure 16.2 Characteristics of speed layout in GP.

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 Design of Speed Gear Box of Machine Tools 485

Figure 16.1 typically showed that if speed layout is in AP, the maximum speed and hence productivity
loss can go even upto 75% and such heavy loss may occur at the lower speed levels where machining is done
more frequently. The situation substantially improves if the speed layout is taken in GP. Here, the maximum
possible speed or productivity loss (% PL) will be
V ∗ −V
%PL = × 100
V∗
⎛ V ⎞
= ⎜1 − ∗ ⎟ × 100
⎝ V ⎠
⎛ N j −1 ⎞
= ⎜1 − ⎟ × 100
⎝ Nj ⎠
⎛ 1⎞ (16.10)
= ⎜1 − ⎟ ×100
⎝ φ⎠
Equation (16.10) clearly indicates that in the case of GP, the maximum possible productivity loss remains
same throughout the ranges of speeds and workpiece diameter as also can be seen in Fig. 16.2. In the present
example, for f = 2 = 1.4, maximum possible %PL is equal to about 30% only, which is substantially more
favourable than in the case of speed layout in AP. Besides that, speed layout in GP has further advantages over
that in AP, mainly due to repetitive or cyclic nature of GP, which simplifies analysis, design and manufacture
of the SGBs. Hence, in machine tools, speeds are distributed mostly in GP.[2]

16.3.3 Standard Values of Common Ratio for Speed Layout in GP

The suitable value of the common ratio (f) is evaluated and selected based on the following criteria:
1. Speed will become double at regular intervals to incorporate the advantages of increase in speed by
2 or 4 times by simply changing the number of active poles of the main AC motor.
2. Speed will become 10 times at regular intervals to incorporate the advantages of several standards
(DIN, GOST, etc.) and Renard series.[4]
3. Standardization.
The conditions for the speeds to become double at a regular intervals (say, after E1 number of steps) and 10
times at regular intervals (say, after E2 number of steps) can be, respectively, expressed by
f E1 = 2 and f E2 = 10
To fulfill both the conditions, f has to be
φ = 21/ E1 = 101/ E2

or 10 E1 = 2 E2
Such condition can be attained closely if E1 = 3 and E2 = 10.
Renard series R10 means a GP series where the common ratio is 101/10. Similarly there are R5, R20 types of
Renard series which refer to the GP series of common ratio 101/5 and 101/20, respectively. The widely used
common ratios f for speed layout in GP are as follows:
R20 : f = 21/6 = 101/20 = 1.12
R10 : f = 21/3 = 101/10 = 1.26 (1.25)

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 486 Machining and Machine Tools

R5 : f = 22/3 = 101/5 = 1.58 (1.6)

R20/3 : f = 21/2 = 101/(20/3) = 1.41 (1.4), special
R40 : f = 21/12 = 101/40 = 1.06 (too small, generally used for feed drive)
(The values given in parenthesis refer to standards.) For speed layout in machine tools, 1.12, 1.25, 1.4 and
1.6 are generally preferred as the common ratio.

16.3.4 Standard Spindle Speeds Used in Conventional Machine Tools

The speed of 112 rpm is generally maintained as a base and some speeds, for convenience, are slightly rounded
as can be seen in Table 16.2.

Table 16.2 Standard machine tool spindle speeds[4]

Standard spindle speeds for

R20 , f = 1.12 R10 , f = 1.25 R20/3 , f = 1.4 R5 , f = 1.6
56 56 56
63
70 70
80 80
90 90
100
112 112 112 112
125
140 140
160 160
180 180 180
200
224 224 224
250
280 280 280
315 315
355 355
400
450 450 450 450
500
560 560
630 630
710 710 710
800
900 900 900
1000
1120 1120 1120
1250 1250
1400 1400
1600
(Continued )

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 Design of Speed Gear Box of Machine Tools 487

Table 16.2 (Continued)

1800 1800 1800 1800

2000
2250 2250
2500 2500
2800 2800 2800

16.3.5 Method of Determination and Fixation of Spindle Speeds for a

Given Machine Tool Under Stipulated Conditions
It will be convenient if proceeded with a specific example, as follows.

Example 16.2 The SGB has to be designed for a 12 speed centre lathe to be used for machining
rods of diameter ranging from 60 to 250 mm at cutting velocity ranging from 40 to
300 m/min. Determine the values of all the spindle speeds for that lathe.

Solution: Here,
1000Vcmin 1000 × 40
Nl = = = 50.93 rpm
π Dmax π × 250

1000Vcmax 1000 × 300

Ng = = = 1591.5 rpm
and π Dmin π × 60

The speed range is given by

Ng
RN = = 31.25
Nl
Then, common ratio f will be

φ = ( RN )1/( Z n −1) = (31.25)1/11 = 1.367

The nearest standard values of f are 1.4 and1.25. Let f be taken as 1.4. Then as per Table 16.2, the spindle
speeds would be 56, 80, 112, 160, 224, 315, 450, 630, 900, 1250, 1800 and 2500 rpm.

While finally deciding the spindle speeds, importance should be given to availability of adequate
number of low speeds.

16.4 Selection of Gear Layout and Ray Diagram for SGB

In a machine tool a large number of spindle speeds are obtained from single input speed by operating the
SGB. Since generally, the SGBs use cluster gears (2 or 3 type), the number of speeds Zn becomes multiple of
2 and 3 as
Zn = 2m × 3n (m and n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8 …, 12, …, 18, …)

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 488 Machining and Machine Tools

For example, 12 (Zn) can be factorized as

2×2×3 or 2×3×2 or 3×2×2
where 2 and 3 stand for 2-gear cluster and 3-gear cluster, respectively. The corresponding speed flow diagrams
are typically shown in Fig. 16.3.
The actual values of the speeds, their distribution (in GP) and the transmission ratios at every step (gear-
pair) according to the gearing diagram are depicted in more detail by what is called Ray diagram (shown in
Fig. 16.4). Figure 16.4(b) visualizes one feasible arrangement of the cluster gears in the gear box for the num-
ber of speeds Zn splitted as 12 = 2 × 2 × 3. Similar gear layout can be drawn for 12 = 2 × 3 × 2 and 12 = 3 ×
2 × 2. Here a, a1, b, b1, etc. stand for number of teeth of gears. The RD in Fig. 16.4(a) reveals
1. How 12 speeds in GP are attained by different combinations of gear pairs, for example, output
speed, N1 = NI × a/a1 × c/c1 × e/e1 = NI × 1/1 × 1/1 × 1/1 = NIf 0
N2 = NI × a/a1 × c/c1 × f /f1 = NI × 1/1 × 1/1 × 1/f = NI/f1
N6 = NI × a/a1 × d/d1 × g/g1 = NI × 1/1 × 1/f 3 × 1/f 2 = NI/f 5
and N12 = NI × b/b1 × d/d1 × g/g1 = NI × 1/f 6 × 1/f 3 × 1/f2 = NI/f 11
2. Number of stages, number of steps in each stage, number of shafts and number of gears required for
a particular gear layout.
3. The transmission ratio at each step.

Input
speed

Output speeds.
(i) 12 = 2 × 2 ×3 (ii) 12 = 2 × 3 ×2 (iii) 12 = 3 × 2× 2

Figure 16.3 Speed flow diagram for SGB.

ab
Shaft NI
I
b 1
Stage - 1 =
b1 f ? a 1 c d
NI
=
a 1 Stage-1
1
II
Stage - 2 d 1 ef
=
d1 f ? c 1
= g Stage-2
III
c1 1 a1
b1
Stage - 3 f
g 1
g1= f 2
f1 e 1
=
Stage-3
e1 1
IV c1 d1
NO N12 N11 N10 N9 N8 N7 N6 N5 N4 N3 N2 N1

Z n = 12 = 2 ×2 × 3 e1 NO
g1 f1
(a) (b)

Figure 16.4 (a) Ray diagram (RD) and (b) gear layout for a 12 SGB.

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 Design of Speed Gear Box of Machine Tools 489

The basic characteristics of RD are

1. Each nodal point receives only one arrow.
2. The nodal points for the output speeds (in GP) appear equidistant for logarithmic display.
3. The parallel arrows indicate same mating gears and same transmission ratio.
4. All transmission ratios (TR) or gearing speed ratios are multiples of the common ratio (f ), that is

TR = (f)m (m = 0, 1, 2, 3, …)

16.4.1 Types of Ray Diagrams [1,3,4]

As shown in Fig. 16.5, RD can be of the following types:
1. Unilateral or bilateral.
2. Open or cross.
For an SGB of given number of output speeds, a large number of patterns of RD are possible. For con-
ventional machine tools where spindle speeds are usually lower than the speed of the power source (motor),
unilateral type RDs are preferred. Generally, cross type RD provides more economy than open type but cross
type RD may not be always feasible. However, while selecting the optimum RD for a gear box, two primary
criteria are generally considered:
1. Feasibility (or permissibility): Transmission ratio, TR should always be restricted to 1/4 ≤ TR ≤ 2
and hence range of TR in a stage cannot exceed 1:8.
2. Overall economy: reduction in size and weight of the gear box.
In RD of SGB, conventionally speed (rpm) increases from left to right and hence torque decreases from left
to right. Again, the diameter of the shafts decreases with the decrease in the maximum torque acting on that

Unilateral RD Bilateral RD
NI TR NI

1:f 3
Open type
1:f :f 2

NO NO
Speed (rpm)
Torque
NI TR NI

1:f

Cross type
1:f 2:f 4

NO NO

Figure 16.5 Different patterns of Ray diagram for a 6 (=2 × 3) SGB.

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 490 Machining and Machine Tools

shaft. Therefore, attempts should be made to select RD where the lowest speed of shafts are relatively higher
and thus the nodal points are shifted towards right side as far as possible.
Figure 16.6 typically illustrates a case of selection of suitable RD based on feasibility and economy. Let
Zn = 12 and f = 1.25 ( = 3 2 ) and RD = unilateral cross type.
The economy criterion is assessed by summation of diameter of the shafts. A criterion used for that is ∑D′
which indicates summation of nodal numbers corresponding to lowest speeds of the shafts. Lower value of
∑D′ is preferable for smaller diameter of shafts. In Fig. 16.6, for the RD shown in
(a) Zn = 12 = 2 × 2 × 3, maximum reduction is 1/f 8 which, for φ = 3 2 , is lower than 1/4. Hence this
RD is not feasible (or acceptable).
(b) Zn = 12 = 2 × 3 × 2, maximum reduction is 1/f 6 = 1/4; this is acceptable.
(c) Zn = 12 = 3 × 2 × 2, maximum reduction is 1/f 6 = 1/4; this is also acceptable.
So, it appears that type (b) and (c) are feasible or acceptable and the RD of type (a) is not acceptable. Out
of the acceptable types (b) and (c) the more economic one has to be chosen. Obviously the RD type (b)

1:φ 1:φ 1:φ :φ 2

Nodal
points
1:φ 2 1:φ 2:φ 4 1:φ 3

1:φ 4:φ 8 1:φ 6 1:φ 6

N12 N NI N12 N I N 12 NI
T T T
D D D
(a) 12 = 2×2×3 (b) 12 = 2×3×2 (c) 12 = 3×2×2
∑D′ = 12+4+2+1 ∑D′ = 12+6+2+1 ∑D′ = 12+6+3+1
= 19 = 21 = 22

Figure 16.6 Optimum selection of RD for a 12 SGB.

NI Nodal
points
Z n = 12 = 2×2×3

N O Spindle
N12 NI

Here, ∑D ′ = 30

Figure 16.7 Unilateral open type RD for 12 SGB.

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 Design of Speed Gear Box of Machine Tools 491

1:φ
1:1
NI Input shaft
Shaft-1
I
1:1
a
Stage-1 1:φ 2 b 1:φ 4 NI - Nodal points 1:φ 1:1
c
Shaft-2
II
Spindle 1:1
Stage-2 1:φ 4 1:φ 2
No
III
Shaft-2 No
1:φ 2 Stage-3
a1 1:φ 4 1:φ 2
b1 c1 1:φ 4
p
Back gear shaft
(a) (b)

Figure 16.8 SGB with back gear and corresponding RD for 12 speeds: (a) Gearing layout and
(b) ray diagram.

is more economic as the value of ∑D ′ is lower (21) than in the other (22). Therefore, for the present case,
unilateral cross RD of type (b) has to be selected. It appears from Fig. 16.6 that more concavity of the curve
joining the nodal points in RDs means more economic design of the SGB. It is evident from Fig. 16.7 that
open type RD provides convex curve and hence it is uneconomic compared to cross type of RD for same
spindle speeds.
Any usual continuous type RD, particularly unilateral cross type, may not be feasible when the number of
speeds is large and common ratio f is also large. For example, in the previous case, all the three RDs shown in
Fig. 16.6 will become unacceptable if f is 1.4(√2), because the value of the largest reduction f 6 will exceed 4
or 1/f 6 < 1/4. In such cases, a method – back gear – is incorporated as indicated in Fig. 16.8 for the combina-
tion Zn = 12 and f = 1.4. In gear layout (Fig. 16.8), with back gear the last multiplier must be 2. For example,
Zn = 12 = (2 × 3) × 2. The first six speeds (i.e., 2 × 3) would be obtained by two cluster gears 2 and 3 (or 3
× 2) and those speeds are doubled to 12 by multiplying by 2 with the help of back gear. By use of back gear,
the speed reduction pattern is changed from

1:f 1:f
1:f2:f4 to 1:f2:f4
1:f6 1:f2 × f4

where for f = 1.4, f 6 is not permissible, but f4 is permissible. While splitting f 6 into f m × f n, the nodal
point P (Fig. 16.8) is to be shifted to right as far as feasible for reducing the diameter of the back gear
shaft.
It is to be noted that in SGB with cluster gears, the number of shafts including the spindle will be equal to
the number of stages plus one and the number of gears required would be equal to the total sum of the steps
multiplied by two. For instance, for Zn = 12 = 2 × 2 × 3 or 2 × 3 × 2 or 3 × 2 × 2, the number of stages is 3
and the total number of steps is 2 + 2 + 3 = 7. Thus, such SGB requires 4 shafts and 14 gears as can be seen
in Figs. 16.4 and 16.8.
Other possible drives, especially clutch-driven type in SGB, include pre-optive drive, Ruppert drive, etc.
having some additional advantages for some critical applications.[3,4]

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 492 Machining and Machine Tools

16.5 Determination of Dimensions of the Gears and Shafts of SGB

16.5.1 Dimensions of Gears
The gears used in cluster gears driven SGBs are usually involute type spur gears with straight or helical teeth.
The major dimensional features of these gears are as follows:
1. Number of teeth, z.
2. Module, m (mm).
3. Helix angle, q (degree).
From these, the other dimensions are evaluated as follows:
1. Pitch circle diameter (pcd) = mz (= mz/cosq for helical gears).
2. Tooth height, h = A + B, where A = addendum = m and B = dedendum = 1.25m.
3. Outside diameter = pcd + 2A.
4. Width, B = lm, where l ≡ 7 to 14.
5. Bore diameter: decided by diameter of the shaft.
So, it appears that the major dimensional parameters are number of teeth and module and also helix angle if the
teeth are helical. To understand the basic principle of determination of the number of gear teeth easily let us take
a specific example. Let the gear box shown in Fig. 16.8 be taken as reference. Table 16.3 typically shows how the
number of teeth of all the six gears in stage-2 (Fig. 16.8) can be determined for given value of f = 1.4.
The third column in Table 16.3 indicates the value of the transmission ratio in the three steps in stage-2
(Fig. 16.8) for f = 1.4 (√2). These values expressed by integers (in both numerator and denominator) also
mean the ratio of number of teeth of the mating gear pair. But since the centre distance of the two shafts
(shaft-2 and shaft-3) is fixed, the summation of radii or diameter (pcd) of all the mating gear pairs in a stage
will be same. Since module of all those gears is same, the summation of teeth of all the mating gear pairs will
also be same irrespective of the transmission ratio.
Keeping that in view, the feasible combinations are given in columns I to VI in Table 16.3. Considering
the usual performance of the gears and compactness of the gear box, the number of teeth is maintained within
16 to 120 in SGB. So the combinations in columns III, IV and V are acceptable and column III gives the
best combination. However, the methods of determination of number of teeth of the gears in SGB need to
be generalized to common simple procedure.
One simple method has been presented with reference to the SGB shown in Fig. 16.8. The transmission
ratio of any (jth) step at a given stage may be expressed as
Uj = (1/f x)j = fj/gj = Zj/Zj′ (16.11)

Table 16.3 Determination of number of gear teeth[3,4]

Transmission
Step Zi /Zi1 Zi ratio of teeth number
ratio
(1/f x )j = Uii′ I II III IV V VI

1 1/1 1/1 Za/Za1 15/15 30/30 45/45 60/60 75/75 90/90

2
2 1/f 1/2 Zb/Zb1 10/20 20/40 30/60 40/80 50/100 60/120
3 1/f4 1.4 Zc /Zc1 6/24 12/48 18/72 24/96 30/120 36/144

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 Design of Speed Gear Box of Machine Tools 493

Table 16.4 General method of determination of number of teeth of gears in SGB

K = LCM of fj gj
Step Uj = (1/fx)j fj /gj = Zj /Zj′ fj + gj E Zj = EK Zj′ = EK
fj + gj fj +gj fj +gj

1 U1 = 1/1 1/1 = Z1/Z1′ 2 45 45

2
2 U2 = 1/f 1/2 = Z2/Z2′ 3 30 60
4
3 U3 = 1/f 1/4 = Z3/Z3′ 5 30 3 18 72

where fj and gj are positive integers starting from 1, and Zj and Zj′ are number of teeth of the jth mating gear
pair (step). From Eq. (16.11)
( Z j + Z j′ ) f j
Zj = (16.12)
fj + gj

where Zj + Zj′ is constant for a stage and (Zj + Zj′)/(fj + gj) is an integer. However, Zj + Zj′ is replaced by EK
where K is LCM of fj + gj and the factor E would be equal to 1, 2, 3, etc. to keep Zmin ≥ 16. The procedure
would be clear from Table 16.4 prepared for stage-2 in Fig. 16.8.
From Table 16.4, one can see that Z3 will be minimum. Hence, from the condition we get
Zmin = Z3 = EK fj /( fj + gj ) ≥ 16
Here, f3 and g3 are 1 and 4, respectively. Therefore,
E ≥ 16 × (1 + 4)/(1 × 30) ≡ 3
Then EK = 30 × 3 = 90 (summation of number of teeth, Zj and Zj′). Thus
Z1 = 90 × 1/(1 + 1) = 45; Zj′ = 90 × 1/(1 + 1) = 45
Z2 = 90 × 1/(1 + 2) = 30; Z2′ = 90 × 2/(1 + 2) = 60
Z3 = 90 × 1/(1 + 4) = 18; Z3′ = 90 × 4/(1 + 4) = 72
In such a procedure, problem may arise due to too large value of K (i.e., LCM of fj + gj) resulting in teeth
number of some gears exceeding 120. For example, if f comes up to be 1.25 (≡ 3 2 ) instead of 1.4 (≡ 2)
as in the previous case, Table 16.4 will become same as Table 16.5.

Table 16.5 Number of teeth for f = 1.25 ( ≡ 3

2)

Step Uj = (1/f x)j fj /gj fj + gj K E EK = Zj + Zj′ Zj / Zj′

1 U1 = 1/1 = 1/1 1/1 2 91/91

U2 = 1/f 2 =
2 5/8 13 182 1 182 70/112
1/(1.25)2 = 1/1.6
U3 = 1/f 4 =
3 2/5 7 52/130
1/(1.25)4 = 1/2.5

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 494 Machining and Machine Tools

It appears in Table 16.5 that the number of teeth of one gear has become 130 which exceeds 120, so this
SGB will not be permissible. This has happened due to large value of K despite E = 1. Therefore, K needs rea-
sonable reduction by little adjustment in the ratios fj /gj . For example, in this case 1/1.6 can be taken as 7/11
(instead of 5/8). Then K becomes 2 × 18 × 7 = 126 and E remains 1. The gear teeth in this case will be
Z1/Z1′ = 63/63, Z2/Z2′ = 49/77, Z3/Z3′ = 36/90
This will be well acceptable. However, even such little adjustment will cause some deviation in the corre-
sponding speed (rpm). Such deviation in speed is permissible upto ± (f – 1) 10%.
In machine tools, module of the gears of the SGB is determined generally considering strength of the gear
tooth, mainly shear strength. The acting force P and shear area As of a gear tooth are shown in Fig. 16.9. The
maximum shear stress tm that will develop in the tooth will be
Pm
τm = (16.13)
As
where Pm is the maximum transverse force and As is the shear force. Now
Tmax
Pm =
0.5( pcd )
where pcd = mZ (m is the module, mm) and Tmax is the maximum torque transmitted. It is given by
Maximum power transmitted
Tmax = (16.14)
2 p N min
The shear area is given by
As = (p m/2) × B (16.15)
Now width
B ∝ m = lm (16.16)
where l = factor, normally 8 to 14 ≅ 10, generally taken for machine tools. Thus
As = 5p m2
Combining Eqs. (16.13)–(16.16) we get
kW × 106
τm ≅ MPa ≤ τ p (16.17)
8m3 ZN
P

πm pc
2

Figure 16.9 Loading of a gear tooth.

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 Design of Speed Gear Box of Machine Tools 495

where t p is the permissible shear stress for the gear material and 1 kW = 1 × 106 N mm/sec. tp is taken much
lower than yield shear strength t y due to the following factors:
1. Stress concentration factor.
2. Dynamic loading factor.
3. Surface and size factors.
4. Wear factor.
5. Safety factor.

Table 16.6 Permissible shear stress of common gear

materials

Gear material Permissible shear stress in tooth

Cast iron 10 MPa
Mild steel 20
C – 60 steel 40
16MnCr5 steel 50
High alloy steel 100

The values of tp for different gear materials are roughly given in Table 16.6. From Eq. (16.17), the module m
of the gear teeth can be determined as
1/ 3
⎛ kW ⎞
m ≥ 50 ⎜ ⎟ (16.18)
⎝ ZN τ p ⎠
where Z and N, respectively, are the number of teeth and speed of the gear concerned. Module of all the gears
in one stage will be same. However, m has to be finally selected from standard modules available.
Standard modules used in machine tool gear box = 1, 1.25, 1.5, 1.75, 2, 2.25, 2.5, 3.0, 3.5, 4.0, 4.5, 5.0,
5.5, 6, 6.5, 7, 8, 9 and 10 (mm)

Example 16.3 Determine module of the teeth of the straight toothed spur gear under the following
conditions:
1. maximum power to be transmitted = 11 kW
2. gear material – mild steel
3. number of teeth (Z) – 80
4. minimum speed (N) – 50 rpm
Also determine other dimensions of the gear.

Solution: Here we use Eq. (16.18). Given that kW = 11, Z = 80, N = 50 and t p for mild steel is 20 MPa
(Table 16.6). Now
1/3
⎛ 11 ⎞
m = 50 ⎜ ≅ 2.6 mm
⎝ 80 × 50 × 20 ⎟⎠

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The nearest higher standard module is 3.0. Therefore,

1. Pitch circle diameter (pcd) = mz = 3 × 80 = 240 mm
2. Addendum, A = 1.0m = 3.0 mm
3. Dedendum, D = 1.25m = 3.75 mm
4. Tooth height = A + B = 6.75 mm
5. Outer diameter = pcd + 2A = 240 + 6 = 246 mm
6. Width, B = l m = 10m = 30 mm

16.5.2 Dimensions of Shafts of SGB

The shafts in SGB receive and transmit power through different gears located at different positions of the
shafts and rotating at different speeds (e.g., shaft-2 in Fig. 16.8). So a shaft is subjected to different values of
torque (T ) and bending moment (BM ) depending upon which gear pair is engaged. These shafts are usually
solid and made of plain carbon or low alloy steels. Such ductile shafts being subjected to dynamic (reverse
type) loading are designed mainly on the basis of shear failure. The material and dimensions, mainly diameter
for a given length and loading points, should be such that maximum equivalent shear stress (teq.max) does not
exceed the permissible shear stress (tp ) for shaft material as depicted by the relation

ty
τ eq. max = (1 / 2σ eq. )2 + (t eq. )2 ≤ (16.19)
Nf
where
⎛ σy ⎞ ⎛ k ⎞
σ eq. = σ m kt + ⎜ ⎟ σ v ⎜ f ⎟ (16.20)
⎝ σ1 ⎠ ⎝ abc ⎠

⎛ty ⎞ ⎛ k ⎞
and t eq. = t m kt ⎜ ⎟ t v ⎜ f ⎟ (16.21)
⎝ σ1 ⎠ ⎝ abc ⎠
Here sm and sv are mean and variable stress due to bending; tm and tv are mean and variable shear stress
due to torque; kt and kf are static and dynamic stress concentration factors; sy and s1 are yield and fatigue
strength of the shaft material; a, b and c are loading factor, size factor and surface factor, respectively; ty is
the yield shear strength of the shaft material; Nf is the factor of safety. However, for gear box shafts, sm and
tv are almost zero. For steel shafts (finished by machining) of SGB
Loading factor, a = 0.6 to 0.8
Size factor, b = 0.8 to 0.9
Surface factor, c = 0.5 to 0.9 (approximately depending upon surface integrity and loading intensity)
Again, in Eqs. (16.17) and (16.18),
BM max Tmax
σv = and τ m = (16.22)
Zb Zt
where Zb and Zt are section modulus under bending and twisting, respectively. For the solid shafts of circular
section,
Zt = 2Zb = (π/16)D3 (16.23)

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 Design of Speed Gear Box of Machine Tools 497

Spacer(s)
Key Gears Roller bearings
Retainer
Lock nuts
O-ring

Figure 16.10 Schematic view of a centre lathe spindle.

where D is the diameter of the shaft to be determined. However, the next higher (than the calculated value)
standard available diameter is finally taken. For example, if by calculation the diameter comes up to be 38.85
mm then 40 mm has to be taken.
The spindle, which is a critical part of a machine tool, may also be designed following the same procedure
keeping in view some additional factors such as:
1. Unlike the plain intermediate shafts, the spindle possesses number of steps of different diameter
and is also hollow.
2. Spindle also needs to be quite rigid.
3. The machining forces including axial force are also to be included.
4. Ease of manufacture, assembly and maintenance.
A typical configuration of a simple centre lathe spindle is shown in Fig. 16.10. The spindle of centre lathe is
made hollow to
1. Enable removal of centre from the spindle front.
2. Accommodate long slender workpiece.
3. Reduce weight of the spindle.
The hole is tapered at the front end to fit taper-shank centre. The spindle is externally threaded at the front end for
mounting chuck, driving plate and face plate and at the rear end for locknuts. The spindle is mounted on bearings
in the housing and a number of gears are fixed on the spindle by keys and spacers as shown in Fig. 16.10.

16.6 Solved Problems

PROBLEM 1
A centre lathe having 12 spindle speeds has been designed for machining jobs of diameter ranging from
40 mm to 120 mm at cutting velocity in between 50 m/min and 200 m/min. What should be the lowest
and the highest spindle speed of that lathe?

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 498 Machining and Machine Tools

Solution: Lowest speed Nl and highest speed Ng are given by

1000Vcmin 1000Vcmax
Nl = and Ng =
p Dmax π Dmin
Given Vcmin = 50 m/min, Vcmax = 200 m/min, Dmax = 120 mm and Dmin = 40 mm. therefore

1000 × 50
Nl = = 132.69 rpm
p × 120
1000 × 200
and Ng = = 1592.35 rpm
p × 40
Here the common ratio f (for GP)
1/( Z −1)
⎛ Ng ⎞
f =⎜ = (12 )1/11 = 1.2534
⎝ N l ⎟⎠
The nearest standard value of f = 1.25. Therefore, the standard spindle speeds including 112 rpm and
taking f = 1.25 are 140, 180, …. This implies that the desired lowest speed is 140 rpm (nearest to
132.69) and the highest speed is 1800 rpm (nearest to 140 × f11 taken from Table 16.2).

PROBLEM 2
A drilling machine having nine spindle speeds in GP is to be designed for drilling holes of diameter in
between 6 mm and 30 mm at cutting velocity in between 20 m/min and 50 m/min. Determine the
values of all those nine spindle speeds.

Solution: Lowest speed (Nl ), highest speed (Ng ) and common ratio (f) are given by
1/( Z −1)
1000Vcmin 1000Vcmax ⎛ Ng ⎞
Nl = ; Ng = ;f = ⎜
p Dmax p Dmin ⎝ N l ⎟⎠

Given Vcmin = 20 m/min, Vcmax = 50 m/min, Dmax = 30, Dmin = 6 mm and Z = 9. Therefore

1000 × 20
Nl = = 212.31
p × 30
1000 × 50
Ng = = 2654 rpm
p ×6
1−( Z −1) 1/( 9 −1)
⎛ Ng ⎞ ⎛ 50 30 ⎞
f =⎜ =⎜ × ⎟ = 1.371
⎝ N ⎟⎠
l
⎝ 20 6 ⎠

The nearest standard value of f = 1.4. Therefore the desired standard values of the speeds (taken for
Table 16.2) are 224, 315, 450, 630, 900, 1250, 1800, 2500, 3600 rpm.

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 Design of Speed Gear Box of Machine Tools 499

PROBLEM 3
The lowest and the highest spindle speeds of a 12 speed milling machine are 10 rpm and 450 rpm, respectively.
Determine the values of the other 10 spindle speeds if those speeds are in (a) AP and (b) GP.

Solution: (a) For speed layout in AP, common difference is

Ng − Nl 450 − 10
b= = = 40 rpm
Z −1 12 − 1
Therefore, the other intermediate speeds will be 50, 90, 130, 170, 210, 250, 290, 330, 370 and
410 rpm.
(b) For speed layout in GP, the common ratio is
1/( Z −1) 1/(12 −1)
⎛ Ng ⎞ ⎛ 450 ⎞
f =⎜ =⎜ = ( 45)0.0909
⎝ N ⎟⎠l
⎝ 10 ⎟⎠

Nearest standard value = 1.4 ( ≅ 2 ) . Therefore the desired values of the 10 intermediate speeds
will be 14, 20, 28, 40, 56, 80, 112, 160, 224 and 320 (315).

PROBLEM 4
Draw the feasible gearing diagram of an eight speed gear box for a drilling machine and also visualize the
corresponding Ray diagram.

Solution: Figure 16.11 shows the gearing diagram and the Ray diagram.

NI Ng

Gearing diagram Ray diagram

Figure 16.11 Solved Problem 4.

PROBLEM 5
Draw schematically an economic and feasible gear layout and the corresponding Ray diagram for the
speed gear box of a lathe having 18 spindle speeds in GP with common ratio of 1.25 ( ≅ 21/3 ).

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 500 Machining and Machine Tools

Solution: (a) for 18 = 2 × 3 × 3 (b) for 18 = 3 × 2 × 3 (c) for 18 = 3 × 3 × 2

2
1:f 1:f:f 1:f :f 2
1:f 2:f 4 1:f 3 1:f 3:f 6
1:f 6:f 12 1:f 6:f 12 1:f 9

(f x )max = (21/3 )12 = 16 (f x )max = 16 (f x )max = 8

So, none of the system is acceptable. Here backgear system may be feasible and tried. In that case,
18 = (3 × 3 ) 2 i.e.,
1:f :f 2
1:f 3:f 6
1:f 18

where 1 / f 9 is to be split as (1 / f 3 ) × (1 / f 6 ) and (f x )max = f 6 = 4 which is acceptable. The desired

gearing diagram and Ray diagram are shown in Fig. 16.12.

1:f :f 2 1:f 3:f 6

NL Ng

Spindle
1:f 3
1:f 6

Gearing diagram Raw diagram

Figure 16.12 Solved Problem 5.

PROBLEM 6
Design a speed gear box for a drilling machine requiring six spindle speeds with common ratio f = 1.25
( ≅ 21/3 ). The design of the gear box should include (a) drawing the gearing diagrams, (b) Ray diagram,
(c) number of teeth of all the gears.

Solution: (a) 6=2×3 or (b) 6=3×2

1:f 1:f :f 2
1:f 2:f 4 1:f 3
Here f 4 = (1.25)4 < 4 and f 3 = (1.25)3 = 2

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 Design of Speed Gear Box of Machine Tools 501

Both are acceptable, but layout (a) is more economic than (b) w.r.t. Σ d. The desired gearing diagram and
the Ray diagram are shown in Fig. 16.13.

1:f
Stage-I

Stage-II

1: f 2 : f 4
NL Ng
Gearing diagram Ray diagram

Figure 16.13 Solved Problem 6.

Determination of number of teeth of the gears

Stage-I
1 f1
U1 = = ⇒ f1 + g1 = 2
1 g1
1 4
U2 = = ⇒ f2 + g2 = 9
1.25 5
Solving both we get LCM, K=18. Now
Zmin = Z2 = EK [f2/(f2 + g2)] ≥ 16
Therefore
16 × 9
E= =2
4 × 18
So
EK = 2 × 18 = 36
Therefore Z1 = Z1′= 18, Z2 = 36 × 4/9 = 16 and Z ′ = 20.
Stage-II
1 f1
U1 = = ⇒ f1 + g1 = 2
1 g1
1 16
U2 = = ⇒ f 2 + g 2 = 41
1.25 × 1.25 25
1 1
U2 = 4
= ⇒ f3 + g3 = 7
(1.25) 2.5
These are very large and need to be reduced to bring down the value of
16 11
≅
25 17

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 502 Machining and Machine Tools

Now f2 + g2 = 28 and K = 28. Again,

Zmin = Z3 = EK [ f3/( f3 + g3)] ≥ 16

Therefore
16
E= × 28 ≅ 2
28 × 11
So EK = 56. Hence
11 2
Z1 = Z1′ = 28, Z 2 = 56 × = 22, Z 2′ = 34, Z 3 = 56 × = 16, Z 3′ = 40
28 7

PROBLEM 7
The gear box of a 2.2 kW, nine speed drilling machine is made of cluster gears of case hardened mild steel.
If (a) the minimum spindle speed be 56 rpm and (b) common ratio f = 1.25 ( ≅ 2 13 ) then determine the
size of the largest gear of that gear box.

Solution: Following solution of Problem 6, the number of teeth of the largest gear is 40. Assumed, per-
missible shear stress of case hardened steel, 40 MPa (tp). Then module of the teeth (m) is given by

1/ 3
⎡ KW ⎤ ⎡ 2.2
1/ 3
⎤
m ≥ 50 ⎢ ⎥ ≥ 50 ⎢ ≅ 1.5 mm
⎢⎣ ZN t p ⎥⎦ ⎣ 40 × 56 × 40 ⎥⎦

So the pitch circle diameter of the largest gear is

1.5 × 40 = 60 mm

PROBLEM 8
A speed gear box has to be designed for a centre lathe having 12 spindle speeds in GP with common ratio
of 1.4 ( 2 ). Draw an ideal gearing diagram and the economic Ray diagram for that gear box.

Solution: (a) For 12 = 2 × 2 × 3 (b) For 12 = 2 × 3 × 2 (c) For 12 = 3 × 2 × 2

1:f 1:f 1:f:f 2
1:f 2 1:f 2:f4 1:f 3
1:f 4:f 8 1:f 6 1:f 6
Here, f 8 = (1.4)8 = 16 f 6 = 16 f6 = 8
None of the above unilateral cross system is acceptable as (f x )max > 4. Layout (b) is more economic than
(c) w.r.t. Σd, but f 6 is to be spit as f 6 = f 2 × f 4 by using back gear system. Also, f 4 = 4. Therefore, the
favourable gear layout and economical Ray diagram are shown in Fig. 16.14.

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 Design of Speed Gear Box of Machine Tools 503

1:f 1:f :f 2

NL

Spindle
1:f 2
1:f 4

Back gear shaft

Gearing diagram Ray diagram

Figure 16.14 Solved Problem 8.

PROBLEM 9
Draw gear layout and the Ray diagram of a gear box to provide a lathe 18 spindle speeds with common
ratio, f = 1.25. Also determine the number of teeth of all the gears.
Solution: Following solution of Problem 6, the number of teeth of the largest gear is 40. Assumed, per-
missible strear stress of case hardened steel, 40 MPa (t p ). Then module of the teeth m is given by
1/ 3
⎡ KW ⎤ ⎡ 2.2 ⎤
1/ 3
m ≥ 50 ⎢ ⎥ ≥ 50 ⎢ ≅ 1.5 mm
⎢⎣ ZN t p ⎥⎦ ⎣ 40 × 56 × 40 ⎥⎦
So the pitch circle diameter of the largest gear is
1.5 × 40 = 60 mm
Outer diameter is given by
OD = PCD + 2 Addendum = 60 + 3 = 63 mm
Width of the gear is
B = 10 m = 10 × 1.5 =15 mm

SU M M A R Y
Most of the conventional machine tools are the requirements and machining condition. The
designed with positive type stepped drive and design of SGB needs some sequential steps start-
essentially possess an SGB to provide and use ing from speed layout, followed by gear layout
large number of spindle speeds depending upon and determination of dimensions of the shafts

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 504 Machining and Machine Tools

including the spindle, which has been highlighted of selecting appropriate gear layout and optimum
at the beginning. Speed layout includes deciding Ray diagram from several options have been
the range and number of spindle speeds depend- presented in detail with lot of illustrations and
ing upon the requirements and determination of examples. The process of determination of number
values of all the speeds. The speed layout may be of teeth of all the gears in the speed box has also
in AP or GP. Their relative characteristics and the been presented with the help of simple examples.
advantages of GP over AP have been explained and How the module and dimensions of all the gears
illustrated. The procedure of speed layout has and the dimensions of the shafts and the spindle
been described in detail with illustrations and are determined and fixed is also briefly described.
examples. The next important feature of machine tools is
Cluster gears are preferably used to make SGB their automation. This has been taken up in the
providing speeds in GP. The principle and methods next chapter.

MU LT I P L E CH O I C E QU E S T I O N S
[Answers are provided in the CD]
1. The speed gear box of a centre lathe remains in 5. If a drilling machine possesses 9 spindle
its speeds ranging from 40 rpm to 640 rpm in
(a) Headstock GP series, then the common ratio among
(b) Tailstock the speeds will be
(c) Saddle (a) 1.12 (1.12)
(d) Apron box (b) 1.26 (1.25)
2. If a centre lathe is designed to be used for range (c) 1.41 (1.4)
of cutting velocity from 44 to 220 m/min and (d) 1.56 (1.60)
job diameter ranging from 70 to 350 mm the 6. The gear layout of the speed gear box of a
minimum spindle speed of that lathe should be machine tool will be most economic if its Ray
(a) 32 rpm diagram be taken as
(b) 40 rpm (a) Unilateral and open
(c) 100 rpm (b) Unilateral and cross
(d) 200 rpm (c) Bilateral and open
3. The number of spindle speeds in a centre lathe, (d) Bilateral and cross
having cluster gears driven speed gear box, can- 7. To provide 18 spindle speeds in a lathe, its
not be speed gear box would have in it
(a) 8 (a) 10 gears
(b) 9 (b) 12 gears
(c) 12 (c) 14 gears
(d) 15 (d) 16 gears
4. The spindle speeds of machine tools are pro- 8. The shafts inside the speed gear box of
vided preferably in machine tools are generally made of
(a) AP (arithmetic progression) series (a) Grey cast iron
(b) GP (geometric progression) series (b) Tool steel
(c) LP (logarithmic progression) series (c) Forged steel
(d) HP (harmonic progression) series (d) Stainless steel

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 Design of Speed Gear Box of Machine Tools 505

9. The number of teeth of the gears used in 10. The spindle speed, which cannot be available
speed gear box is taken within the range in any machine tool, is
of (a) 100 rpm
(a) 10–100 (b) 120 rpm
(b) 16–120 (c) 160 rpm
(c) 16–160 (d) 200 rpm
(d) 20–160

R E V I E W QU E S T I O N S
1. Why are the conventional machine tools (b) open and cross systems in respect of
like centre lathes, milling machines, drilling speed layout in machine tools.
machines, etc. provided large number of spin- 9. Describe briefly with the help of a specific
dle speeds (rpm)? example the method of determining the
2. List the major procedural steps to be followed number of teeth of the gears used in machine
in sequence while designing a speed gear box tool gear boxes.
of any centre lathe. 10. Why is unilateral and cross type speed layout
3. How are the lowest spindle speed and the preferred for machine tool gear box?
highest spindle speed (rpm) decided during 11. When and why back gear system is required
designing the speed gear box of centre lathe? in gear layout of speed gear box of machine
4. What factor governs deciding the final val- tool?
ues of the spindle speeds of a lathe or milling 12. Describe briefly the method of determining
machine? the size (diameter and width) of the gears of
5. State why GP (geometric progression) is SGB after knowing or evaluation of number
preferred to AP (arithmetic progression) for of teeth of those gears.
layout of spindle speeds in machine tools. 13. Schematically show how the cluster gears are
6. State the principle of fixation of the value of mounted on and shifted along the shafts with-
the common ratio (f) during spindle speed in the speed gear box of any machine tool.
layout in GP. 14. Sketch a lathe-spindle, along with three gears
7. With a specific example, explain what are mounted on it, being fitted in the walls of
meant by gear layout and Ray diagram of a the head stock of a centre lathe.
speed gear box of a lathe. 15. Describe, with the help of specific example,
8. With the help of a simple example and suit- how the best or optimum Ray diagram and
able diagrams, distinguish between gearing layout are obtained for speed gear
(a) unilateral and bilateral systems box of machine tools.

PR O B L E M S
1. A gear box has to be designed for a six speed (a) Determine all the spindle speeds (rpm).
drilling machine to drill only 25 mm diameter (b) Draw the gear layout and the Ray diagram.
holes in mild steel and cast iron plates by HSS (c) Determine the number of teeth of the
and carbide drills. gears of the SGB.

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 506 Machining and Machine Tools

2. Determine the values of the lowest spindle mild steel and cast iron plates by HSS drills.
speed (Nl ) and the highest spindle speed (Ng ) Determine the values of all the 6 spindle
of a drilling machine where drilling has to be speeds and the number of teeth of all the gears
carried out within the diameter range of 6 of the gear box.
mm to 25 mm and the range of cutting veloc- 6. The cluster gears of a 12 speed gear box are
ity being 20 m/min to 50 m/min. made of surface hardened forged steel. Deter-
3. Schematically draw a feasible gearing layout mine the outside diameter of the largest gear
and the corresponding Ray diagram for the of that gear box. Assume:
speed gear box of a milling machine having 9 • Power of the machine tool is 2.2 kW
spindle speeds. • Number of teeth of the largest gear is 60
4. Schematically draw a suitable gearing layout • Minimum spindle speed is 40 rpm
and the corresponding Ray diagram for the • Permissible shear stress in gear teeth is 50
speed gear box of a lathe having 18 spindle MPa
speeds with common ratio f = 1.25 given, the 7. If in 12 speed lathe the velocity ranges from 40
minimum spindle speed is 32 rpm. m/min to 200 m/min and job diameter ranges
5. A gear box is to be designed for a 6 speed drill- from 50 mm to 200 mm, then what would be
ing machine to drill holes of only 25 mm in the values of those 12 spindle speeds.

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 17 Automation in Machine Tools
Learning Objectives
The content of this chapter would enable the readers to:
• Be conversant with favourable roles, in gen- • Correlate the degree of automation with the
eral, of incorporation of automation. levels or volume of production.
• Identify the purposes and benefits of • Classify types of automation of machine tools
employing automation in manufacturing by and their relative implications.
machine tools. • Specify the relative advantages of flexible auto-
• Address the historical reasons behind mation over fixed or hard automation.
advent and progress of automation in man-
ufacturing.

17.1 Introduction
The population explosion, people’s inherent urge for improved standard of living and increase in their purchasing
capacity demanded increased and faster production with better quality. However, there was a shortage of skilled
labours and increase in labour cost. This paved way for gradual advent and progress of automation in the field of
manufacturing including machine tools. Incorporation of mechanization or automation in manufacturing not
only enables work to be done easily, quickly and repeatedly at a faster rate with consistency of quality but also in
situations which are inconvenient and difficult for human beings due to arduousness, monotony and hazards.
Machine tools are available in three categories: non-automatic, semi-automatic and automatic. Semi-
automatics are suitable and economically justified for batch production but mass production requires fully
automatic systems. The old classical hard or fixed automation is inflexible and quite expensive and hence is
economically justified for mass production only. But the present and future trend is batch production, where
the product design changes very frequently; hard automation cannot cope with such requirements. This
situation has led to the development and use of the modern flexible automation like NC, CNC, FMS, etc.
in manufacturing including machine tools. In the context of growing need and trend of present and future,
flexible automation possesses several advantages over fixed automation even of higher order like transfer ma-
chines. The aforesaid relevant aspects have been briefly addressed in this chapter.

17.2 Role of Automation in Machine Tools

Automation is a system or technology designed and incorporated to get work done
1. Easily, quickly and repeatedly.

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 508 Machining and Machine Tools

2. Continuously over a long span of time.

3. Consistently and accurately over a long period.
4. In environment and situations which are inconvenient and difficult for human beings for arduousness,
monotony and hazards.
5. With no or less intervention of human being who can do other work requiring more intelligence and
skill.
6. Avoiding the unfavourable effects caused by fatigue, emotion, depression, over aspiration, etc. of
human being.
Machining requires two categories of operations:
1. Handling operations which are inevitable but not directly connected with chip formation, such as
(a) Loading and unloading of job to and from machine tool, respectively, before and after machining.
(b) Mounting and setting of cutting tool(s).
(c) Adjust speed, feed and depth of cut before starting actual machining.
(d) Preset and adjust cutting fluid application.
(e) Off-line inspection of job and tool at intervals.
(f ) Mounting and fitting fixtures or jig, if required.
(g) Time to time indexing job or tool, if so required.
2. Processing operations which are directly associated with chip formation, such as
(a) Facing, centering, turning, drilling, grooving, threading, etc. in lathes.
(b) Surfacing and form cutting in shaping, planing and slotting machines.
(c) Drilling, tapping, counter boring, etc. in drilling machines.
(d) Surfacing, grooving, slotting, forming, etc. in milling machines.
(e) Gear teeth forming or generation in milling, gear shaping and hobbing machine.
(f ) Enlarging and finishing holes in boring machine.
Compared to processing operations, handling operations need more manual work making them relatively
tedious, arduous and difficult. Proper mechanization or automation of the handling operations and work-tool
motions not only reduce human intervention but also raise productivity and process capability consistently,
particularly in mass production where same sets of operations are repeated over long time. In last few decades,
the world has seen remarkable improvements in machine tool automations and their performance.
Machine tools may be fully or partially automated to help the operators or to get faster production
with consistent quality. The degree of automation of a machine tool is evaluated or judged by the extent of
mechanization or automation of the handling operations in addition to the obviously mechanized processing
operations.
Accordingly, machine tools are categorized as
1. Non-automatic (NA).
2. Semi-automatic (SA).
3. Automatic (A).
Non-automatic (NA) machine tools refer to those conventional machine tools where almost all the opera-
tions or functions, other than the actual chip forming process like turning, drilling, etc. are accomplished
manually. The conventional machine tools like the manually operated centre lathes, drilling machines, shap-
ing machines, milling machines, etc. are suitable examples. In the so-called fully mechanized or automatic
machine tools almost all the handling operations as well as the processing operations are done automatically

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 Automation in Machine Tools 509

with very little intervention of the operator who only controls the switches to start and stop, and takes action
if and when something goes wrong or needs change. Automatic lathe is an example. On the other hand,
semi-automatic machine tools or manufacturing system refers to those machine tools like capstan and turret
lathes, for example, where the operator apparently actuates all the handling operations like bar feeding, turret
indexing, etc. much easily, quickly and consistently accurately but with the help of suitably designed and
incorporated mechanizations.

17.3 Advent of Automation in Manufacturing Industries

It is not really possible to say exactly when automation crept in. The need of incorporation of mechaniza-
tion or automation in the form of some mechanisms or devices to assist human being to do tedious and
arduous work with less effort, time and risk was gradually felt with the advancement in civilization. Auto-
mation, though in small degree and scale, visibly came up after the industrial revolution at the end of 18th
century.
The factors or reasons that apparently necessitated and paved way for gradual advent of automation in
manufacturing including machine tools are as follows:
1. Rapid advancement in civilization and urge for respectful survival and improvement of the standard
of living.
2. Need for huge production and high productivity to meet the vast demands of rapidly growing popu-
lation and increased purchasing capacity.
3. Shortage of desirably skilled labours and increase in labour cost; the number of available, willing and
desirably skilled workers was becoming insufficient for the required vast and fast production.
4. Increasing consciousness of quality of products and competitiveness.
5. Thrust for decreasing manufacturing cost per piece.
6. Quest for more and more effective, efficient and economic production by better utilization of
resources (man, machine, space and materials)
7. Inherent limitations, reluctance and inability of human beings to do as such dull, dirty, difficult and
dangerous works.
8. Along with apparent replacement of labourers, use of automation also creates huge employment for
design, fabrication and maintenance of automatic machines and systems.
Applications of automation in machine tools and their degree of automation play significant role on volume,
rate and economy of production by those machine tools.
Figure 17.1 schematically shows the usual pattern of rise in total cost of machining CT with the volume
of production Q when machine tools of different degree of automation are employed. The diagram depicts
that if Q is very small (<Q1), the non-automatic system will provide minimum CT and when Q is very
large (>Q2, i.e., under mass or large lot production), automatic system will give minimum CT. Semi-auto-
matic system will provide minimum CT under batch production, that is, Q1 < Q < Q2 as can be noted in
Fig. 17.1.
Therefore, use of non-automatic, semi-automatic and automatic machine tools generally becomes eco-
nomic and justified in piece production, batch production and mass production, respectively.
Though the initial cost CI of automatic machine is very high, the manufacturing cost per piece Cp comes
down drastically with the increase in volume of production, as (Fig. 17.1)

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 510 Machining and Machine Tools

(NA)
Break-even

Manufacturing cost, C T
points (SA)
Piece a tana = m
production
(A)

Mass production
Batch Cp
C1
production
0
0 Q1 Q2
Volume of production, Q

Figure 17.1 Role of machine tool automation on volume and economy of production.

Cp = CT/Q = (CI + mQ)/Q = CI/Q + m (17.1)

where the marginal cost (m) decreases with the increase in degree of automation of the machine tool due to
faster production and lesser wastage of materials. Thus, the manufacturing cost and price per piece drastically
decrease with the increase in volume of production (i.e., mass production).

17.4 Type of Automation in Machine Tools

The rapid increase in population and solvency of people over the centuries raised the demand for produc-
tion exponentially, leading to large lot or mass production. Development and incorporation of automation
in manufacturing including machine tools not only helped to meet such growing demand but also brought
down the manufacturing time and cost per piece, amenable to large section of population. Machine tool
automation is basically of two types:
1. Hard or fixed automation.
2. Flexible automation.
The age old classical type mechanically, electromechanically or electro-hydraulically automated machine tools
(e.g., cam operated automatic lathes) are economically viable and hence justified only for repeated production
of same object(s) in huge quantity. Transfer machines are good examples. Problem arises if the products are
substantially changed in size and configuration mid-way or frequently as in batch or job order production,
when such automatic stand-alone and transfer machines do not remain economically viable. The change from
one product to another is not only difficult and time consuming in such machine tools but also incurs huge
expenses for lot of replacements and modifications befitting to the new product. This type of automation is
called hard or fixed automation.
However, the present and future trend is batch and piece production due to the following reasons:
1. Rapid and vast progress in science and technology.
2. Rapid change in taste and solvency of people.
3. Competition amongst the industries.
4. Competition and secrecy in defense.

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 Automation in Machine Tools 511

To cope up with such trend, another unique class of automation has come up, namely flexible automation,
which enables change in product or processing schedule quite easily, quickly and inexpensively. Flexible
automation came into being around 1960 through development and use of numerical control (NC) based
on advanced electronics. Then use of computer-control revolutionized such automation by introducing com-
puter numerical control (CNC) machine tools since 1970. Robotization has made further revolution in the
flexible manufacturing system.
The major advantages of flexible automation over fixed automation are:
1. Flexibility in process scheduling.
2. Change over to new product is easy, quick and inexpensive.
3. High precision and consistency.
4. Ability to machine complex shaped jobs.
5. Much less or no need of jigs or fixtures.
6. More versatile.
7. Lesser wear and tear and maintenance problem and cost.
8. Easy integration with other activities leading to CAD-CAM, FMS and CIM.
Such flexibly automatic machine tools have been discussed in detail in Chapter 25. In the last few decades, flex-
ible automation resulted in spectacular developments in various directions of manufacturing, especially in
1. Machine tools.
2. Process planning and control.
3. Computer-aided design.
4. Computer-aided and electronically equipped inspection systems and techniques.
5. Automatic assembly by incorporating proper mechatronics and robotics.
6. Computer controlled material handling by robots.
7. On-line condition monitoring and adaptive control using multiple sensors and computer-based arti-
ficial intelligence.
Proper integration of all such automations in different phases and domains has led to the development of
FMS and concept of CIM (computer integrated manufacturing).

SU M M A R Y
The historically growing socio-economic reasons relative advantages and application of the modern
behind gradual development and incorporation of flexible automation in the context of the present
mechanization and automation in manufacturing and future trend towards batch production (even
including machine tools have been briefly high- piece production) have also been briefly covered in
lighted. The beneficial roles, degrees, types and this chapter.
application of automation in production of dif- Automation of different types and varying
ferent levels have been addressed. The advantages degrees is done in different machine tools. There-
and limitations of the classical rigid automation in fore, knowledge of classification of machine tools
manufacturing by machine tools including trans- and their applicability is required. This aspect has
fer machines are also emphasized. The necessity, been dealt in the next chapter.

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 512 Machining and Machine Tools

MU LT I P L E CH O I C E QU E S T I O N S
[Answers are provided in the CD]
1. In manufacturing a product in large volume, (c) Mass production
incorporation of automation enables (d) Job order production
(a) Reduction of manufacturing time per 6. Transfer machines are
piece (a) Non-automatic
(b) Increase in productivity (b) Semi-automatic
(c) Reduction of manufacturing cost per piece (c) Fully automatic
(d) All of the above (d) Flexibly automatic
2. Capstan lathes are economically justified for 7. Flexible automation of machine tools is not
(a) Piece or job order production economically justified for
(b) Batch or small lot production (a) Piece production
(c) Mass or large lot production (b) Job order production
(d) All of the above (c) Batch production
3. Turret lathes are considered (d) Mass production
(a) Non-automatic 8. Flexible automation of machine tools enables
(b) Semi-automatic (a) Reducing initial cost of the machine tools
(c) Automatic (b) Reduction of change (job) over cost
(d) Any of the above (c) Reduction of actual machining time
4. A machine tool will be called automatic when (d) All of the above
(a) All handling operations are only done 9. The most productive lathe is
automatically (a) CNC lathe
(b) All processing operations are only done (b) Capstan lathe
automatically (c) Single spindle automatic lathe
(c) All handling and processing operations (d) Multi-spindle automatic lathe
are done automatically 10. The most flexible machining system is
(d) None of the above (a) CNC milling machine
5. Use of transfer machines is justified for (b) Machining centre
(a) Piece production (c) FMS
(b) Batch production (d) CIM

RE V I E W QU E S T I O N S
1. Define mechanization and automation when 5. How can machine tools be classified based on
incorporated in manufacturing. degree of automation?
2. State the roles or purposes of employing mech- 6. Compare centre lathes, turret lathes and
anization and automation in manufacturing. single spindle automatic lathes with respect
3. When will a machine tool be called non- to degree of automation, productivity and
automatic or semi-automatic or automatic? application.
4. Why are centre lathes and capstan lathes 7. Show and explain with the help of a suit-
considered, respectively, non-automatic and able diagram that fully automatic machine
semi-automatic? tools are justified for large lot production and

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 Automation in Machine Tools 513

semi-automatic machine tools are justified for 13. Giving suitable examples distinguish between
batch production. hard (or fixed) automation and flexible auto-
8. State the possible favourable and unfavour- mation in respect of machine tools.
able effects of incorporation of automation in 14. Why is the present and future trend moving
manufacturing. towards replacement of fixed automation by
9. How is it possible to reduce the cost of manu- flexible automation?
facturing (by machining) or selling piece per 15. State the relative advantages of flexible automa-
piece of a product which is widely used by tion over fixed automation regarding machine
common people? tools.
10. What socio-economic factors played signifi- 16. Why flexible automation of machine tools has
cant roles behind gradual incorporation of been so successful and is progressing further so
automation in manufacturing industries? rapid and widely?
11. Why are use of transfer machines not justified 17. In computer integrated manufacturing (CIM),
for piece production and even batch produc- what are actually integrated and why?
tion? 18. What roles robots can play in flexibly auto-
12. Why should the automatic machine tools be matic manufacturing by machining?
used for mass production or large lot produc-
tion?

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MAMT_Chapter 17.indd 514 7/21/2011 11:35:39 AM
 18 Classification of
Machine Tools
Learning Objectives
The contents of this chapter would enable the readers to:
• Be aware of the historical background of • Classify the modern computer numerically
the chronological development of machine controlled stand-alone machine tools like CNC
tools. lathes, CNC drilling and boring machines,
• Make broad grouping of the machine tools CNC milling and CNC grinding machines
based on various factors. as well as the systems FMM, FMC, FMS and
• Classify further with specific example each CIM.
group of conventional machine tools: lathes, • Be conversant with special-purpose machine
drilling machines, milling machines, boring tools along with their distinguished features
machines, broaching machines, gear teeth and use.
cutting machines and grinding machines.

18.1 Introduction
With the increase in the demand for production in large volume and at faster rate, demand was raised for
product quality in terms of materials, dimensional and form accuracy and surface finish. Machine tools inher-
ently come up to impart such accuracy and finish by machining and grinding. Various types of machine tools
essentially have evolved through the last few centuries to meet the ever growing requirements.
At the initial stage, the so-called machine tools were operated totally manually without any external power.
The modern machine tools, on the other hand, are operated and controlled by electronic sensors and devices,
computers and robots. In between, several hundreds of types of machine tools have been innovated, designed
and used. From various machine tools available, the appropriate machine tool needs to be selected to carry
out the desired task most effectively, efficiently and economically by best utilization of the resources. Such
appropriateness of selection obviously needs awareness of how many types of machine tools exist and their
application characteristics. Since there are many types of machine tools, one may be puzzled during selection.
Therefore, the existing machine tools need proper and thorough classification first into some groups accord-
ing to constructional features and operational characteristics and then further classification of each group
with respect to unique features and applications. This chapter deals with systematic categorization and further
classification of all types of machine tools.

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18.2 Advent of Various Machine Tools: History and Reasons

It is already mentioned that several objects and especially most of the engineering components such as rods,
shafts, gears, fasteners, clutches bearings, slides and guides, moulds, dies, etc. need reasonably good dimen-
sional and form accuracy as well as good surface quality for their use, favorable performance and long service
life. It is also known that such accuracy and finish are generally achievable by machining and grinding. Grind-
ing, done for final finishing, is also considered a kind of machining, called abrasive machining.
Machining work, based on gradual removal of excess material in the form of chips from solid raw objects
of irregular size and shape, crept in few thousand years ago when people realized the need of and started to
attain dimensional accuracy and good surface finish. Advent of primitive unpowered, foot operated lathe for
turning logs by knife-like tools made of sharpened stone-blades is an example. Innovation of manual drilling
‘by bow and a rope’ in Egypt about 3000 years back is another example.
Earlier machining was done totally manually, on soft materials like wood and for limited accuracy and
moderate finish. Need and attempts for machining harder materials, faster work with large force and speed
and higher precision gradually led to the development and use of power operated large, strong and robust
devices or machines called machine tools. Later, the exponential growth in population and the ever increas-
ing demands along with rapid progress in science and technology inevitably resulted in development and use
of huge number and types of machine tools. It is really difficult for anyone to tell at any moment the exact
number and types of machine tools existing at that moment.
The major factors behind such innovation, development and use of these wide ranges of machine tools at
accelerated rate through last few decades are as follows:
1. Increase in demand for
(a) Large volume of products.
(b) Higher productivity.
(c) Better product quality.
(d) Overall economy.
2. Advent and incorporation of power (i.e., engines, electric motors, etc.).
3. Development and increasing use of stronger and harder work materials such as metals and alloys
and need for their machining.
4. Rapid changes in size, shape and geometry of the products requiring various types of machining
operations such as turning, drilling, milling, etc.
5. Development and use of more effective and efficient cutting tools, types and material such as HSS,
carbides, etc.
6. Remarkable developments of mechanizations and automations and their application in machining
devices.
7. Development and use of improved power drives systems:
(a) Mechanical.
(b) Electromechanical.
(c) Hydraulic.
(d) Combination.
8. Recent revolutionization by induction of numerical control and computers in manufacturing.
9. Possible integration of machining, automatic material handling, on-line condition monitoring and
control, etc.
10. Demand and possibility of enhancing versatility and flexibility on group technology basis.

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18.3 Classification of Machine Tools

18.3.1 Classification Criteria
Machine tools, in general, can be broadly classified according on the following basis:
1. According to primary machining operations
(a) Turning: lathes.
(b) Drilling: drilling machines.
(c) Shaping: shaping machine.
(d) Milling: milling machine.
(e) Boring: boring machines.
(f ) Broaching: broaching machines.
(g) Grinding: grinding machines.
2. According to nature of cutting motion
(a) Rotating workpiece: all types of lathes.
(b) Rotating tool: drilling machine, milling machine, boring machine, grinding machine, hobbing
machine, etc.
(c) Reciprocating tool: shaping machine, slotting machine, gear shaping machine and broaching
machine.
(d) Reciprocating job: planing machine.
3. According to the basic purpose of use
(a) General purpose: wide ranges of tools, jobs and operations (e.g., centre lathes).
(b) Single purpose: only one or very few operations (e.g., roll turning lathe, facing lathe, relieving
lathe, etc.).
(c) Special purpose: a definite number and type of operations repeatedly done on single type of blank
(e.g., finish machining of bevel gear, blanks, cylinder blocks of IC engines, gear box housing, etc.).
4. According to degree of automation
(a) Non-automatic: centre lathes, shaping machines, drilling machines, etc.
(b) Semi-automatic: capstan lathe, turret lathe, copying lathe, relieving lathe, etc.
(c) Automatic: single spindle automatic lathe, Swiss type automatic lathe, transfer machine, CNC
milling, machining centre, etc.
5. According to type of automation
(a) Fixed automation: automatic lathe, transfer machines, etc.
(b) Flexible automation: CNC turning machine, CNC milling machine, machining centre, CNC
grinding machine, etc.
6. According to size or capacity
(a) Heavy duty: large, bulky horizontal and vertical lathes, boring mills planing machines, etc. of
power above 11 kW (roughly).
(b) Medium duty: widely used centre lathes of power 2.2–11 kW.
(c) Small and mini: table top lathes of power less than 1.1 kW.
(d) Micro lathe: table top very small lathes (length smaller than 300 mm) such as Swiss type automatic
lathes being used mainly for turning parts of wrist watch and similar small products.
7. According to type of blank
(a) Chucking type: vertical lathes, turning centre, etc.

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 518 Machining and Machine Tools

(b) Bar type: capstan lathe, single spindle automatic lathe, etc.
(c) Housing type: horizontal boring machine, CNC milling and machining centre.
8. According to precision
(a) General: centre lathes, milling machine, drilling machine, etc.
(b) Precision and high precision: Swiss type automatic lathes, grinding machines, jig boring
machine, etc.
9. According to number of spindles
(a) Single spindle: centre lathes, drilling machine, milling machines, single spindle automatic
lathe, etc.
(b) Multi-spindle: multi-spindle (4, 6 or 8) automatic lathes, drilling machine, etc.
10. According to configuration
(a) Horizontal: lathes in general, horizontal boring machine and broaching machine.
(b) Vertical: vertical lathe, vertical boring machine, vertical broaching machine, gear shaping
machine, etc.

18.3.2 Families of Conventional Machine Tools

18.3.2.1 Various Lathes
1. Centre lathes: all horizontal
(a) Micro (size) lathes.
(b) Table top small lathes.
(c) Medium duty lathes.
(d) Heavy duty lathes.
2. Single-purpose lathes
(a) Facing lathe.
(b) Multi-tooling lathe.
(c) Roll turning lathe.
(d) Relieving lathe.
3. Semi-automatic lathes
(a) Capstan lathe of various sizes.
(b) Turret lathes of various sizes
• Horizontal – common.
• Vertical axis type – less common.
• Vertical axis and multiple spindle type.
(c) Copying lathes
• Mechanical type.
• Hydraulic drive type.
4. Automatic lathes of varying sizes
(a) Automatic cutting off lathe.
(b) Single spindle automatic lathe.
(c) Swiss type automatic lathe.
(d) Multiple spindle (2,4,6,8) automatic lathe.
Conventional automatic lathes are generally horizontal.

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18.3.2.2 Various Drilling Machines

1. Pillar drill
(a) Micro-drilling machine.
(b) Table top small drilling machines.
(c) Medium duty pillar drill.
2. Column drilling machines of different sizes and capacities.
3. Radial drilling machines of varying sizes and capacities.
4. Gang drilling machine.
5. Multiple spindle drilling machine
(a) Horizontal type.
(b) Vertical type.
(c) Vertical turret type.
Most of the drilling machines are of vertical axis.

18.3.2.3 Shaping, Planing and Slotting Machines

1. Shaping machines of various sizes and capacities.
2. Planing machines of different sizes, capacities and number of tool heads.
3. Slotting machines of different sizes, capacities and versatility.

18.3.2.4 Different Milling Machines

1. Knee type milling machines of various sizes and capacities
(a) Horizontal arbour type.
(b) With both horizontal and vertical spindle (heads).
(c) Swiveling bed type.
(d) Universal head type.
2. Bed type robust milling machine with
(a) Vertical spindle – common.
(b) Horizontal spindle (axis) type – generally heavy duty.
3. Copy milling machines
(a) With mechanical copying system.
(b) With hydraulic tracer control.
Copy milling machines may be of both horizontal axis type and vertical axis type.

18.3.2.5 Boring Machines

1. Vertical boring machines also called jig boring machines are of two categories such as
(a) Small size low duty.
(b) Medium size and duty.
2. Horizontal axis type – usually large and more heavy duty.

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18.3.2.6 Broaching Machines

Broaching machines can also be categorized into different types according to
1. Broach: pull type or push type.
2. Configuration: horizontal or vertical.
3. Drive: electromechanical or hydraulic.
4. Fixed job (blank) type or rotary table type.
5. Application: internal broaching or external broaching.

18.3.2.7 Different Grinding Machines

1. Cylindrical grinding
(a) External grinding type.
(b) Internal grinding type.
(c) Both external and internal grinding types.
2. Surface grinding machines
(a) With horizontal wheel axis.
(b) With vertical wheel axis.
3. Centreless grinding machines
(a) External grinding type.
(b) Internal grinding type.
4. Screw threads grinding machines
(a) For external threads.
(b) For internal threads.
(c) Centreless thread grinding.
5. Gear teeth grinding machines
(a) Working on forming principle.
(b) Working on generation principle.
6. Tool and cutter grinder.

18.3.2.8 Gear Teeth Generating Machine Tools

Gear teeth of spur gears, bevel gears and also of worm wheels can be produced by machining on forming
principle in milling machines using various form milling cutters. Gear teeth can also be produced, if required,
in shaping machine and slotting machine using single point form tools. Gear teeth production by forming
in milling, etc. is restricted by low productivity, poor product quality and uneconomic. However, broaching
produces teeth having soft and small spur gears by forming, very fast, with high product quality and very
economically (in the case of mass production). The machine tools that are regularly used for producing gear
teeth by generation include:
1. Sunderland machine using rack type cutter.
2. Gear shaping machine.
3. Gear hobbing machine.
4. Bevel gear generator.
5. Hypoid gear generator.

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18.3.3 Combined or Extended Machine Tools

Shaping and slotting machines have become almost obsolete for their very limited application and poor
productivity. Planing machine is also going to be obsolete for limited application and poor productivity due
to use of single point tools. However, planing machines as such are quite powerful and rigid large machine
tools. Keeping these two factors in view, the primitive planing machines are converted or extended to what
is called plano-miller, where versatility and productivity are enhanced by several folds by using number of
milling cutters (heads) instead of single point tools. Similarly compounded machine tool like plano-grinder
has also evolved and is getting used.

18.3.4 Modern Computer Numerical Control Machine Tools

Invention and incorporation of flexible automation through use of numerical control systems and computer-
ization led to the advent of a new, modern and powerful class of machine tools. The chronological develop-
ments in this direction are
1. Computer numerical controlled (CNC) stand alone flexibly automatic machine tool tools:
(a) CNC lathes.
(b) CNC drilling and boring machines.
(c) CNC milling machines.
(d) CNC gear teeth generating machines.
2. Compounded versatile CNC machining systems:
(a) Turning centre.
(b) Machining centre.
3. Further versatile CNC machining systems have been developed by integrating machining centres,
material handling robots, auto feeders and computer aided design, process planning, inspection, sub
assembly and assembly. Such chronologically developed systems include
(a) Flexible manufacturing module (FMM).
(b) Flexible manufacturing cell (FMC).
(c) Flexible manufacturing system (FMS).
(d) Computer integrated machining (CIM).

18.3.5 Special-Purpose Machine Tools

Some special-purpose machine tools are often designed, built and used for economic mass or large lot produc-
tion of some specific product. In special-purpose machine tools a fixed number and type of operations are
repeatedly carried out on only one single type of blank and same set of work is carried out over long span of
time. Special-purpose machine tools, generally
1. Are automatic using hard automation.
2. Are used for mass production of particular items.
3. Have complex and compact kinematic structure and high speed drives.
4. Have less machining cost per piece.
5. Are not justified or economically viable for small volume production.

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SU M M A R Y
The purposes and chronological development of and economically. Like the classical machine tools,
machine tools of innumerable types and wide range the modern flexibly automatic machine tools have
of capacities and applications over the centuries also been classified as CNC lathes, CNC drilling
have been highlighted. Broad grouping of the sev- and boring machines, CNC milling and grind-
eral hundred type of machine tools into the major ing machines, etc. Similarly, classification of such
categories have been made according to some sali- modern manufacturing systems into machining
ent features and characteristics. Classifications of centre, turning centre, FMS and CIM have also been
each group of the conventional machine tools with addressed at the end of this chapter. Proper method
respect to size, shape, automation and applications and use of specification of each category of machine
have been indicated in this chapter. Such classifica- tool is necessary to enable easy and correct selection,
tion of machine tools is quite necessary to enable manufacture and purchase of any machine tool. This
appropriate selection of machine tool to carry out a essential and relevant aspect has been taken up in the
specific machining task most effectively, efficiently next chapter.

M U L T I P L E CH O I C E QU E S T I O N S
[Answers are provided in the CD]
1. Roll turning lathes are 6. Flexible automation is the characteristic of
(a) General-purpose machine tool (a) Multiple spindle automatic lathe
(b) Single-purpose machine tool (b) Transfer machine
(c) Special-purpose machine tool (c) Copy milling machine
(d) None of the above (d) Machining centre
2. Capstan lathes are 7. The relatively most versatile machining system
(a) Non-automatic is
(b) Semi-automatic (a) Transfer machine
(c) Automatic (b) CNC lathe
(d) None of the above. (c) CNC milling machine
3. Single spindle automatic lathes are used for (d) Machining centre
(a) General purpose 8. The system which is not computer controlled
(b) Single purpose is
(c) Special purpose (a) Transfer machine
(d) All of the above (b) Turning centre
4. Turret lathes are considered (c) Machining centre
(a) Non-automatic (d) None of the above
(b) Semi-automatic 9. The machine tool in which teeth of spur gears
(c) Automatic are produced by machining but not by genera-
(d) Flexibly automatic tion purposes, is
5. The lathe, which is non-automatic, is (a) Hobbing machine
(a) Roll turning lathe (b) Gear shaping machine
(b) Capstan lathe (c) Milling machine
(c) Hydraulic copying lathe (d) Sunderland machine using rack type
(d) Relieving lathe cutter

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 Classification of Machine Tools 523

10. Broaching machine can be (c) Vertical and push type

(a) Horizontal and pull type (d) Any of the above
(b) Horizontal and push type (e) None of the above

R E V I E W QU E S T I O N S
1. Which factors played the major roles behind 6. List the various types of (a) lathes, (b) drilling
the rapid growth in the number of types of machines and (c) milling machines.
machine tools through last few decades? 7. Name the different types of (a) grind-
2. According to which factors, machine tools are ing machines and (b) gear teeth generating
generally classified? machine.
3. How are conventional machine tools classified 8. Why are shaping machines, slotting
on the basis of (a) purposes of use, (b) con- machines and primitive planing machines
figuration and (c) degree or level of mechani- getting obsolete? Why are the old planing
zation or automation. machines converted into plano-miller and
4. Classify conventional machine tools according plano-grinder?
to (a) tool–work motions, (b) size and capac- 9. How are plano-miller and plano-grinder dif-
ity, (c) number of spindles and (d) type of ferent from planing machines?
blank handled. Give examples of each type. 10. Name the different machine tools in which
5. Classify machine tools, with proper examples, teeth of spur gears are produced by machining.
on the basis of (a) number of spindles, (b) pre- 11. List the flexibly automatic machine tools that
cision and (c) type of automation. have been chronologically developed.

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MAMT_Chapter 18.indd 524 7/21/2011 3:44:00 PM
 19 Specification of Machine Tools
Learning Objectives
The content of this chapter would enable the readers to:
• Conceive as well as explain the necessity manufacturers and users of different machine
of knowing why and how to specify any tools.
machine tool like any other engineering and • Be conversant with the usual methods of speci-
household object. fying the different conventional machine tools
• Understand and explain why proper spec- and to use these specifications for different pur-
ification and that too in standard form are poses.
important and essential to the designers,

19.1 Introduction
It becomes difficult, if not impossible, to procure or purchase as well as sell or supply a desired machine tool
if that machine tool is not fully specified in respect of basic type, constructional features, operational charac-
teristics and working ranges and capacity. The principles and methods of specifying different machine tools
have been more or less standardized for the convenience of all the people associated with design, manufacture,
sale or purchase, operation, inspection and maintenance of machine tools. Therefore, it is essential for all con-
cerned to know, the proper way of specifying the conventional machine tools according to requirements.

19.2 Purpose of Machine Tool Specification

While procuring or purchasing any item, its user first decides exactly for what purpose or task or range of
tasks he needs or intends that item. This item may refer to any engineering component, device or even system.
Then the user identifies and lists the salient constructional features and functional characteristics the intended
item should essentially possess to serve the desired purposes. The constructional features of any items usually
refer to its configuration, material, size, weight, capacity, etc. and the functional characteristics refer to its
kinematics, mechanization, versatility, precision, etc. and their control depending upon the type of the item
concerned. For instance, to procure or purchase a micrometer for some specific requirement or use, the user
or customer has to convey to the storekeeper/shopkeeper/supplier the following features and characteristics
for the required micrometer:
1. Outside or inside micrometer.
2. Range of dimension (e.g., 0−25 mm, 25−50 mm, 50−100 mm, etc.).

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 526 Machining and Machine Tools

3. Least count or resolution (e.g., 1 μm, 10 μm, etc.).

4. Type of anvil: flat, conical, spherical, etc.
5. With or without ratchet.
6. With or without locking system.
7. Make, if there is any preference or restriction.
Users may need and procure different micrometers for their different purposes. Depending upon the domains
or ranges of the users’ general demands, the manufacturer produces a particular item either on job-order basis
or in limited ranges on their own decision and choice based on the market demand.
A manufacturer of particular item (e.g., micrometer, pressure cooker, lathe, etc.) produces only a limited
variety of that item, particularly in the case of quantity production, keeping in view the pattern of demand,
interchangeability, standardization, ease of selection and overall economy. According to the requirement,
the customer selects from the options (or variations or grades or models) made available or offered by the
manufacturer or supplier. Both the consumer and the manufacturer methodically specify the required item to
clearly express their exact requirement and product range, respectively.
Machine tools can also be categorized with each category being specified based on its constructional fea-
tures, working range or functional characteristics and some other salient aspects. Specification of any machine
tool briefly and methodically expresses its basic constructional features and functional characteristics and
indicates its feasible applications. Specifications of machine tools should be available and are used during or
before their design, manufacture, sale, procurement, installation and maintenance.

19.3 Methods of Specification of Conventional

Machine Tools
19.3.1 Specification of Lathes
19.3.1.1 Centre Lathe
Though there are different types of lathes, they have some common features. The general-purpose centre
lathes are most widely used. Centre lathes are generally specified by
1. Maximum diameter of the workpiece that can be accommodated. Often centre height or swing
(double the centre height) is also used.
2. Maximum length of workpiece that can be accommodated in the lathe. Often this aspect is specified
by maximum possible distance between the headstock centre and the tailstock centre. In some cases
length of the bed is mentioned.
3. Power, in kW.
4. Spindle speeds:
(a) Stepped or stepless.
(b) Range (min. rpm and max. rpm).
(c) Number of speeds in case of stepped drive.
5. Feeds: range, number and values.
6. Floor space (or foot print) required. Often total weight of the machine is mentioned.
Further, detail specification of centre lathe may include mention of

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 Specification of Machine Tools 527

1. The spindle diameter of the hole, taper angle at the front of the hole and the thread at its nose.
2. Type of tool holder or register.
3. With or without gap bed.
4. Coolant system, chip collector, etc.
However, if required, a separate list of some accessories like 3-jaw chuck, face plate, steady and follower rest, revolv-
ing centres, etc. and attachments like taper turning attachment, milling attachment, grinding attachment, copying
attachment, etc. are also opted in the purchase order as well as in manufacturer’s catalogue or quotation.
A classical example of specification of a 5.5 kW (say) centre lathe may be as follows:
1. Max. diameter of workpiece: 160 mm
2. Max. length of workpiece: 1000 mm
3. Power: 5.5 kW
4. Spindle speeds: 40−2000 rpm, 12 steps (GP)
5. Feeds: for turning, etc.: 0.05−2.00 mm/rev for threading: all standard metric threads
6. Gap bed: not required
7. Floor space: 1.2 m × 3 m

19.3.1.2 Capstan Lathes and Turret Lathes

In addition to power, spindle speeds, feeds and floor space, the semi-automatic lathes, capstan lathes and turret
lathes need some more information in their specifications. Capstan lathes basically work on bar type blanks.
Hence, specification of capstan lathe includes mention of the cross-section of the bar (diameter for circular bars
and flat-to-flat distance in the case of polygon sectioned bars). Capstan lathes also need a mention of the turret,
in the specification, whether it is hexagonal (more common) or octagonal having six or eight tool positions.
Compared to capstan lathes, turret lathes are more versatile and heavy duty and are available in wide
varieties. Both the manufacturer and users have to include the following additional aspects while specifying
any turret lathe:
1. Section of the bar type blank and size of the chucking type jobs.
2. Method of clamping blank; chuck or collet-operated mechanically, pneumatically or hydraulically.
3. Configuration: horizontal or vertical.
4. Lead screw for machining threads which cannot be done by self-opening die.
5. System of changing speed and feed: classical drive, pre-optive drive, etc.

19.3.1.3 Single Spindle and Multiple Spindle Automatic Lathes

Single spindle automatic lathes are mostly horizontal and deal with only bar type blank of regular section. So,
the range of section and the maximum length of the bar stock are essentially mentioned while specifying any
single spindle automatic lathes. The other additional features to be specified are:
1. Number of tool positions (in the turret and radial slides).
2. Maximum size of cams or maximum travels of the turret and the radial tool slides.
In the case of multiple spindle automatic lathes, the number of spindles and the maximum size of the blank
are also specified.

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 528 Machining and Machine Tools

19.3.2 Specification of Drilling and Boring Machines

19.3.2.1 Drilling Machines
Drilling machines are available in different configurations, sizes and capacities to meet the wide range of
application requirements. They need proper specification. The general purpose and widely used column drill-
ing machine, for instance, are specified as:
1. Maximum diameter of drills that can be accommodated.
2. Size of the bed or worktable: length × breadth.
3. Maximum gap between the bed (or table) and the spindle-nose.
4. Size and taper (standard) of the spindle hole.
5. Power (kW).
6. Spindle speed: range and steps, rpm.
7. Automatic feeds: range and steps, mm/rev.
8. Maximum height.
9. Floor space or foot-print.
In case of radial drilling machine, the maximum horizontal (radial) and vertical travels of the drilling head
are also specified.

19.3.2.2 Boring Machines

Boring machines are broadly classified mainly based on the following features:
1. Vertical or horizontal.
2. General purpose or high precision.
Jig boring machines are vertical and of high precision whereas line boring machines are horizontal and of high
precision. Vertical boring machines are generally specified by
1. Size (diameter) of the spindle.
2. Power in kW.
3. Spindle-speed (rpm): range and number.
4. Spindle feeds (vertical, mm/rev.): range and number.
5. Worktable size: length × breadth.
6. With or without rotary table.
7. Maximum gap between spindle-nose and worktable.
8. Precision (tolerance) in micron.
9. Floor space or foot print.
Horizontal boring machines are usually much larger and heavy duty compared to vertical boring machines.
In horizontal boring machines, the large workpiece is mounted on the worktable which moves longitudinally
during machining. The worktable is moved transversely off-line while mounting and setting the blank on
the table. The cutting tool is fixed in the rotary boring bar which can be set at different heights as required.
Horizontal boring machines are specified by
1. Size (diameter) of the spindle.
2. Maximum possible diameter and length of the boring bar.
3. Maximum lift of the boring bar.

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 Specification of Machine Tools 529

4. Power in kW.
5. Worktable size, which decides maximum possible size of the workpiece.
6. Maximum axial (longitudinal) and transverse travel of the worktable.
7. Spindle speeds (rpm): range and steps.
8. Table feeds (mm/rev) in longitudinal direction: range and steps.
9. Degree of precision or tolerance.
10. Floor space or foot-print.

19.3.3 Specification of Shaping, Planing and Slotting Machines

All these machine tools are reciprocating type and the working speed is designated by number of strokes (of
the tool/job) per minute. Unlike in shaping and slotting machines, in planing machines the cutting motion
and feed motion are imparted to the job and the tool(s), respectively.

19.3.3.1 Shaping Machine

Shaping machines are generally specified by
1. Maximum length of stroke (of ram or tool), mm.
2. Size of the worktable: length and breadth (mm).
3. Maximum horizontal and vertical travel of the worktable or bed.
4. Maximum possible gap between the clapper box from the bed surface.
5. Power in kW.
6. Working speeds (number of strokes/min): range and steps.
7. Table feed (mm/stroke): range and steps.
8. Foot-print.

19.3.3.2 Planing Machine

Planing machines are usually much larger and heavy duty compared to shaping machines. In planing machines,
speed (strokes/min) is provided to worktable and feeds to the tool head(s). These features are included in the
specification of planing machine.

19.3.3.3 Slotting Machine

Slotting machines are specified by
1. Maximum stroke length (mm) of ram or tool.
2. Working speeds (number of strokes/min): range and steps.
3. Worktable size (diameter), mm.
4. Maximum travel of the worktable: longitudinal (mm), cross (mm) and rotary (degree).
5. Working feeds (mm or deg. per strokes) of the worktable: longitudinal, cross and rotary.
6. Power in kW.
7. Foot-print.

19.3.4 Specification of Milling Machine

Milling machines are general purpose, versatile and very widely used for wide range of machining operations and
type of blanks. Milling machines are available in various types and configurations and are classified with respect to

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 530 Machining and Machine Tools

1. Spindle-axis as
(a) Fixed: horizontal and vertical.
(b) Tiltable: in 2-D and 3-D.
2. Bed (on which the worktable is mounted) movement as
(a) Rectangular bed capable of travelling in x-, y- and z-direction.
(b) Rotary bed/table having additional rotary motion.
3. Bed types as knee type and solid type.
These preliminary aspects are obviously included in the specification of any milling machine. The commonly
used knee-type milling machines with horizontal arbour are generally specified by
1. Size of the table: length × width.
2. Maximum length of travel of the table in x-direction, mm; y-direction; z-direction (bed’s travel), mm.
3. Power in kW.
4. Spindle (arbour) speeds: range and steps.
5. Feed of worktable: range and steps (mm/min.) in x-, y- and z-direction.
6. Arbour diameter: mm.
7. Foot-print

19.3.5 Specification of Broaching Machines

Specification of broaching machine starts from mention of whether the concerned broaching machine is
1. Horizontal type or vertical type or rotary table type.
2. Externally or internally working type.
3. Pull type or push type.
The other common features, to be specified for any broaching machine, are
1. Maximum longitudinal travel (mm) of the tool/broach.
2. Maximum pulling or pushing force permissible.
3. Power, kW.
4. Cutting velocity (m/min): range (min. and max.).
5. Drive systems: mechanical or hydraulic.
6. Floor space.

19.3.6 Specifications of Gear Teeth Generating Machines

Gear shaping machines and gear hobbing machines are very regularly used to generate teeth of spur gears.
There are other machines also.

19.3.6.1 Gear Shaping Machine

Gear shaping machines generate, by machining, teeth of spur gears, both external and internal as well as of
straight, helical and even double helical gears. In gear shaping machines
1. Cutting motion is attained by vertical reciprocation of the cutter.
2. Indexing motion is provided by rotation of the gear blank.

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 Specification of Machine Tools 531

3. Tangential feed is provided by rotation of the cutter.

4. Radial feed motion is imparted to the gear blank.
In addition to the aforesaid aspects, the following features are commonly mentioned in the specification of
gear shaping machines:
1. Maximum size (diameter and width) of the gear blank that can be accommodated.
2. Maximum module of gear teeth that can be generated.
3. Working speeds (no. of stokes of the cutter per min.): range and steps.
4. Power, kW.
5. Foot-print.

19.3.6.2 Gear Hobbing Machine

Gear hobbing machines are widely used to generate teeth of external spur gears and worm wheels. In this machine
the tool (hob) and the blank behave, while machining, as if a pair of worm and worm wheel are in mesh. The
rotation of the hob provides cutting motion, the rotation of the gear blank provides the required indexing
motion and the slow travel of the hob provides the feed motion. Gear hobbing machines are specified by
1. Maximum size (diameter and width) of the gear blank.
2. Maximum module of gear-teeth that can be generated.
3. Hob-speeds (rpm): range and steps.
4. Maximum possible helix angle of the gear teeth that can be produced.
5. Power, kW.
6. Foot-print.

19.3.7 Specification of Grinding Machines

Grinding machines are classified in large number of categories depending mainly upon their configuration
and applications.

19.3.7.1 Cylindrical Grinding Machines

Cylindrical grinding machines are specified by
1. Maximum size (diameter and length) of workpiece that can be accommodated.
2. Spindle (wheel) speeds (rpm): range and steps.
3. Speeds of the workpiece: range and steps.
4. Axial feed (mm/rev.) of worktable: range and steps.
5. Power, kW.
6. Foot-print.

19.3.7.2 Pendulum Type Surface Grinding Machines

Such general purpose grinding machines are specified by
1. Size of the worktable: length and width (mm × mm).
2. Maximum length of travel of the table.

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 532 Machining and Machine Tools

3. Table speed or work-feed: range

(a) Longitudinal (m/mm).
(b) Transverse (mm/stroke).
4. Wheel speed (rpm): range and steps.
5. Power (kW).
6. Foot-print.

SU M M A R Y
The necessity and basic purpose of properly speci- in this chapter demonstrating the more or less
fying machine tools have been highlighted. It has standard methods of writing specification for the
been mentioned why machine tool specifications different conventional machine tools according to
are equally important and essential for both the requirement and availability. However, appropriate
sides: those dealing with procurement and use, selection and specifying any machine tool as per
and those concerned with planning, design, manu- requirements needs full awareness about the general
facture and sale of machine tools. The basic con- constructional features and operational characteris-
structional features and functional characteristics tics of the different machine tools available or can
as well as working ranges and capacity to be cov- be made available. The next chapter focuses on the
ered in these machine tool specifications have also general features and characteristics of the different
been indicated. Ample examples have been given machine tools.

MU LT I P L E CH O I C E QU E S T I O N S
[Answers are provided in the CD]
1. Specification of any machine tool is the con- 4. In the specification of gear shaping machine,
cern of its the speed is expressed by
(a) Manufacturer (a) Number of revolutions per minute
(b) Supplier (b) Number of strokes per minute
(c) Purchaser (c) Metre per minute
(d) Operator (d) None of the above
(e) All of the above 5. The range of speed of both the wheel and the
2. Power (kW) need not be mentioned in the job are mentioned in the specification of
specification of (a) Cylindrical grinding machine
(a) Capstan lathe (b) Surface grinding machine
(b) Turret lathe (c) External centre less grinding machine
(c) Multiple-spindle automatic lathe (d) All of the above
(d) None of the above 6. The maximum possible diameter of the blank
3. Tool-feed (rate) is not mentioned while speci- or workpiece is to be mentioned in the specifi-
fying cation of
(a) Centre lathe (a) Drilling machine
(b) Planing machine (b) Milling machine
(c) Broaching machine (c) Gear shaping machine
(d) Capstan lathe (d) Broaching machine

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 Specification of Machine Tools 533

7. The degree of precision or dimensional tolerance 9. Maximum possible length of the blank (or job
is usually mentioned in the specification of or workpiece) must be included in the specifi-
(a) Drilling machine cation of
(b) Jig boring machine (a) Centre lathe
(c) External broaching machine (b) Horizontal multiple-spindle automatic lathe
(d) Gear hobbing machine (c) Drilling machines
8. The foot-print (or floor space required) is to be (d) Jig boring machines
mentioned in the specification of 10. The machine tool, which is specified by maxi-
(a) All the machine tool mum possible diameter of the cutting tool, is
(b) None of the machine tools (a) Centre lathes
(c) Some of the machine tools (b) Drilling machines
(d) Grinding machine only (c) Milling machines
(d) Boring machines

R E V I E W QU E S T I O N S
1. What are the uses of specifications of machine 11. If you intend to purchase a centre lathe to
tools in manufacturing industries? be used for turning rods of diameter ranging
2. Who, when and why needs use of specification from about 50−200 mm of various materials
of engineering items? from aluminium to mild steel at cutting veloc-
3. What basic information is contained in the ity ranging from 40 m/min to 240 m/min
specification of any machine tool? requiring maximum possible cutting power of
4. State the advantages of machine tool specifica- about 5 kW, how will you specify that lathe for
tions. placing its purchase order?
5. While purchasing a centre lathe, for some spe- 12. How are milling machines specified?
cific uses from a machine tool manufacturer, 13. Show how a broaching machine is specified.
how will you express your requirement? 14. What information should be provided in the
6. How are centre lathes specified? specification of the broaching machine that
7. How will you specify a turret lathe to be pro- you want to procure for some specific work?
cured for your specific uses? 15. How are (a) gear shaping machines and (b)
8. What information should be contained in gear hobbing machines generally specified?
the specification of (a) single spindle auto- 16. Show a sample having complete specification
matic lathe and a multiple-spindle automatic of any grinding machine.
lathe? 17. What will be the difference in the contents of
9. How does a machine tool manufacturer speci- the specification of gear hobbing machine and
fy shaping, planing and slotting machines pro- those of gear shaping machine?
duced by him for sale? 18. Show the method of specifying a cylindrical
10. How are (a) column drilling machines and grinding machine keeping in view some of its
(b) radial drilling machines specified? specific uses.

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MAMT_Chapter 19.indd 534 7/8/2011 6:19:11 PM
 20 Conventional Machine Tools
and Their Features and
Characteristics
Learning Objectives
The content of this chapter would enable the readers to:
• Broadly classify machine tools into three dis- degree of automation and control and use
tinguished classes and then into the major of the different machine tools of common
families from lathes to grinding machines use.
based on functional principles and general • Be familiar with the basic construction and
applications. functional characteristics of the different
• Further classify, in detail, the machine tools gear teeth generating machines, broaching
within each family based on configuration, machines, grinding machines, as well as CNC
size, capacity, mechanization, control and machining systems.
range of industrial application. • Select proper machine tool for specific task.
• Be conversant with the constructional fea-
tures, operational characteristics, type and

20.1 Introduction
Improvement in design, manufacture, selection, installation and testing, operations for production and
maintenance of machine tools first need basic knowledge or awareness of the constructional features, opera-
tional characteristics and the range of possible applications of the different machine tools. The task is heavy
because there are many types of machine tools already existing and working widely. Machine tools can first
be categorized into three classes: conventional, non-conventional and advanced Computer numerical con-
trol (CNC) machining systems. The conventional machine tools, again, are grouped into a number of fami-
lies based on the functional principle and basic nature of application. These families include several types
from lathes to grinding machines. Each of such families comprises various types of machine tools accord-
ing to configuration, size, capacity, type and degree of automation and applications. For instance, lathes
alone can be classified as general purpose, single purpose and special purpose; non-automatic, semi-auto-
matic and automatic; small, medium or heavy duty; etc. Similarly, the other families of machine tools like

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 536 Machining and Machine Tools

drilling machines, milling machines, etc. can also be further classified. The designers, production engineers
and the maintenance people concerned with machine tools should possess the knowledge of the distin-
guished features, operational characteristics and range of applications of all machine tools. These aspects are
dealt in this chapter.

20.2 General Classification of Machine Tools

Machine tools can be broadly grouped into three categories:
1. Conventional or traditional machine tools like lathes, milling machines, etc. are used more widely
for faster material removal by shearing or brittle fracturing.
2. Non-conventional or non-traditional machine tools like EDM, ECM, USM, etc. which remove
material from exotic materials slowly by electro-physical, electro-chemical or micro-mechanical
processes.
3. Modern numerical and computer controlled machine tools like CNC lathe, CNC milling
machine, machining centre, etc. which are unique for flexible automation but such machine tools
are relatively more expensive.
The general-purpose conventional machine tools are broadly classified into the following groups based on
functional principles and applications:
1. Lathes (turning machines).
2. Drilling machines.
3. Shaping machines.
4. Planing machines.
5. Slotting machines.
6. Milling machines.
7. Boring machines.
8. Broaching machines.
9. Gear shaping machines.
10. Hobbing machines.
11. Grinding machines.
Each category mentioned is further classified based on configuration, size, automation and application.
Mechanization or automation is incorporated in a machine tool or machining system as a whole for higher
productivity with consistent quality aiming to meet the large requirements and overall economy. Such auto-
mation enables, with the help of special or additional mechanism and control systems, quick and accurate
auxiliary motions, that is, handling operations like mounting tool(s) and workpiece(s), bar feeding, tool
indexing, etc. repeatedly with reduced human intervention. These systems may be of mechanical, electro-me-
chanical, hydraulic or electronic type or their combination. According to the degree of automation, machine
tools including lathes can be classified as
1. Non-automatic where most of the handling operations, irrespective of processing operations, are
done manually, like centre lathes, etc.
2. Semi-automatic.
3. Automatic where all the handling and auxiliary operations as well as the processing operations are
carried out automatically.

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 Conventional Machine Tools and Their Features and Characteristics 537

General-purpose machine tools may have fixed automation or flexible automation where the latter one is
characterized by CNC.

20.3 Features and Characteristics of Different Machine Tools

20.3.1 Lathes: Different Types and Their Characteristics
Lathes, also called turning machines, are characterized by continuous fast rotation of the job and slow feed
motion of the tool(s) in axial, radial or inclined direction in horizontal plane. Lathes are available in differ-
ent sizes, shapes, types and degree of automation for various applications. The conventional general-purpose
lathes can be classified[1,2] as
1. Non-automatic: centre lathes.
2. Semi-automatic: capstan lathe, turret lathe, multiple spindle turret lathe, copying (hydraulic) lathe,
relieving lathe.
3. Automatic: automatic cutting off lathe, single-spindle automatic lathe, Swiss-type automatic lathe,
multiple spindle automatic lathes.
The other categories of semi-automatic and automatic lathes are
1. Vertical turret lathe.
2. Special purpose lathes.
3. Non-conventional type, that is, flexibility automatic CNC lathes turning centre, etc.

20.3.1.1 Non-Automatic Lathe: Centre Lathe

Centre lathes are non-automatic, that is, almost fully manually operated; however, they are so versatile that
these are most widely used among all the machine tools including various types of lathes. Figure 20.1 shows
a typical centre lathe. The characteristics of centre lathes are:
1. They have horizontal axis.
2. They are general-purpose and non-automatic.

Figure 20.1 A typical centre lathe (courtesy: IIT Kharagpur).

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 538 Machining and Machine Tools

Figure 20.2 A table top micro-lathe (courtesy: IIT Kharagpur).

3. They have tailstock, speed gear box, feed gear box and a lead screw to enable produce screw
threads.
4. They are available in wide ranges of size and power, from table-top micro-lathe (Fig. 20.2) to heavy
duty robust lathe, upto 6 m long and 120 kW.
5. They use one cutting tool at a time.
6. The knowledge and skill of the operator play substantial role on productivity and quality of the
products.
Slight modification in general-purpose centre lathe helped, for some specific purposes, the following types of
lathes to evolve:
1. Facing lathe.
2. Roll turning lathe.
3. Multi-tooling lathe.

20.3.1.2 Semi-Automatic Lathes

The characteristic features of such lathes are as follows:
1. Some major auxiliary motions and handling operations like bar feeding, speed change, tool change,
etc. are done quickly and consistently with lesser human involvement and effort.
2. The operators need lesser skill and putting lesser effort and attention.
3. They are suitable for batch or small lot production.
4. They are costlier than centre lathes of same capacity (power).

Capstan and Turret Lathes[1–3]

The semi-automatic lathes – capstan lathe and turret lathe – are very similar in construction, operation
and application. Figures 20.3 and 20.4 show the basic configuration of capstan lathe and turret lathe,
respectively. In contrast to centre lathes, capstan and turret lathes
1. Are semiautomatic.
2. Possess an auxiliary movable indexable turret (mostly hexagonal) in place of tailstock.

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 Conventional Machine Tools and Their Features and Characteristics 539

Auxiliary bed
Turret
Turret ram

Figure 20.3 Schematic configuration of capstan lathe.

Turret ram

Guide rod

Figure 20.4 Schematic configuration of turret lathe.

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 540 Machining and Machine Tools

3. Hold large number of cutting tools: upto four in indexable tool post on the front slide, one in the
rear slide and upto six in the turret (if hexagonal) as indicated in the schematic diagrams.
4. Are more productive for quick engagement and parallel functioning of the tools in addition to faster
mounting and feeding of the job and rapid speed change.
5. Enable repetitive production of same job with less involvement, effort and attention of the operator
for pre-setting of work-speed and feed rate and length of travel of the cutting tools.
6. Are relatively costlier.
7. Are suitable and economically viable for batch production or small lot production.
Major operations like job mounting or bar-feeding, speed change, turret indexing, regulating tools travels,
etc. are carried out manually but much easily and quickly with the help of suitable mechanisms incorporated
in these semi-automatic lathes. There are some differences in between capstan and turret lathes. The signifi-
cant differences are as follows:
1. Turret lathes are relatively more robust and heavy duty.
2. Capstan lathes generally deal with short or long rod type blanks held in collet, whereas turret lathes
mostly work on chucking type jobs held in the quick acting chucks.
3. In capstan lathe, the turret travels with limited stroke length within a saddle type guide block, called
auxiliary bed, which is clamped on the main bed as indicated in Fig. 20.3. In turret lathe, the heavy
turret is mounted on the saddle which directly slides with larger stroke length on the main bed as
indicated in Fig. 20.4.
4. One additional guide rod or pilot bar is provided on the headstock of the turret lathes as shown in
Fig. 20.4 to ensure rigid axial travel of the turret head.
5. External screw threads are cut in capstan lathe, if required, using a self-opening die mounted in one face
of the turret, whereas in turret lathes external threads are cut, if required, by a single point or multipoint
chasing tool mounted on the front slide and axially moved by a short leadscrew and a swing type half
nut.
Figures 20.5 and 20.6 give pictorial views of a typical capstan lathe and a horizontal turret lathe,
respectively. Capstan lathes are usually single-spindle and horizontal axis type. Turret lathes are also mostly
single-spindle and horizontal type but may also be (a) vertical type (Fig. 20.7) and (b) multiple spindle type.

Figure 20.5 A capstan lathe of common type (courtesy: IIT Kharagpur).

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 Conventional Machine Tools and Their Features and Characteristics 541

Figure 20.6 A horizontal turret lathe (courtesy: IIT Kharagpur).

Figure 20.7 Vertical turret lathe (courtesy: IIT Kharagpur).

Some more productive turret lathes are provided with pre-optive drive[3] which enables on-line presetting and
engaging the next work-speed and thus helps in reducing the cycle time.

Multiple Spindle Vertical Turret Lathe

Turret lathes are generally horizontal axis and single-spindle type. The multiple spindle vertical turret lathes

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 542 Machining and Machine Tools

1. Are generally used for machining small size jobs:

(a) Chucking type.
(b) In batches.
(c) Requiring limited number of machining operations.
2. Have machine axis – vertical for
(a) Lesser floor space occupied.
(b) Easy loading and unloading of heavy blanks and finished jobs.
(c) Relieving the spindles of bending load caused by job – weight.
3. Have four to eight spindles – single-spindle vertical turret lathes are also available and used
(Fig. 20.7).
Figure 20.8 illustrates the basic configuration of multiple spindle vertical turret lathes which comprise mainly
a large disc type spindle-carrier and a tool holding vertical ram as shown. Such vertical turret lathes[2] are of
three categories:
1. Parallel processing type: The spindle carrier remains stationary. Only the tool-slides move with
cutting tools radially and axially. Identical jobs (say six) are simultaneously mounted and machined
in the chucks parallelly at the stations each one having same set of axially and radially moving cut-
ting tools.
2. Progressively processing type: The spindle carrier with the blanks fitted in the chucks on the rotat-
ing spindle is indexed at regular interval by a Geneva mechanism. At each station the job undergoes
some preset machining work by the axially and/or radially fed cutting tools. The blank getting all the
different machining operations progressively at the different work stations is unloaded at a particular
station where the finished job is replaced by another fresh blank. These types of lathes are suitable for
jobs requiring large number of operations.
3. Continuously working type: As in parallel processing type, here also each job is finished at the same
station where it was loaded. The set of cutting tools, mostly fed only axially along a face of the ram,

Figure 20.8 Basic configuration of multiple spindle vertical turret lathe.

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 Conventional Machine Tools and Their Features and Characteristics 543

continuously work in the same blank throughout its one cycle of rotation along with the spindle
carrier. The tool ram having same tool sets on its faces also rotates simultaneously along with the
spindle carrier which after each rotation halts for a while for unloading the finished job and loading a
fresh blank at a particular location. Such system is also suitable for jobs requiring very few and simple
machining operations.

Hydraulic Copying (Tracer-Controlled) Lathes[2]

Jobs having steps, tapers and/or curved profiles, as typically shown in Fig. 20.9 are conveniently and eco-
nomically produced in batch or lot in semi-automatically operated tracer-controlled hydraulic copying lathe.
The movement of the stylus along the template, provided with the same desired job profile, is hydraulically
transmitted to the cutting tool tip which replicates the template profile.

Relieving Lathe[2]
The flanks of the teeth of disc type form milling cutters and gear hobs are essentially made bounded by Archi-
medean spiral. The curved surfaces of the identical teeth are produced semi-automatically in relieving lathe
where the tool blank is rotated continuously and a single point form tool is intermittently fed radially (by
a cam) in a synchronized way as indicated in Fig. 20.10. Different profiles in two-dimensions (2-D) can be
machined by such relieving lathes using suitable cams.

Figure 20.9 A typical product suitable for copy turning.

Tool blank

Flank (Archimedean spiral)

Tool slide

Cam
Cutting tool

Figure 20.10 Basic working principle of relieving lathe (producing flank of a milling cutter).

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 544 Machining and Machine Tools

20.3.1.3 General-Purpose Automatic Lathes[1,2]

Automatic lathes are essentially used for mass production of small rod or tubular type jobs. Automatic lathes
are also classified into some distinct categories based on constructional features, operational characteristics,
number of spindles and applications as follows:
1. Single spindle
(a) Automatic cutting off lathes.
(b) Automatic (screw cutting) lathes.
(c) Swiss-type automatic lathes.
2. Multiple spindle automatic lathes.

Automatic Cutting Off Lathe[1]

These simple but fast working automatic lathes are used for producing short workpieces of simple form by
using few cross-feeding tools. In addition to performing some simple operations like short turning, often
facing, chamfering, etc. are also done.

Single-Spindle Automatic Lathe[1,4]

The general-purpose single spindle automatic lathes are widely used for quantity or mass production (by
machining) of high-quality fasteners: bolts, screws, studs, bushes, pins, shafts, rollers, handles and similar
small metallic parts from long bars or tubes and also often from separate small blanks fed automatically in the
spindle nose. Figure 20.11 shows a typical single-spindle automatic lathe. Unlike the semiautomatic lathes,
single-spindle automatic lathes[3] are
1. Used for larger volume of production, that is, large lot production and mass production.
2. Used for producing jobs of rod, tubular or ring type and of relatively smaller size.

Figure 20.11 Single-spindle automatic lathe (courtesy: HMT Ltd., India).

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 Conventional Machine Tools and Their Features and Characteristics 545

3. Run fully automatically, including bar feeding and tool indexing, and continuously over a long
duration repeating the same machining cycle for each product.
4. Provided with upto five radial tool slides which are moved by cams mounted on a cam shaft.
5. Relatively of smaller size and power but have higher spindle speeds.

Swiss-Type Automatic Lathe[1,3]

The distinguishing characteristics and applications of these single-spindle automatic lathes are as
follows:
1. In respect of application: Used for lot or mass production of small and thin slender rods or tubular
jobs, like components of small clocks and wrist watches, etc. by precision machining.
(a) Job size (approximately).
(b) Diameter range − 2 to 6 mm and length range − 3 to 10 mm. Dimensional accuracy and
surface finish – almost as good as provided by grinding.
2. In respect of configuration and operation (Fig. 20.12):
(a) Very small in size.
(b) The headstock travels providing axial feed of the bar stock against the cutting tools.
(c) There is no tailstock or turret.
(d) High spindle speed (2,000 − 10,000 rpm) for small job diameter.
(e) The cutting tools (upto five in number including two on the rocker arm) are fed radially.
(f ) Drilling and threading tools, if required, are moved axially.
(g) The cylindrical blanks are pre-finished by grinding and are moved through a carbide guide bush.

Multiple Spindle Automatic Lathes

For further increase in rate of production of jobs usually of smaller size and simpler geometry, multiple
spindle automatic lathes having four to eight parallel spindles are preferably used. Unlike multiple spindle

Rocker arm
Tool slide (radial)

Job guide Job

Cutting tools

Headstock

Cutting tool positions and motions

Figure 20.12 Basic principle of Swiss-type automatic lathe.

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 546 Machining and Machine Tools

turret lathes, multiple spindle automatic lathes (a) are horizontal (for working on long bar stocks) and (b)
work mostly on long bar type or tubular blanks.
Multiple spindle automatic lathes also may be parallel action or progressively working type. Machining
of the inner and outer races in mass production of ball bearings are, for instance, done in multiple spindle
automatic lathes.

CNC Lathe and Turning Centre

CNC lathes are modern, flexibly automatic and unique for flexibility and versatility. The capability of such
lathes have been augmented further leading to what is called turning centre (Fig. 20.13). Details of such
machine tools have been discussed in Chapter 25.

20.3.2 Drilling Machines

Drilling machines are generally used to drill, in solid bodies, through or blind straight cylindrical holes:
1. Of different diameter ranging from about 1 mm to 40 mm.
2. Of varying length depending upon the requirement and the diameter of the drill.
3. In different materials excepting very hard or very soft materials.
Drilling machines are mostly of vertical axis and occasionally of horizontal axis (as gun drilling machines).
Drilling machines may be classified[2,4,5] as
1. General-purpose drilling machines of common use
(a) Table top small sensitive drilling machine.
(b) Pillar drilling machine.
(c) Column drilling machine.
(d) Radial drilling machine.
2. Drilling machines of specific use
(a) Hand drills (may not be considered as a machine).
(b) Gang drilling machine.

Figure 20.13 CNC turning centre (courtesy: LMW, India).

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 Conventional Machine Tools and Their Features and Characteristics 547

(c) Turret type drilling machine.

(d) Multiple spindle drilling machine.
(e) Micro-drilling machine.
(f ) Deep-hole drilling machine.
(g) Gun drilling machine.
We will discuss each one of them in the next section.

20.3.2.1 General-Purpose Drilling Machines of Common Use

1. Table top small sensitive drilling machine: These small capacity (≤ 0.55 kW), upright (vertical),
single-spindle drilling machines are mounted (bolted) on a rigid table and manually operated using
small size (f ≤ 10 mm) drills.
2. Pillar drilling machine: These drilling machines, usually called pillar drills, are quite similar to the
table top drilling machines but are of little larger size and higher capacity (0.55−1.1 kW). They are
grouted on the floor (foundation). Here also, the drill-feed and the worktable movement are done
manually. Figure 20.14 typically shows a pillar drill. These low cost drilling machines have tall tubular
pillar and are generally used for small jobs and light drilling work.
3. Column drilling machine: These box-shaped column type[2] drilling machines (Fig. 20.15) are
much more strong, rigid and powerful than the pillar drills. In column drills, the feed gear box
enables automatic and power feed of the rotating drill at different feed rates as desired. Blanks of

Figure 20.14 A pillar drill (drilling machine; courtesy: IIT Kharagpur).

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 548 Machining and Machine Tools

Figure 20.15 Column drilling machine (courtesy: HMT Ltd., India).

various sizes and shapes are rigidly clamped on the bed or table or in the vice fitted on that. Such
drilling machines are most widely used and over wide range (light to heavy) of work.
4. Radial drilling machine: This usually large drilling machine possesses a radial arm which
along with the drilling head can swing and move vertically up and down[2,3] (see Fig. 20.16). The
radial, vertical and swing movement of the drilling head enables locating the drill spindle at any point
within a very large space required by large and odd shaped jobs. There are some more versatile radial
drilling machines where the drill spindle can be additionally swiveled and/or tilted.

20.3.2.2 Drilling Machines with More Specific Use

1. Hand drills: Unlike the grouted stationary drilling machines, the hand drill is a portable drilling
device which is mostly held in hand and used at the locations where holes have to be drilled as
indicated in Fig. 20.17. The small and reasonably light hand drills are run by a high speed electric
motor. In fire hazardous areas, the drill is often rotated by compressed air. Hand drills are portable
and hence should not be called a machine tool.

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 Conventional Machine Tools and Their Features and Characteristics 549

Figure 20.16 A radial drilling machine (courtesy: HMT Ltd., India).

Figure 20.17 Hand drill.

2. Gang drilling machine: In this almost single purpose and more productive drilling machine,[6]
a number (2 to 6) of spindles with drill (of same or different size) in a row are made to produce a
number of holes progressively or simultaneously through the jig. Figure 20.18 schematically shows a
typical gang drilling machine.

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 550 Machining and Machine Tools

Jig plate

Worktable

Figure 20.18 Schematic view of a gang drilling machine.

3. Turret (type) drilling machine: Turret type drilling machines are structurally rigid column type
and are more productive as they have a pentagonal or hexagonal turret as shown in Fig. 20.19. The
turret bearing a number of drills and similar tools is indexed and moved up and down to perform the
desired series of operations progressively. These drilling machines are available with varying degree of
automation in both fixed and flexible types.

Figure 20.19 Schematic view of turret type drilling machine.

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 Conventional Machine Tools and Their Features and Characteristics 551

4. Multiple spindle drilling machine: In these high production machine tools a large number of drills
work parallelly and simultaneously[2,6] on a blank through a jig-plate specially made for the particular job.
The entire drilling head works repeatedly using the same jig for batch or lot production of a particular
job. Figure 20.20 shows a typical multiple spindle drilling head. The rotation of the drills is derived from
the main spindle and the central gear through a number of planetary gears in mesh with the central gear
and the corresponding flexible shafts. The positions of the parallel shafts holding the drills are adjusted
depending upon the locations of the holes to be made on the job. Each shaft possesses a telescopic part
and two universal joints at its ends to allow change in length and orientation, respectively, for adjust-
ment of location of the drills of varying sizes and lengths. In some heavy duty multiple spindle drilling
machines, the worktable is raised to give feed motion instead of moving the heavy drilling head.
5. Deep-hole drilling machine: Very deep holes of L/D ratio 6−30, required for rifle barrels, long
spindles, oil holes in shafts, bearings, connecting rods, etc. are very difficult to make due to the
slenderness of the drills and difficulties in cutting fluid application and chip removal. Such drill-
ing cannot be done in ordinary drilling machines and by ordinary drills. It needs machines like
deep-hole drilling machines[4,6] such as gun drilling machines with horizontal axis. These drilling
machines are provided with
(a) High spindle speed.
(b) High rigidity.

Figure 20.20 A typical multiple spindle drilling machine.

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 552 Machining and Machine Tools

Figure 20.21 A micro-drilling machine.

(c) Tool guide.

(d) Pressurized cutting oil for effective cooling, chip removal and lubrication at the drill tip.
Deep-hole drilling machines are available with both hard automation and CNC system.
6. Micro- (or mini-) drilling machine: This type of tiny drilling machine of height around 200 mm is
placed or clamped on a table, as shown in Fig. 20.21 and operated manually for drilling small holes
of around 1−3 mm diameter in small workpieces.

20.3.3 Shaping, Planing and Slotting Machines

There are three reciprocating type non-automatic general-purpose machine tools which are generally used to
produce flat surfaces in different planes and also straight slots grooves, etc. of various cross sections. These
machine tools are:
1. Shaping machines.
2. Planing machines.
3. Slotting machines.

20.3.3.1 Shaping Machines

A photographic view of general configuration of shaping machine is shown in Fig. 20.22. The main func-
tions of shaping machines[2,3] are to produce flat surfaces in different planes. Figure 20.23 shows the basic
principle of generation of flat surface by a shaping machine. The cutting motion provided by the linear
forward motion of the reciprocating tool and the intermittent feed motion provided by the slow transverse

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 Conventional Machine Tools and Their Features and Characteristics 553

Figure 20.22 Shaping machine (courtesy: IIT Kharagpur).

Tool
Work

G
Desired flat surface
D

CM FM

Figure 20.23 Principle of producing flat surface in shaping machine.

motion of the bed along with the job result in producing a flat surface by gradual removal of excess material
layer by layer in the form of chips. The vertical infeed is given either by descending the tool head or by rais-
ing the bed or both. Straight grooves of various curved sections are also made in shaping machines by using
specific form tools. The single point straight or form tool is clamped in the vertical slide (clapper box) which
is mounted at the front face of the reciprocating ram, whereas the workpiece is directly or indirectly (in a
vice) mounted on the bed.

20.3.3.2 Planing Machines

The photographic view in Fig. 20.24 shows the general configuration of planing machine. Like shaping
machines, planing machines are also used for producing flat surfaces in different planes.[2] However, the
major differences between planing machines and shaping machines are as follows:
1. Though in principle both shaping and planing machines produce flat surfaces in the same way by
the combined actions of the Generatrix and Directrix but in planing machine, instead of the tool,
the workpiece reciprocates giving the fast cutting motion and the tool(s) is given the slow feed
motion(s).

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 554 Machining and Machine Tools

Figure 20.24 Planing machine (courtesy: IIT Kharagpur).

2. Compared to shaping machines, planing machines are much larger, more rugged and generally used
for machining large jobs with longer stroke length and heavy cuts. In planing machine, the workpiece
is mounted on the reciprocating table and the tool-head is mounted on the horizontal rail, which,
again, can move vertically up and down along the vertical rails.
3. Planing machines are more productive than shaping machines due to longer and faster stroke, heavy
cuts (high feed and depth of cut) and simultaneous use of number of tools.
As in shaping machines, in planing machines also
1. The length and position of stroke can be adjusted.
2. Only single point tools are used (multi-tooth cutters are also used in plano-millers).
3. The quick return persists.
4. Form tools are often used for machining grooves of curved section.

20.3.3.3 Slotting Machines

Slotting machines can be considered as vertical shaping machine where the single point (straight or formed
tool) reciprocates vertically (but without quick return effect) and the workpiece, being mounted on the table,
is given slow longitudinal and/or rotary feed (Fig. 20.25). In this machine also, the length and position of
stroke can be adjusted. Only light cuts are taken due to lack of rigidity of the tool holding ram for cantilever
mode of action. Unlike shaping and planing machines, slotting machines are generally used to machine inter-
nal surfaces (flat, formed grooves and cylindrical).
Shaping machines and slotting machines, for their low productivity, are generally used not for bulk pro-
duction but are used for piece production required for repair and maintenance. Like shaping and slotting ma-
chines, planing machines are also becoming obsolete and getting replaced by plano-millers and plano-grinders
where instead of single point tools a large number of high speed milling cutters or grinding wheels are used.

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 Conventional Machine Tools and Their Features and Characteristics 555

Figure 20.25 Slotting machine (courtesy: IIT Kharagpur).

20.3.4 Milling Machines

Milling machines are widely used to produce flat surfaces in any orientation as well as surfaces of revolu-
tion, helical surfaces and contoured surfaces of various configurations. Such functions are accomplished by
slowly feeding the workpiece against rotating multi-edge circular cutting tools as indicated in Fig. 20.26.
Up-milling needs stronger holding of the job and down-milling needs backlash free screw–nut systems for
feeding.[3]
Milling machines are quite versatile for their wide range of applications. They are available in different sizes
and configurations with varying features and functional systems.[2–4,6,7] Milling machines may be broadly
classified as follows:
1. According to purpose of use as:
(a) General purpose – most versatile, commonly used mainly for piece or small lot production.
(b) Single purpose – these are generally used for batch or lot production, for example, thread mill-
ing machines, cam milling machines and slitting machine.

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 556 Machining and Machine Tools

Cutting motion Cutting motion

Depth of cut

Feed Feed

Conventional or up-milling Climb or down-milling

Figure 20.26 Schematic views of conventional up- and down-milling.

(c) Special purpose – these are used for lot or mass production, for example, duplicating mills, die
sinkers, engraving machine (milling), thread milling, etc.
2. According to configuration as
(a) Knee type (Fig. 20.27): In such small and medium duty machines, the table with the job trav-
els horizontally over the bed (guides) in axial (x) and transverse (y) directions and the bed with
the table and job on it moves vertically (z-direction) up and down.
(b) Bed type[2]: These milling machines are of relatively larger size and capacity compared to knee
type. In these rigid milling machines the milling head, instead of bed, is moved up and down
for vertical feed.

Figure 20.27 A knee type milling machine (courtesy: HMT Ltd., India).

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 Conventional Machine Tools and Their Features and Characteristics 557

(c) Planer type: These heavy duty large machines[2] called plano-miller, look like planing machine
where the single point tools are replaced by one or a number of milling heads. They are gener-
ally used for machining a number of longitudinal flat surfaces simultaneously, viz., lathe beds,
table and bed of planing machine, etc.
(d) Rotary table type: Such open- or close-ended high production milling machines[2] possess one
large rotary worktable and one or two vertical spindles. The positions of the jobs(s) and the
milling head are adjusted according to the size and shape of the job and location and orienta-
tion of the area on the job surface to be machined.
3. According to the orientation of the spindle(s)[2] as
(a) Plane horizontal knee type: This non-automatic general-purpose milling machine of small to
medium size possesses a single horizontal axis milling arbour; the worktable can be linearly fed
along three axes (x, y, z) only. These milling machines are most widely used for piece or batch
production of jobs of relatively simpler configuration and geometry.
(b) Horizontal axis (spindle) and swiveling bed type: These are very similar to plain horizontal
arbour knee type machines but possess one additional swiveling motion of the worktable.
(c) Vertical spindle type: In this machine (Fig. 20.28), the only spindle is vertical and works using
end mill type and face milling cutters; the table may or may not have swiveling features.
(d) Universal head milling machine: These versatile milling machines (Fig. 20.29) not only pos-
sess both horizontal milling arbour and the vertical axis spindle, the latter spindle can be
further titled about one (x) or both the horizontal axes (x and y) enabling machining jobs of
complex shape.

Figure 20.28 Milling machine with vertical spindle (courtesy: IIT Kharagpur).

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 558 Machining and Machine Tools

Figure 20.29 Universal head type milling machine (courtesy: IIT Kharagpur).

4. According to mechanization/automation as follows: Milling machines are mostly general purpose

and used for piece or small lot production. But like other machine tools, some milling machines are
also incorporated with certain type and degree of automation or mechanization to enhance produc-
tion rate and consistency of product quality. In this respect milling machines can be further classified
as follows:
(a) Hand mill (milling machine): This is the simplest form of milling machine where even the
table feed is given manually. Such primitive milling machines are obsolete now.
(b) Planer and rotary table type vertical axis milling machines: These machines are not that
automated but provide relatively higher production rate.
(c) Tracer-controlled copy milling machine[2]: These machines are mechanically or hydraulically
operated semi-automatic milling machines used for lot production of cams, dies, etc. by copy-
ing the masterpiece. Figure 20.30 shows the basic principle.
(d) Milling machines for short thread milling: This machine is single purpose and automatic
machine and is used for mass production of small bolts and screws (threads).
(e) Computer numerical controlled (CNC) milling machine: Replacement of hard or rigid auto-
mation by flexible automation by developing and using CNC has made a great breakthrough
since mid-1970s in the field of machine tools’ control. The advantageous characteristics of
CNC machine tools over conventional ones are:
• Flexibility in automation.
• Change-over (product) time, effort and cost are much less.
• Less or no jigs and fixtures are needed.

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 Conventional Machine Tools and Their Features and Characteristics 559

V
b
c P M

d
Stylus
Cutter

Workpiece Masterpiece
SIg

Figure 20.30 Tracer-controlled milling machine.

• Complex geometry can be easily machined.

• High product quality and its consistency.
• Optimum working condition is possible.
• Lesser breakdown and maintenance requirement.
The versatility of CNC milling machine has been further enhanced by developing what is called Machin-
ing Centre. Figure 20.31 visualizes one such centre.[7]

Figure 20.31 A CNC machining centre (courtesy: BFW Ltd., India).

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 560 Machining and Machine Tools

20.3.5 Broaching Machines[2,4,6–8]

20.3.5.1 Basic Principles of Broaching and Features of Broaching Machines
Broaching is a machining process for removal of a strip or layer of material of desired section or width and
depth usually in one stroke by a slender rod or bar type cutter, called broach (Fig. 20.32). In shaping, attain-
ing full depth requires a number of strokes to remove the material in thin layers step-by-step by gradually
infeeding the single point tool [Fig. 20.32(a)]. Broaching, on the other hand, removes the entire material in
one stroke only by the gradually rising teeth of the broach [Fig. 20.32(b)]. The amount of tooth rise between
the successive teeth of the broach is equivalent to the infeed given in shaping.
Broaching is generally used for making straight holes of various forms and sizes, internal and external straight
or helical slots or grooves, external surfaces of different shapes, teeth of external and internal splines, small spur
gears, etc. Figure 20.33 schematically shows how a through hole is enlarged and finished by broaching.

20.3.5.2 Construction and Geometry of Broaching Tools

Construction of any cutting tools is characterized mainly by its
1. Configuration.
2. Material.
3. Cutting edge geometry.
Both pull- and push-type broaches are made in the form of slender HSS rods or bars of varying section having
along its length one or more rows of cutting teeth with increasing height (and width occasionally). Push-type
broaches are subjected to compressive load and hence are made shorter in length to avoid buckling. The gen-
eral configuration of pull-type broaches, which are widely used for enlarging and finishing preformed holes,
is schematically shown in Fig. 20.33(c). The essential elements of the broach [Fig. 20.33 (c)] are
1. Pull end for engaging the broach in the machine.
2. Neck of shorter diameter and length for quick and secured fitting of the broach in its holder.
3. Front pilot for initial locating of the broach in the hole.
4. Roughing and finishing teeth for metal removal.
5. Finishing and burnishing teeth.
6. Rear pilot and follower rest or retriever.

In-feed Cutting motion

Workpiece a1
a1
(a) (b)

Figure 20.32 Basic principle of broaching. (a) Shaping and (b) broaching.

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 Conventional Machine Tools and Their Features and Characteristics 561

CM

Chip-breaker (groove)

CM
(a)

(b)

Neck

Finishing Rear
Pull end Front pilot Cutting teeth teeth pilot

(c)

Figure 20.33 Schematic views of finishing hole by broaching: (a) Horizontal pull type; (b) vertical
push type; (c) broach geometry.

Broaches are designed as mostly pull type to facilitate alignment and avoid buckling. The length of the broach
is governed by
1. Type of the broach: pull or push type.
2. Number of cutting edges and their pitch depending upon the work material and maximum thickness
of the material layer to be removed.
3. Nature and extent of finish required.
Broaches are generally made from solid HSS rod or bar. Broaches of large section and complex shape are
often made by assembling replaceable separate sections or inserting separate teeth for ease of manufacture
and maintenance.
Cemented carbide segments (assembled) or replaceable inserts are also used especially for stronger and harder
work materials like cast irons and steels. TiN-coated carbides provide much longer tool life in broaching.
The cutting teeth of HSS broaches are provided with positive radial or orthogonal rake (5°−15°) and suf-
ficient primary and secondary clearance angles (2°−5° and 5°−20°, respectively) as shown in Fig. 20.34.

20.3.5.3 Mounting and Clamping Broach in Broaching Machine[8]

The broach needs to be mounted, clamped and moved very carefully and perfectly in the tool-holding device
of the broaching machine which are used for lot or mass production with high accuracy and surface finish.
Pull-type and push-type broaches are mounted in different ways.
Figure 20.35 typically shows a broach pull head commonly used for holding, clamping and pulling pull-
type broach. Just before fitting in or removing the broach from the broach pull head [Fig. 20.35(a)], the

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 562 Machining and Machine Tools

s
t a1
a1 a
a a a1
h
a2
v g

Figure 20.34 Geometry of teeth of broaching tools. Here g is rake angle and a is clearance angle.

Unclamp/fitting in

(a)
Broach

Comp. spring
Clamp

(b)

Figure 20.35 Mounting and clamping pull-type broach.[8]

sliding outer socket is pushed back against the compression spring. After full entry of the pull end of the
broach in the head, the socket is brought forward which causes locking of the broach by the radially moving
strips as shown in Fig. 20.35(b). Pull-type broaches are also often simply and slight flexibly fitted by a suitable
adapter and pin as can be seen in Fig. 20.36.

20.3.5.4 Mounting of Workpiece or Blank in Broaching Machine[8]

Broaching is used for mass production and at fast rate. The blanks are repeatedly mounted one after another
in an appropriate fixture where the blanks can be easily, quickly and accurately located, supported and
clamped.
In broaching, generally the job remains fixed and the broach travels providing cutting velocity. Figure
20.37 also schematically shows a typical method of mounting push- or pull-type external broach for through
surfacing, slotting or contouring. Figure 20.38 typically shows mounting of blank in fixture. Occasionally the
job is travelled against the stationary broach as in continuous working type broaching machine.

20.3.5.5 Classification of Broaching Machines and Their Characteristic Features

The unique characteristics of broaching operation are as follows:
1. For producing any surface, the form of the tool (broach) always provides the Generatrix and the cut-
ting motion (of the broach relative to the job surface) provides the Directrix.

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 Conventional Machine Tools and Their Features and Characteristics 563

Adapter

Pin

Figure 20.36 Fitting pull-type broach by an adapter and pin.[8]

Broach

Broach

Figure 20.37 Mounting external broaching machine.

Broach

Frame Workpiece

Flat broach

Workpiece
Guide
Locating block

Figure 20.38 Mounting blank in broaching machine.

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 564 Machining and Machine Tools

2. So far as tool–work motions are concerned, broaching needs only one motion and that is the cutting
motion (velocity) usually being imparted to the broach.
Hence design, construction and operation of broaching machines, requiring only one such linear motion, are
very simple. Only alignments, strength, rigidity, reduction of friction and wear of slides and guides are to be
additionally considered for higher productivity, accuracy and surface finish. Most of the broaching machines
have hydraulic drive for the cutting motion. Electro-mechanical drives are also used preferably for high speed
of work but light cuts.
Broaching machines can be broadly classified as follows:
1. According to purpose of use as
(a) General purpose.
(b) Single purpose.
(c) Special purpose.
2. According to nature of work as
(a) Internal broaching.
(b) External (surface) broaching.
3. According to configuration as
(a) Horizontal.
(b) Vertical.
4. According to number of slides or stations as
(a) Single station type.
(b) Multiple station type.
(c) Indexing type.
5. According to tool–work motion as
(a) Intermittent (one job at a time) type.
(b) Continuous type.
Some of the broaching machines[2] of common use are as follows:
1. Horizontal broaching machine: They are the most versatile in application and performance and
hence are most widely employed for various types of production. These are used for internal broach-
ing but external broaching is also done. The horizontal broaching machines are usually hydraulically
driven and occupy large floor space.
2. Vertical broaching machines: They occupy less floor space, are more rigid as the ram is supported
by base, and are mostly used for external or surface broaching though internal broaching is also pos-
sible and occasionally done.
3. High production broaching machines: Broaching operation and broaching machines are as such
highly productive. Their speed of production is further enhanced by
(a) Incorporating automation in tool–job mounting and releasing.
(b) Increasing number of workstations or slides for simultaneous multiple production.
(c) Quick changing the broach by turret indexing.
(d) Continuity of working.
Figure 20.39 schematically shows the principle and methods of continuous broaching, which is used for fast
production of large number of pieces by surface broaching.

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 Conventional Machine Tools and Their Features and Characteristics 565

Broach

Job

Figure 20.39 Continuous broaching.

20.3.6 Gear Teeth Producing Machine Tools[2,3,6,9]

20.3.6.1 General Procedure of Manufacture of Gears
The procedural steps followed in sequence for manufacturing gears are:
1. Preforming of the blank or gear by
(a) Forging – with high machining allowance.
(b) Casting – very approximate to near-net shape (investment casting).
(c) Rolling – near finish.
(d) Powder metallurgy – close tolerance.
(e) Blanking in press tools.
(f ) Injection moulding.
(g) Extrusion and parting.
(h) Wire EDM – close to finish.
2. Producing gear teeth or semi-finishing preformed gear teeth by machining.
3. Heat treatment, if required, for hardening or surface hardening.
4. Finishing the teeth already produced by machining or preforming to near net shape by rolling, casting,
powder metallurgical process, wire cut, etc.
Production of gear teeth by machining and finishing gear teeth by grinding are done either by forming using
formed wheels or by generation using suitable shaped wheels. Gear teeth are produced by machining in two
basic ways:
1. Forming processes:
(a) Using form tools.
(b) Less accurate.
(c) Low production rate (except broaching).
2. Generation processes:
(a) Simpler tool geometry.
(b) Faster production.
(c) Better quality of products.

20.3.6.2 Machine Tools and Methods Used for Producing Gear Teeth
1. Machine tools in which gear teeth are produced by forming using form tools:
(a) Shaping machine.

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 566 Machining and Machine Tools

(b) Planing machine.

(c) Slotting machine.
(d) Milling machine.
(e) Parallel shaping machine.
(f ) Broaching machine.
Here (a)–(c) are used for piece production; (d) for piece and batch production; (e) and (f ) for mass
or lot production.
2. Machine tools in which gear teeth are produced by generation methods:
(a) Sunderland machine (using rack type cutter).
(b) Hobbing machine.
(c) Gear shaping machine.
(d) Bevel gear generator.

20.3.6.3 Machine Tools for Producing Gear Teeth by Forming

Shaping, Planing and Slotting
Figure 20.40 schematically shows how teeth of straight toothed spur gear can be produced in shaping
machine, if necessary. Both productivity and product quality are very poor in this process and so it is used,
if at all, for making one or few teeth on one or two pieces of gear as and when required for repair and
maintenance purpose. In principle, planing and slotting machines work on the same principle. Planing
machines may be used for making teeth of large gear sectors whereas slotting machines are generally used
for internal gears. However, shaping, planing and slotting machines are rarely used now-a-days for machin-
ing gear teeth.

Figure 20.40 Gear teeth cutting in ordinary shaping machine.

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 Conventional Machine Tools and Their Features and Characteristics 567

Vc s

Teeth
Feed

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 20.41 Producing external teeth by form milling cutter’s (a) disc type and end mill type for
(b) single helical and (c) double helical teeth.

Milling
Teeth of spur gears can be produced by both disc and end mill type form milling cutters (in milling machine)
as schematically shown in Fig. 20.41. Production of gear teeth by form milling is characterized by
1. Use of HSS form milling cutters.
2. Use of ordinary milling machines.
3. Low production rate for
(a) Need of indexing after machining each tooth gap.
(b) Slow speed and feed.
4. Low accuracy and poor surface finish.
5. Inventory problem – due to need of a set of eight cutters for each module–pressure angle combination.
6. Use of end mill type cutter for teeth of large gears/module.

Parallel Multiple Teeth Shaping Machine

This is a special purpose machine tool[2,9] capable of very fast production of simple straight toothed spur
gears. All the teeth of a gear or cluster of same gears are shaped together in few strokes by simultaneous
reciprocation and intermittent radial infeed of a large number (equal to the number of gear teeth) of identi-
cal single point form tools as indicated in Fig. 20.42(a). This old process was highly productive but became
almost obsolete due to very high initial and running costs.

Broaching Machine for Gear Teeth Cutting

Teeth of small internal and external spur gears, straight or single helical, of relatively softer materials are pro-
duced in large quantity by a suitable form tool in broaching machine. Figure 20.42(b) schematically shows
how external teeth are produced by a broaching tool in one pass. This method leads to very high productiv-
ity and quality but cost of both the machine and broach are very high. For any change in number of teeth,
module, pressure angle or helix angle, a separate broach is required.

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 568 Machining and Machine Tools

Gear Cutting tools

(a)

Cutting stroke

(b)

Figure 20.42 High production of straight teeth of external spur gears by (a) parallel shaping (forming)
and (b) broaching.

20.3.6.4 Machine Tools for Producing Gear Teeth by Generation Method

Generation method is characterized by automatic indexing and ability of a single cutter to cover the entire
range of number of teeth for a given combination of module and pressure angle and hence provides high
productivity and economy.

Sunderland Machine Using Rack Type Cutter

Figure 20.43 schematically shows the working principle of this gear teeth generating machine where the rack
type HSS cutter (having rake and clearance angles) reciprocates to accomplish the machining action while
rolling type interaction occurs with the gear blank like a pair of rack and pinion. The favourable and essential
applications of this method (and machine) include generation of teeth of

1. Moderate size straight and helical toothed external spur gears with high accuracy and finish.
2. Double helical or herringbone gears with a central recess (groove).
3. Straight or helical fluted cluster gears.

However, this method needs indexing, though automatic, for a few times but provides high accuracy and
finish of the gear teeth.

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 Conventional Machine Tools and Their Features and Characteristics 569

Figure 20.43 External gear teeth generation by rack type cutter.

Gear Shaping Machine

In principle, gear shaping is similar to the rack type cutting process, except that the linear type rack cutter
is replaced by a circular cutter as shown in Fig. 20.44 where both the cutter and the blank rotate as a pair
of spur gears in addition to the reciprocation of the cutter. Figure 20.45 typically visualizes a gear shaping
machine. The gear type cutter is made of HSS and possesses proper rake and clearance angles. The additional
advantages of gear shaping over rack type cutting are
1. Separate indexing is not required at all.
2. Straight or helical teeth of both external and internal spur gears can be produced with high accuracy
and finish.
3. Productivity is also higher.

Hobbing Machine
The tool–work configurations and motions for gear teeth generation in hobbing machine are schematically
shown in Fig. 20.46. The HSS or carbide hob (cutter) and the gear blank apparently interact like a pair of
worm and worm wheel. The hob (cutter) looks and behaves like a single or multiple start worm.

(a) (b)
Figure 20.44 Gear teeth generation by gear shaping (a) external and (b) internal spur gear.

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 570 Machining and Machine Tools

Figure 20.45 Gear shaping machine (courtesy: IIT Kharagpur).

Gear blank
Hob
h
q0
h
R
l1
nh
s ′o

ln l 1+q 0
Hob ln
nh
s ′o
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 20.46 Generation of teeth (by hobbing) (a) straight tooth, (b) helical tooth and (c) worm wheel.

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 Conventional Machine Tools and Their Features and Characteristics 571

Figure 20.47 A hobbing machine (courtesy: IIT Kharagpur).

A typical hobbing machine is shown in Fig. 20.47. Having lesser number (only three) of tool–work mo-
tions, hobbing machines are much more rigid, strong and productive than gear shaping machine. However,
hobbing provides lesser accuracy and finish and is used only for cutting straight or helical (single) teeth of
external spur gears and worm wheels.
The screw-like single- or multi-start worms, which drive worm wheels, are generally made of steel and by
machining (like long thread milling) or by cold rolling (like thread rolling) followed by heat treatment for
surface hardening and finishing by grinding.

Bevel Gear Generating Machine

In manufacture of bevel gears, first the blanks are preformed by casting or forging followed by machining to desired
dimensions in lathes or special purpose machine tool. Then the teeth are produced in the blank by machining.
Machining and machine tools are chosen based on the form of teeth and volume of production as follows:
1. Cutting teeth of straight toothed bevel gears[2,3]
(a) Forming by milling cutter – low productivity and quality hence employed for production
requiring less volume and precision.
(b) Generation – high accuracy and finish, hence applied for batch to mass production.
Figure 20.48 shows the principle of forming and generation of teeth of straight toothed bevel gear. In
generation process, the inner flanks of two adjacent teeth are developed with involute profile by the
straight teeth of the reciprocating cutter under rolling action.
2. Teeth of spiral and hypoid bevel gears are produced by almost the same generation principle but the
cutter resembles face milling cutter.[3,4]

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 572 Machining and Machine Tools

Imaginary
pitch cone
Cradle
V1
axis

nk
la
rb
is
ea
ax
G
n1 n2
Gear blank
Swivelling
toolholder
Tool
V2
(a)
(b)

Figure 20.48 Production of teeth of straight toothed bevel gear by (a) forming (milling) and
(b) generation in bevel gear generator.

20.3.6.5 Processes and Machine Tools for Finishing of Gear Teeth

For smooth running, good performance and long service life, the gears need to
1. Be accurate in dimensions and forms.
2. Have good surface finish.
3. Be hard and wear resistive at their tooth flanks.
These are achieved by some gear teeth finishing work after near-accurate preforming and machining. Small
gears made by cold rolling generally do not require further finishing. If a rolled gear needs further surface
hardening, only then little finishing by grinding or lapping is done after hardening. Gears produced to near-
net-shape by die casting, investment casting, powder metallurgy, extrusion, blanking, etc. need little finishing.
However, machined and hardened gear teeth are essentially finished for high accuracy and surface finish.

Common Methods of Gear Teeth Finishing

Gear teeth, after preforming and machining, are finished generally
1. For soft and unhardened gears by gear shaving and gear rolling or burnishing.
2. For hard and hardened gears by grinding and lapping.
3. For soft but precision gears by shaving followed by surface hardening and then lapping.

Gear Shaving
The teeth of straight or helical toothed external spur gears and worm wheels of moderate size and made of
soft materials like aluminium alloy, brass, bronze, cast iron, etc. and unhardened steels are mostly finished
by shaving process. Figure 20.49 shows the different types of shaving cutters apparently work as a spur gear,

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 Conventional Machine Tools and Their Features and Characteristics 573

Rock shaving cutter

Gear

(a) (b)

(c)

Figure 20.49 Gear shaving cutters of (a) spur gear type, (b) rack and (c) worm type.

rack or worm in mesh with the conjugate gear to be finished. All the gear, rack or worm type shaving cutters
are of hard steel or HSS and their teeth are uniformly serrated as shown in Fig. 20.50(a) to generate sharp
cutting edges.
While interacting with the gears, the cutting teeth of the shaving cutter keep on smoothening the mating gear
flanks by fine machining to high accuracy and surface finish. For such minute cutting action, the shaving teeth need
an actual or apparent movement relative to the mating teeth along their length as indicated in Fig. 20.50(b).

Gear Rolling or Burnishing

In this method, the machined gear is rolled under pressure with three hardened master gears of high accuracy
and finish. The minute irregularities of the machined gear teeth are smeared off by cold plastic flow, which
also helps in improving the surface integrity of the gear teeth.

20.3.6.6 Gear Teeth Finishing by Grinding (Machine)

Grinding requires high precision and is, though relatively expensive, more widely used for finishing teeth
of different types and sizes of gears of hard material or hardened surfaces. The properly formed and dressed

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 574 Machining and Machine Tools

Shaving tool

Gear blank
S

L1

(a) (b)

Figure 20.50 Teeth of gear shaving (a) cutter and (b) its action.

wheel finishes the gear teeth flanks by fine machining or abrading action of the fine abrasives. Like gear mill-
ing, gear grinding is also done on two principles:
1. Forming – though simple but not preferred.
2. Generation, which is more productive and accurate.

Gear Teeth Grinding on Forming Principle

This is very similar to machining gear teeth by a single disc type form milling cutter as indicated in Fig. 20.51
where the grinding wheel is dressed to the form that is exactly required on the gear. Need of indexing makes
the process slow and less accurate. The wheel or dressing has to be changed with change in module, pressure
angle and even number of teeth. Form grinding may be used for finishing straight or single-helical toothed
spur gears, straight toothed bevel gears as well as worm and worm wheels.

Gear Teeth Grinding on Generation Principle

Figure 20.52 schematically shows the methods of finishing spur gear teeth by grinding on generation prin-
ciple. The simplest and most widely used method is very similar to spur gear teeth generation by one or multi-
toothed rack cutter. The single or multi-ribbed rotating grinding wheel is reciprocated along the gear teeth

Wheel

Gear

Figure 20.51 Gear teeth finishing by form grinding.

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 Conventional Machine Tools and Their Features and Characteristics 575

Grinding wheel

V V

w w w R
V
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 20.52 Gear teeth grinding on generation principle.

length. Other tool–work motions remain same as in gear teeth generation by rack type cutter. For finishing
large gear teeth, a pair of thin dish type grinding wheels is used as indicated in Fig. 20.52(c). The contacting
surfaces of the wheels are made to behave as the two flanks of the virtual rack tooth.
The lapping process only corrects minute deviations from the desired gear tooth profiles. The gear to be
finished after machining and heat treatment and even after grinding is run in mesh with a gear-shaped lap-
ping tool or another mating gear of cast iron. An abrasive lapping compound is used in between them. The
gear tooth quality substantially improves by such lapping.

20.3.7 Grinding Machines[2,4,6,9]

20.3.7.1 Grinding Principle and Grinding Machine Requirements
It is already known that the solid engineering products, requiring high dimensional accuracy and surface
finish for desired performance and longer service life, are generally manufactured by preforming followed
sequentially by semi-finishing by machining, heat treatment if required and then finishing mostly by grind-
ing. Grinding is also basically a process of machining, more precisely abrasive machining. In grinding,
material is removed from the work surface(s) in thin layers by micro-cutting action accomplished by sharp
edges of hard abrasives or grits of random geometry. The abrasives are either dispersed in a solid matrix or
embedded on solid metal shanks. Grinding tools are used mostly in the form of circular discs or cups which
are rotated at high speed and moved past the work surface. The major advantages and purposes of grinding
are as follows:
1. High dimensional and form accuracy.
2. Good surface finish.
3. Hardness of work material is not a barrier.
4. Auto-sharpening of the grinding wheel upto certain period.
Earlier, grinding was done only for finishing and depth or infeed was kept within 10−30 μm. But now-a-days
grinding is also employed for bulk material removal with depth of cut as large as 0.50−25 mm leading to what

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 576 Machining and Machine Tools

is called creep feed grinding. The present trend of simultaneous stock removal and nice finishing at high speed
has evolved high efficiency deep grinding.
Grinding operations are carried out in various grinding machines which are nothing but machine tools.
However, the distinguishing characteristics of grinding over conventional machining are:
1. Very high grinding velocity (40−200 m/s) compared to machining velocity (20−400 m/min).
2. Wide ranges of depth and width of cut.
3. Much higher strength and hardness of work materials can be tackled.
4. Ability to provide higher dimensional accuracy and good surface quality.
5. In situ re-sharpening (dressing and truing).
6. Requires more careful handling.
Therefore, grinding machines essentially need to have the following:
1. High strength, power, rigidity and stability.
2. High spindle speed with suitable bearings.
3. Precision control; manual and/or automatic control of speed and feed.
4. Strong foundation and grouting.
5. Safety measure.

20.3.7.2 Classification of Grinding Machines and Their Characteristics

Grinding machines are broadly classified as follows:

1. Cylindrical grinding machine.

2. Surface grinding machine.
3. Centreless grinding machine.
4. Tool and cutter grinding machine.
5. Single or special purpose grinding machine.

The characteristic features of the different grinding machines in terms of configuration, relative positioning
and motions of the grinding wheel and the workpiece have been briefly discussed here.

Cylindrical Grinding Machine

Figure 20.53 shows a typical external cylindrical grinding machine. These machines are generally intended for
grinding external cylindrical surfaces: straight, taper or stepped. Often using an attachment, internal cylindri-
cal surface can also be ground. However, both the wheel and workpiece rotate with their axes horizontal and
mostly parallel.
The wheel–work motions in this grinder are
1. High speed rotation of the wheel for cutting motion.
2. Slow rotation of the workpiece in the same or opposite direction for tangential feed motion.
3. Axial traverse or feed motion of the workpiece while longitudinal grinding.
4. Slow radial traverse of the wheel-head intermittently for infeed while longitudinal grinding and
continuously while plunge grinding.
5. Additional offline swiveling of the wheel and/or work for grinding taper.
Figure 20.54 visualizes the wheel–work motions in (a) longitudinal, (b) plunge (radial) and (c) taper
grinding.

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 Conventional Machine Tools and Their Features and Characteristics 577

Figure 20.53 Configuration of typical cylindrical grinding machine.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 20.54 Wheel–work motions in (a) longitudinal, (b) plunge (radial) and (c) taper grinding.

(a) (b)

Figure 20.55 Plain chucking type internal grinding: (a) Internal straight grinding;
(b) internal form grinding.

Internal cylindrical grinding – straight, taper, groove and contoured – is generally carried out in internal
cylindrical grinding machine. However, small and simple type internal grinding is often done in general
type cylindrical grinding machine by adding an attachment. Figure 20.55 shows the usual configuration and
motions of the wheel–work in plain (chucking) type internal grinding.
Here the cutting motion and feed motion are provided by very high speed rotation of the small wheel and
slow rotation of the cylindrical workpiece. During internal grinding, heavy and odd-shaped workpieces are

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 578 Machining and Machine Tools

kept stationary and the feed motion is provided by planetary slow rotation of the wheel in addition to its high
speed rotation. This is shown in Fig. 20.56.

Surface Grinding Machine

These grinding machines finish flat surfaces or features bounded by flat surfaces in different planes by the
periphery and face of disc type or cup-shaped grinding wheels. The configuration of a typical surface grinder
is shown in Fig. 20.57.
Surface grinding machines are available in four different configurations:

Figure 20.56 Planetary feed type internal grinding.

(a)

(b)

Figure 20.57 Commonly used surface grinding machine with horizontal spindle and reciprocat-
ing worktable.

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 Conventional Machine Tools and Their Features and Characteristics 579

(a) (b)

Figure 20.58 Horizontal spindle rotary table grinder: (a) Grinding flat surface;
(b) grinding conical surface.

1. Horizontal spindle and reciprocating worktable type (Fig. 20.57): This type of surface grinder is most
widely used for finishing flat surfaces in traverse feed mode and straight steps, slots, guide ways, etc.
2. Horizontal spindle and rotary worktable type: The principle and typical applications of such
grinder are schematically shown in Fig. 20.58.
3. Vertical spindle reciprocating table grinding machine: The wheel–work configuration and motions
in this grinding machine are very similar to that of face milling. Figure 20.59 schematically shows
how wide flat surfaces are finished by face of cup-shaped wheels. Because of wider area of wheel–
work contact, this type of grinder is more productive than the other peripheral grinders.
4. Vertical spindle and rotary worktable type surface grinder: The principle of grinding in this
machine is shown in Fig. 20.60. The machine is mostly suitable for small workpieces in large quanti-
ties. This primarily production type machine often uses two or more grinding heads, thus enabling
both roughing and finishing in one rotation of the worktable.

Centreless Grinding Machine

The distinguishing characteristics of these grinding machines are as follows:
1. They are used to grind only cylindrical surfaces – both external and internal – straight, taper, stepped,
etc.
2. The blank, instead of being mounted in chuck or centres, is simply placed on a rest.
3. The feed motion(s) is imparted to the work by a regulating wheel.
4. They are highly productive and have reasonable quality.
5. They have a more complex design but are compact.
6. They are quite expensive.

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 580 Machining and Machine Tools

Figure 20.59 Vertical spindle reciprocating worktable type surface grinding machine.

Wheel

Workpiece(s)

Figure 20.60 Vertical spindle rotary table type surface grinder.

Centreless grinders are of two categories:

1. External type.
2. Internal type.
External centreless grinders may work with two kinds of feed system as shown in Fig. 20.61. In addition to
the tangential (rotational) feed, the cylindrical workpiece receives transverse feed or infeed or axial through
feed. Small workpieces, especially having steps, taper, etc., are finished by transverse or plunge feed system.
On the other hand, long straight rod type workpieces are finished by through feed system as indicated in
Fig. 20.61(b). The continuous longitudinal feed of the rod is caused by slight tilling of the axis of the regu-
lating wheel and corresponding modification in its shape as can be seen in the diagram.

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 Conventional Machine Tools and Their Features and Characteristics 581

Workpiece C
A

Infeed B
Guide
Rest wheel
Grinding AB – Archimedean spiral
wheel BC – Circular
Workpiece

(a)
Peripheral velocity
of regulating wheel

Peripheral velocity
of workpiece a
Workpiece Longitudinal feed

Grinding
wheel axis

Reg a
u
whe lating
el ax
is
Regulating wheel
Grinding Supporting
wheel plate

(b)

Figure 20.61 External centreless grinding (machine): (a) Plunge – cut with transverse feed;
(b) through feed of workpiece.

Internal centreless grinding machines are used to finish internal cylindrical surfaces – straight, taper, con-
tour, etc. – in ring type products such as rings, bushes, races of ball and roller bearings, etc. Figure 20.62
visualizes the basic working principle of internal centreless grinding machine where the small grinding wheel
remains inside the ring type work which is rotated slowly by friction-contact of the rotating guide wheel.
Supporting wheels are used for stability and accuracy.
In addition to so many types of general-purpose grinding machines, there are number of special pur-
pose grinding machines which are used in lot production of several products. Such grinding machines
include:
1. Cutter and tool grinding machine.
2. Thread grinding machine.

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 582 Machining and Machine Tools

Grinding wheel

Blank

Guide
Supporting wheel wheel

Blank

Grinding wheel

Figure 20.62 Internal centreless grinding.

3. Cam grinding machine.

4. Gear (teeth) grinding machine.
5. Bearing (races, bolls, etc.) grinding machines.
6. Creep feed grinding machine.
7. High speed grinding machine.
8. High efficiency deep grinding machine.

SU M M A R Y
There are hundreds of types of machine tools different characteristics and use. The distinguished
which have been gradually innovated, developed constructional features, operational characteristics,
and used widely to fulfill the expanding machin- type and extent of mechanization and automation
ing requirements for various products. For conve- and the range of uses of most of the conventional
nience of all concerned, the machine tools should machine tools from lather to grinding machines
be properly classified into reasonable groups and have been presented with adequate illustrations in
families. this chapter. The advanced CNC machining systems
The grouping of machine tools into three distin- have also been briefly covered.
guished categories (conventional, non-conventional The configuration, construction and way of func-
and advanced CNC systems) has been discussed. The tioning of different machine tools depend mainly
classification of conventional machine tools into the upon their unique individual kinematic systems.
classical families like lathe, drilling machines, mill- The next chapter describes with detailed diagrams
ing machines, etc. has been highlighted. Each fam- the kinematic system of the conventional machine
ily of machine tools comprises several types having tools of wide use.

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 Conventional Machine Tools and Their Features and Characteristics 583

MU LT I P L E CH O I C E QU E S T I O N S

1. Turret lathes are 7. For enlarging and finishing straight through

(a) Non-automatic holes, the cutting tool need not be rotated in
(b) Semi-automatic (a) Boring
(c) Automatic (b) Reaming
(d) Flexibly automatic (c) Broaching
2. Capstan lathes do not possess (d) Grinding
(a) Headstock 8. The machine tool which produces spur gear
(b) Tailstock teeth by generation process is
(c) Saddle (a) Milling machine
(d) Feed gear box (b) Broaching machine
3. The curved flank surfaces of the teeth of disc (c) Parallel shaping (gear teeth) machine
type form milling cutters are semi-finished by (d) Hobbing machine
machining in 9. Helical teeth of spur gear cannot be produced in
(a) Capstan lathe (a) Hobbing machine
(b) Hydraulic copying lathe (b) Gear shaping machine
(c) Single-spindle automatic lathe (c) Broaching machine
(d) Relieving lathe (d) None of the above
4. Both cutting motion and feed (longitudinal) 10. Teeth of internal spur gears can be produced in
motion are imparted to the workpiece in (a) Milling machine
(a) Capstan lathe (b) Gear shaping machine
(b) Copying lathe (c) Hobbing machine
(c) Single-spindle automatic lathe (d) Sunderland machine (using rack type
(d) Swiss-type automatic lathe cutter)
5. For aligning the drill axis with the axis of the 11. Gear teeth, after production by machining,
hole to be made, the drill is laterally shifted in can be finished by
(a) Column drilling machine (a) Shaving
(b) Radial drilling machine (b) Grinding
(c) Gang drilling machine (c) Rolling or burnishing
(d) Turret drilling machine (d) All of the above
6. Instead of the cutting tool, the workpiece is 12. The blank or workpiece is not rotated about its
reciprocated in axis in
(a) Planing machine (a) Surface grinding
(b) Shaping machine (b) Cylindrical grinding
(c) Slotting machine (c) Centreless grinding
(d) Broaching machine (d) Internal grinding

R E V I E W QU E S T I O N S
1. How can machine tools be broadly classi- 2. Classify lathes and give examples for each cat-
fied? Mention the names of the conventional egory of those lathes.
machine tools.

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 584 Machining and Machine Tools

3. Distinguish between capstan lathe and turret 15. Classify milling cutters and milling machines.
lathe w.r.t. constructional features and func- State the additional advantages of universal
tional characteristics. head type milling machines.
4. How are capstan lathes and turret lathes differ- 16. Describe the working principle of copy-milling
ent from centre lathes? machines and state their engineering applica-
5. State the distinguishing characteristics of ver- tions.
tical lathes over horizontal lathes w.r.t. con- 17. With the help of simple sketches briefly
figuration and application. explain the basic differences between shaping
6. State the working principles of the differ- and broaching.
ent types of multiple spindle vertical turret 18. Sketch a pull-type broach being used for
lathes. enlarging and finishing existing or preformed
7. Show and briefly describe the tool–work through holes.
motions in a relieving lathe while machin- 19. How can broaching machines be classified?
ing the flanks of a disc type form milling State the possible and justifiable applications
cutter. of broaching machines.
8. Name different types of automatic lathes. 20. An object to be produced in large quantity
Also state the basic difference between single- requires machining a flat surface on it and
spindle automatic lathe and capstan lathe. that can be done by both milling and broach-
9. Distinguish between Swiss-type automatic ing. In such case, state the relative advantages
lathe and conventional single-spindle auto- and possible disadvantages of using broaching
matic lathe in respect of configuration, tool– machine over milling machine.
work motions and applications. 21. Name the different machine tools in which
10. Classify drilling machines and state the unique teeth of spur gears can be produced by
features and characteristics of each of those machining. Compare gear shaping with gear
drilling machines. hobbing w.r.t. productivity, product quality
11. Compare radial drilling machine with column and economy and application.
drilling machine w.r.t. configuration, move- 22. How are gear teeth profiles finished after pro-
ments and application. duction by machining?
12. State the distinguishing characteristics of gang 23. State the purposes of grinding. Name the dif-
drilling machine and multiple spindle drill- ferent types of grinding machines and show
ing machine in comparison to single spindle the tool–work motions in those grinding
column drilling machine. machines.
13. Compare shaping machine, planing machine 24. Describe briefly with the help of diagrams the
and slotting machine w.r.t. configuration, various methods of centreless grinding.
tool–work motions and applications. 25. Visualize the tool–work motions and applica-
14. With the help of suitable sketches state the dif- tions of different centreless grinding machines.
ference between up-milling and down-milling. 26. Describe briefly with the help of suitable
Also state their relative advantages and disad- sketches the tool–work motions in a straight
vantages. toothed bevel gear generating machine.

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 21 Kinematic Systems of
Conventional Machine Tools
Learning Objectives
The contents of this chapter would enable the readers to:
• Appreciate the important role played by the • Learn and describe the complex kinematic sys-
kinematic systems in any machine tools. tems of gear teeth generating machines.
• Understand and also describe the kinematic • Be conversant with the principle of working of
systems, with illustrations, of the basic con- the kinematic system of hydraulically driven
ventional machine tools like centre lathe, machine tools.
drilling machine, milling machines and • Approach for designing the kinematic system
shaping machine. of automatically operated special-purpose
• Learn and demonstrate the kinematic systems machine tools.
of semi-automatic and automatic lathes.
• Make process planning and tool layout for
machining components requiring number of
various operations in automatic lathe.

21.1 Introduction
Design of machine tool is considered to be the most creative work in machine tool engineering. Again, in
design of machine tool, emphasis is laid on the design of its kinematic system. The machine tool kinematic
system comprises a number of interconnected kinematic chains depending upon the number and types of
tool–work motions required. Each kinematic chain is constituted by a number of various mechanisms con-
nected generally in series. The kinematic system plays vital role in a machine tool by transformation and
transmission of power and motions from the power source(s) to the workpiece and the cutting tool(s), change
of speed and feed through the speed and feed gear boxes or devices and execution of automation. The kine-
matic system, once designed, facilitates rest of the design, manufacture and also maintenance. Therefore, it
is essential for all concerned with machine tools to be conversant with the layout, design and drawing of the
kinematic system and the way it functions.
Incorporation of automation, specially hard or fixed automation, makes the kinematic system more
complex. Ability of selection and change of the desired speed and feed are also included into the role of the
machine tool kinematic system. The kinematic system of hydraulically driven machine tools is basically a
combination of hydraulic power pack and hydraulic circuit connecting several hydraulic devices and valves to

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 586 Machining and Machine Tools

attain desired speed and feed. The kinematic systems of gear teeth generating machines and special-purpose
automatic machine tools need more attention for accomplishing so many tool–work motions in a synchro-
nized way. Most of these aspects are dealt in this chapter.

21.2 Role of Kinematic Systems in Machine Tools

In machine tool engineering, the major and most creative work is the design of machine tools and within that
the design of the kinematic system of the machine tool is of utmost importance. The kinematic system plays
an important role in any machine tool by governing the following major functions and aspects:
1. Transformation and transmission of motions and power from the power source(s) (i.e., motors to the
tool and work).
2. Operation of the gear boxes and other related mechanisms for setting and control of speed, feed,
depth of cut, etc.
3. Interconnections of kinematic chains and the mechanisms within those chains.
4. Incorporation and functioning of the automatic systems.
5. Facilitates rest of the design, manufacture and maintenance.
In design of a machine tool, the work left after kinematic system layout are only selection of materials and
mechanisms and determination of dimensions of the salient components depending upon the maximum work-
loads and the desired strength, rigidity and stability of the parts, sub-assemblies and the overall machine tool.

21.3 Kinematic Systems of General-Purpose Conventional

Machine Tools
21.3.1 Kinematic System and Working Principle of Centre Lathes
Amongst the various types of lathes, centre lathes are the most versatile and widely used.[1–4] Figure 21.1
schematically shows the typical kinematic system of a centre lathe having, as an example, 12 spindle speeds.
For machining in machine tools, the job and the cutting tool need to be moved relative to each other.
The tool–work motions are as follows:
1. Formative motions: For example, cutting motion and feed motion.
2. Auxiliary motions: For example, indexing motion, relieving motion, etc.
In lathes
1. Cutting motion is attained by rotating the job about its axis.
2. Feed motion is attained by linear travel of the tool
(a) Axially for longitudinal feed.
(b) Radially for cross feed.
(c) At desired angle for taper turning.
The following can be noted from Fig. 21.1:
1. The job gets rotation (and power) from the motor through the belt–pulley, clutch and then the speed
gear box (SGB) which splits the input speed into a number (here 12) of speeds by operating the
cluster gears.

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 Kinematic Systems of Conventional Machine Tools 587

Headstock
Clutch

Speed gear box

T
Tailstock
Lathe bed

Gear quadrant

Feed rod
M Rack
Feed gear box

Leadscrew
Half nut Apron box

Figure 21.1 Kinematic system of a typical centre lathe.

2. The cutting tool derives its automatic feed motion(s) from the rotation of the spindle via the gear
quadrant, feed gear box (FGB) and then the apron mechanism where the rotation of the feed rod is
transmitted (by swinging the lever left or right)
(a) Either to the pinion which being rolled along the rack provides the longitudinal feed.
(b) Or to the pinion fixed on the screw of the cross slide for cross or transverse feed.
3. The worm wheel is engaged by a friction clutch with the shaft where from rotation goes to the swing-
ing gear via another gear being fixed on the small shaft.
4. While cutting screw threads, the half nuts are engaged with the rotating leadscrew to cause travel of
the carriage positively and hence the tool parallel to the lathe bed (i.e., job axis).
5. The feed rate for both turning and threading is varied as needed by operating the Norton gear and
the Meander drive systems existing in the FGB. The range of feeds can be augmented by changing
the gear ratio in the gear quadrant connecting the FGB with the spindle.
6. As and when required, the tailstock is shifted along the lathe bed by operating the clamping bolt. The
tailstock quill is moved forward or backward and is kept locked at the desired location.
The swing gear enables to get either longitudinal feed or cross feed. Both cannot be engaged simultaneously.
Similarly, either the feed rod or the lead screw can be used at a time. Such foolproof arrangements are essen-
tially provided for safety.

21.3.1.1 Gear Layout in FGB for Cutting Screw Threads[3]

Screw threads are generally designated by
1. External or internal.

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 588 Machining and Machine Tools

2. Form of thread: Vee (55° to 60°), square, buttress, etc.

3. Metric or BSW.
4. Lead or pitch of threads – in mm for metric threads and in TPI (threads per inch) for BSW threads.
5. Number of starts: single, double, etc.
Metric threads are usually produced in metric lathe using its metric lead screw and BSW threads in British
lathe using its lead screw (TPI). However, little addition and alteration in the feed gearing layout enables
cutting any standard thread in any type of lathe. Table 21.1 presents the standard threads in metric system
and BSW.

Table 21.1 Standard metric and BSW threads

(a) Metric threads, pitch in mm

1 – 1.25 – 1.5 1.75 –
2 2.25 2.5 2.75 3 3.5 3.75
4 4.5 5 5.5 6 7 7.5
8 9 10 11 12 14 15
16 18 20 22 24 28 30

(b) BSW threads, pitch in TPI

2 2¼ 2⅜ 2½ 2⅝ 2¾ 3 3¼ 3½
4 4½ 4¾ 5 5¼ 5½ 6 6½ 7
8 9 9½ 10 10½ 11 12 13 14
16 18 19 20 21 22 24 26 28

The lead screw of metric lathes generally possesses 6 mm pitch and occasionally 10 mm pitch for heavy duty
lathes. On the other hand, the lead screw of British lathes possesses generally 4 TPI and often 2 TPI for large
lathes.

21.3.1.2 Machining Metric Threads in Metric Lathe

Figure 21.2 typically shows the kinematic diagram of the FGB of a metric lathe capable of cutting all standard
metric threads. The feed gearing system has three parts: gear quadrant, Norton gear and Meander of transmis-
sion ratio, Ugi, UNi and UMi (say), respectively. Generally, the overall gearing ratio Ui is determined from
Ui = pwi/ps (21.1)
where pwi is the pitch (or lead) of the thread to be cut and ps is the pitch (or lead) of the lead screw. For
instance,
(i) When pwi = 16 mm and ps = 6 mm,

pwi 16 ⎛ 8 ⎞ ⎛ 16 × 2 ⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
Ui = == = (21.2)
ps 6 ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 32 ⎠ ⎝ 1⎠

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 Kinematic Systems of Conventional Machine Tools 589

SGB
T2
60
Ugi 32 40

30
30
p
60 60 p = 6 mm
30 Half nut
60
36 SGB
Gear quadrant

Ugi
T1 32 T2
30 30 30
60 UNi
UNi 60
UMi
T1 UMi
Norton Meander

(a) (b)

Figure 21.2 Gear layout for cutting metric threads in metric lathe: (a) Exploded diagram;
(b) block diagram.
Here,
⎛ 16 × 2 ⎞ ⎛ 32 ⎞
U Ni = =
⎝ 32 ⎠ ⎝ 32 ⎠

⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 30 ⎞
U Mi = =
⎝ 1⎠ ⎝ 30 ⎠

⎛ 8 ⎞ ⎛ 40 ⎞ ⎛ 40 ⎞
and U gi = = (say
ay )
⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 30 ⎠ ⎝ 20 ⎠

Therefore,
⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 16 × 2 ⎞ 8
If U Mi = and U Ni = then Ugi will be
⎝ 1⎠ ⎝ 32 ⎠ 3
by using four gears having number of teeth, 40, 30 and 40, 20.
In Figure 21.2, the Norton gear has seven gears of teeth starting from 32 to 56 and the tumbler (T1) gear
has 32 teeth. Equation (21.2) depicts that for cutting the thread of pitch 16 mm, the tumbler gear is to be
engaged with the 32 teeth gear of the Norton. On the other hand, in this situation, the Meander gear ratio
UMi is to be maintained at 1/1 by keeping the tumbler (T2) gear in the extreme left (Fig. 21.2). Now, for
cutting thread of pw = 18 mm
18 ⎛ 8 ⎞ ⎛ 36 ⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
Ui = = (21.3)
6 ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 32 ⎠ ⎝ 1⎠

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 590 Machining and Machine Tools

The only change required is engaging the tumbler (T1) with the next gear of 36 teeth on the Norton. Thus,
for cutting the teeth with pitch ranging from 16 mm to 30 mm [bottom row in Table 21.1(a)] the tumbler
gear (T1) has to be placed on the corresponding gear in the Norton according to the equation

⎛ 8⎞ ⎡ ( ) × 2 ⎤ ⎛ 1⎞
Ui =
⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎢⎣ 32 ⎥ ⎝ 1⎠
⎦

⎛ 8 ⎞ ⎛ 32, 36, 40, 44, 48, 56 or 60 ⎞ ⎛ 1⎞

=
⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ ⎝ ⎠ (21.4)
32 1

Again, for cutting thread of pitch 8 mm (i.e., half of 16)

⎛ 8 ⎞ ⎛ 32 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
Ui = (21.5)
⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 32 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠

This means that only tumbler T2 has to be shifted by one step where transmission ratio is 1/2. Therefore, for
cutting metric threads of any standard pitch given in Table 21.1(a), the gears have to be set based on

⎛ 8 ⎞ ⎛ 32, 36, 40, 44, 48, 56 or 60 ⎞ ⎛ 1 1 1 1 1⎞

Ui =
⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ ⎝ , , , or ⎠ (21.6)
32 1 2 4 8 16
by appropriate shifting or locating of the two tumbler gears, T1 and T2.

21.3.1.3 Machining BSW Threads in British Lathe

Presently, most of the screw threads are metric and lathes have metric lead screws. But BSW threads are not
yet discarded. So provision remains for machining BSW threads as well as British lathes.
Figure 21.3 shows the gear layout for cutting the standard BSW threads in British lathe having lead screw of
6 TPI (it may be 2 TPI also). For cutting 16 TPI thread with lead screw of 6 TPI, the overall gearing ratio is
pw
Ui = (21.7)
ps

1/TPI off product

=
1/TPI off lead screw
TPI off lead screw 6
= =
TPI off product 16
Again,
Ui = Ugi × UNi × UMi (21.8)
where Ugi is the transmission ratio of the gear quadrant, UNi is the transmission ratio from the Norton gear
and UMi is the transmission ratio from the Meander drive. Equation (21.8) can now be expressed as

⎛ 6 ⎞ ⎛ 32 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 3 ⎞ ⎛ 32 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
Ui = = (21.9)
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 16 × 2 ⎠ ⎝ 8 ⎠ ⎝ 1 ⎠ ⎝ 32 ⎠ ⎝ 8 ⎠

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 Kinematic Systems of Conventional Machine Tools 591

SGB

6 TPI
Ugi
32
T1 48 TR =
40 56
1, 1, 1, 1
1 2 4 8 ps
Half nut
Gear quadrant

Meander
3236 UMi drive
38 44
UNi 52
Norton
gear

Figure 21.3 Gear layout for cutting BSW threads in British lathe (lead screw – 6 TPI).

Then, Ui becomes 3/1 which can be obtained by the gearing arrangement like 30/20 × 40/20, etc. Now

32
U Ni d U Mi = 18
/8
( )×2
This indicates that for cutting 16 TPI thread, the tumbler gear (32 teeth) has to be placed on the 32 teeth
gear of the Norton and the step 1/8 has to be set in the Meander drive. Now for cutting 18 TPI thread, next
to 16 TPI shown in the bottom row of Table 21.1(b), we have

⎛ 3 ⎞ ⎛ 32 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 3 ⎞ ⎛ 32 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
Ui = = (21.10)
⎝ 1 ⎠ ⎜⎝ (18) × 2 ⎟⎠ ⎝ 8 ⎠ ⎝ 1 ⎠ ⎝ 36 ⎠ ⎝ 8 ⎠

It appears that for cutting thread of 18 TPI instead of 16 TPI the only change required is to place the tumbler
gear on the 36 teeth gear instead of the 32 teeth gear of the Norton. Thus, for cutting BSW threads of any
TPI given in the last row of Table 21.1(b), only the tumbler gear has to be shifted and placed on the different
gears of the Norton, as indicated by

⎛ 3⎞ ⎡ 32 ⎤ ⎛ 1⎞
Ui = ⎢ ⎥
⎝ 1 ⎠ ⎣ 32, 36, 40, , 56 ⎦ ⎝ 8 ⎠

⎛ 3 ⎞ ⎛ 32 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
= (21.11)
⎝ 1 ⎠ ⎝ 32 ∼ 56 ⎠ ⎝ 8 ⎠

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 592 Machining and Machine Tools

SGB SGB
T2
Norton

G N G N
M M

T1

(a) (b)

Figure 21.4 Block diagram of feed gearing system for cutting (a) metric threads in metric lathe and
(b) BSW threads in British lathe.

Again, for cutting threads of 8 TPI, just half of 16 TPI, we have

6 ⎛ 3 ⎞ ⎛ 32 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 3 ⎞ ⎛ 32 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
Ui = = = (21.12)
8 ⎝ 1 ⎠ ⎝ 16 × 2 ⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝ 1 ⎠ ⎝ 32 ⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠

The only change required is to use the next step of the Meander, that is 1/4 instead of 1/8. Thus for cutting
any standard BSW thread listed in Table 21.1(b), the gearing connection will be

⎛ 3 ⎞ ⎛ 32 ⎞ ⎛ 1 1 1 ⎞
Ui = or or or 1 (21.13)
⎝ 1 ⎠ ⎝ 32 ∼ 56 ⎠ ⎝ 8 4 2 ⎠

This means that only the tumblers of the Norton gear and the Meander drive have to be shifted desirably. The
kinematic diagrams of Figs. 21.2 and 21.3 are presented as simple block diagrams in Fig. 21.4.
It is already mentioned that with slight addition or modification, both British threads and metric threads
can be cut in a Metric or a British lathes.

21.3.1.4 Feed Gearing Layout for Cutting British Threads and Metric Threads in
a Metric Lathe
For cutting 16 TPI thread in a metric lathe of ps = 6 mm (say), the overall gearing ratio will be
pw ( /16)) × 5.4 mm 25.4 127
Ui = = = =
ps 6 mm 16 × 6 480
which can be split as
⎛ 127 ⎞ ⎡ 32 ⎤ ⎛ 1 ⎞
Ui = (21.14)
⎝ 60 ⎠ ⎢⎣16 × 2 ⎥⎦ ⎝ 8 ⎠
Here,
127
Ui =
60
which needs a special gear, called translation (from inch to mm) gear, of teeth 127.
32 32
U Ni = = as usual
16 × 2 32

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 Kinematic Systems of Conventional Machine Tools 593

B M
SGB
40
C1

40 40
B M
(b)
40 C2
127 40
60
32
30 Meander
1, 1 , 1 , 1, 1
ps
20 1 2 4 8 16
ps = 6 mm
120
B M 1:1
1
32 (a) 1

SGB

B M
C1 M
Ug M Ug N
B M

T C2

Figure 21.5 (a) Gear layout for cutting all metric and British threads in a metric lathe. (b) Block
diagram of the FGB of metric lathe capable to cut both metric and British threads.

and UMi = 1/8

where the transmission ratios available in the Meander drive are: 1, 1/2, 1/4, 1/8 and 1/16. Thus, for cutting
British threads of any TPI in that metric Lathe,

⎛ 127 ⎞ ⎡ 32 ⎤
Ui = /8 ∼ 1/1)
(18 (21.15)
⎝ 60 ⎠ ⎢⎣ 32 ∼ 56 ⎥⎦

Equation (21.15) is very close to Eq. (21.13) with the only difference being in the gear quadrant ratio, Ugi.
Figure 21.5(a) visualizes a feasible combined gearing diagram for cutting both the standard British threads
and the metric threads. Similar gearing system can be designed for a British lathe to cut both British threads
and metric threads.

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 594 Machining and Machine Tools

The gearing layout of Fig. 21.5(a) is presented by a simple block diagram in Fig. 21.5(b). It appears from
Fig. 21.5(a) and the block diagram Fig. 21.5(b) that for cutting all metric threads and British threads in the
metric lathe, the following actions are needed:
1. For cutting metric threads, rotation will be transmitted from the spindle to the leadscrew via the
common Meander drive through the route:
Clutch C1 → Right side gear quadrant → Norton → Tumbler →
Gears a, b → Clutch C2 (rightward)
whereas, the route for cutting the British threads will be
Clutch C1 → Left side gear quadrant → Tumbler →Norton → Clutch C2 (leftward)
2. For cutting metric threads, according to the present gearing diagram, clutch C1 is to be moved to
right and the clutch C2 also to the right, and for cutting British threads both clutches (C1 and C2)
are to be moved towards left.
3. There should be 10 gears of teeth, 32 to 60, in the Norton gear cone.
4. There should be 5 steps in the Meander drive from 1:1 to 1:16.

21.3.2 Kinematic System of General-Purpose Drilling Machine and Its

Principle of Working
Kinematic system of any machine tool comprises chain(s) of several mechanisms to transform and transmit
motion(s) and power from the power source(s) to the cutting tool and the workpiece for the desired machining
action. The kinematic structure varies from one machine tool to another requiring different types and number
of tool–work motions. Even for the same type of machine tool, say column drilling machine, the designer
may take different kinematic structure depending upon desired productivity, process capability, durability,
compactness, overall cost, etc. Figure 21.6 schematically shows a typical kinematic system of a general-purpose
drilling machine, that is, a column drilling machine having 12 spindle speeds and 6 feeds (say). The kinematic
system enables the drilling machine to provide the formative motions at different speeds and feeds.[1–5]

21.3.2.1 Cutting Motion

The cutting motion in drilling machines is attained by rotating the drill at different speeds (r.p.m.). Like
centre lathes, milling machine, etc., drilling machines also need to have a reasonably large number of spindle
speeds to cover the useful ranges of work material, tool material, drill diameter, machining and machine tool
conditions. As shown in Fig. 21.6, the drill gets its rotary motion from the motor through the SGB and a pair
of bevel gears. For the same motor speed, the drill speed can be changed to any of the 12 speeds by shifting
the cluster gears in the SGB. The direction of rotation of the drill can be changed, if needed, by operating the
clutch in the speed reversal mechanism RM-s shown in the figure.

21.3.2.2 Feed Motion

In drilling machines, generally both the cutting motion and feed motion are imparted to the drill. Like cut-
ting velocity or speed, the feed (rate) also keeps on varying (within a range) depending upon the tool–work

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 Kinematic Systems of Conventional Machine Tools 595

RM-s

Speed gear box

RM-f

Feed gear box

Quill
Spindle
Clutch
Cutting motion
Drill Feed motion
Workpiece

Bed Column

Base

Foundation/floor space

Figure 21.6 Kinematic system of a commonly used column drilling machine.

materials and other requirements. Figure 21.6 visualizes that the drill receives its feed motion from the output
shaft of the SGB through the FGB and the clutch. The feed rate can be changed to any of the 6 (say) rates by
shifting the gears in the FGB. Also the automatic feed direction can be reversed, when required, by operating
the speed reversal mechanism, RM-f as shown. The slow rotation of the pinion causes the axial motion of the
drill by moving the rack provided on the quill. The upper portion of the spindle is reduced in diameter and
splined to allow its axial pass through the gear without hampering transmission of its rotation.

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 596 Machining and Machine Tools

21.3.2.3 Tool–Work Mounting

The taper shank drills are fitted into the taper hole of the spindle either directly or through taper socket(s).
Small straight shank drills are fitted through a drill chuck having taper shank. The workpiece is kept rigidly
fixed on the bed (or the table). Small jobs are generally held in vice and large or odd-shaped jobs are directly
mounted on the bed by clamping tools using the T-slots made in the top and side surfaces of the bed as indi-
cated in Fig. 21.6.
The basic gearing layout for speed and feed of radial drilling machine are same as that of the column drill-
ing machine. In radial drilling machine, the drilling head can be radially shifted and revolved around the
column (axis) to attain large work volume.

21.3.3 Kinematic System and Working Principles of Various Machines

21.3.3.1 Shaping Machine[1,3]
The usual kinematic system provided in shaping machine for transmitting power and motion from the motor
to the tool and job at desired speeds and feeds is schematically shown in Fig. 21.7. The reciprocating motion

Lock nut
Shifting nut
Leadscrew Ram
(for shifting stroke)

T
Tool

Blank Oscillating lever

S
Column
Crank (r )
Bull gear

Pinion

A
Bed

SGB

Base

Figure 21.7 Typical kinematic diagram of a shaping machine.

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 Kinematic Systems of Conventional Machine Tools 597

of the ram with the tool is generally provided by an oscillating lever mechanism. The central large bull gear
receives its rotation from the motor through the belt–pulley, clutch, SGB and then the pinion. The rotation
of the crank causes oscillation of the link and thereby reciprocation of the ram and hence the tool in straight
path. Cutting velocity which needs to be varied based on the tool–work materials depends upon
1. The stroke length, s (mm).
2. Number of strokes per min, Nst.
3. The quick return ratio (QRR, ratio of the durations of the forward stroke and the return stroke).
The cutting velocity is given by
s N st ⎡ 1 ⎤
Vc = ⎢1+ m/min (21.16)
1000 ⎣ QRRR ⎥⎦

To reduce idle time, return stroke is made faster and hence QRR > 1.0. Since
2L s
R =
QRR
2L s
where L is the length (fixed) of the oscillating lever and s is the stroke length. The benefit of quick return
decreases when ‘s’ becomes less. The changes in length of stroke and position of the stroke required for differ-
ent machining work are accomplished respectively by
1. Adjusting the crank length (r) by rotating the bevel gear mounted coaxially with the bull gear.
2. Shifting the nut within the ram and along the lead screw by rotating the leadscrew as shown in Fig.
21.7. Before and after shifting the nut, the lock nut is loosened and tightened, respectively.
The value of Nst is varied by operating the speed gear box. The main (horizontal) feed motion of the work-
table is provided at different rate by using the Ratchet–Pawl system as shown in Fig. 21.7. The vertical feed
or change in height of the tool tip from the bed is accomplished by rotating the respective wheel as indicated
in Fig. 21.7.

21.3.3.2 Planing Machine[1]

The simple kinematic system of the planing machine enables transmission and transformation of rotation
of the main motor into reciprocating motion of the large worktable and the slow transverse feed motions
(horizontal and vertical) of the tools. The reciprocation of the table, which imparts cutting motion to the job,
is attained by rack–pinion mechanism. The rack is fitted with the table at its bottom surface and the pinion
is fitted on the output shaft of the SGB which not only enables change in the number of stroke per minute
but also quick return of the table. The stroke length of the worktable is adjusted by desirably positioning the
mechanical stops which actuate the speed reversal mechanism in the SGB drive.
The blocks holding the cutting tools are moved horizontally along the rail by a screw–nut system and the rail
is again moved up and down by another screw–nut pair for vertical feed (tool) and shifting, respectively.[5]

21.3.3.3. Slotting Machine[1,3,5]

The schematic view of slotting machine is shown in Fig. 21.8. The vertical slide holding the cutting tool
is reciprocated by a crank and connecting rod mechanism, so here quick return effect is absent. The job,

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 598 Machining and Machine Tools

Vertical ram

Driving shaft

Rotating table

Worm
shaft

Leadscrew for feed (X )

Ratchet–Pawl workk feeds
Leadscrew (Y )

Feed rod
Pawl

Figure 21.8 Typical kinematic system of a slotting machine.

to be machined, is mounted directly or in a vice on the worktable. As in shaping machine, in slotting

machine also the cutting motion is imparted to the tool and the feed motions to the job. In slotting
machine, in addition to the longitudinal and cross feeds, a rotary feed motion is also provided in the
worktable. The intermittent rotation of the feed rod is derived from the driving shaft with the help of a
four bar linkage as shown in the kinematic diagram. It is also indicated in Fig. 21.8 how the intermittent
rotation of the feed rod is transmitted to the leadscrews for the two linear feeds and to the worm–worm
wheel for rotating the worktable. The working speed (i.e., number of strokes per minute, Nst) may be
changed, if necessary, by changing the belt–pulley ratio or using an additional SGB, whereas the feed
values are changed mainly by changing the amount of angular rotation of the feed rod per stroke of the
tool. This is done by adjusting the amount of angle of oscillation of the pawl as shown in Fig. 21.8.
The directions of the feed are reversed simply by rotating the tapered pawl by 180° as done in shaping
machines.

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 Kinematic Systems of Conventional Machine Tools 599

21.3.4 Kinematic System and Working Principle of Milling Machine

In milling machines[1,3,4] kinematic system comprising a number of kinematic chains of several mechanisms
enables transmission of motions (and power) from the motor to the cutting tool for its rotation at varying
speeds and to the worktable for its slow feed motions along x-, y- and z-directions. In some milling machines

Cutter Arbour

Ram Spindle

Blank SGB
Table +
Friction clutch

Column

A A

Bed
FGB

X Telescopic shaft

Base

Worm

Universal joint

Worm wheel + Telescopic shaft

Rollers (3) + Motor shaft

+ Section A–A

Over running clutch

Figure 21.9 General kinematic diagram of a conventional milling machine.

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 600 Machining and Machine Tools

the vertical feed is given to the milling (cutter) head. The more versatile milling machines additionally pos-
sess the provisions of rotating the worktable and tilting the vertical milling spindle about x- and/or y-axes.
Figure 21.9 typically shows the kinematic diagram of the very common and widely used milling machine
having rotation of the single horizontal spindle or arbour and three feed motions of the worktable in x-, y- and
z-directions.
The milling cutter mounted on the horizontal milling arbour receives its rotary motion at different speeds
from the main motor through the SGB which with the help of cluster gears splits the single speed into desir-
ably large number (12, 16, 18, 24, etc.) of spindle speeds. Power is transmitted to the SGB through Vee-
belts and a safety clutch as shown in the diagram. For the feed motions of the workpiece (mounted on the
worktable) independent of the cutter speed, rotation of the input shaft of the SGB is transmitted to the FGB
through reduction (of speed) by worm and worm wheels as shown. The cluster gears in the FGB provide a
number of feed rates desirably.
The feeds of the job can be given both manually by rotating the respective wheels by hand as well as
automatically by engaging the respective clutches. The directions of the longitudinal (x), cross (y) and verti-
cal (z) feeds are controlled by appropriately shifting the clutches. The rates of feeds are changed by shifting
the cluster gears in the FGB. The system is so designed that the longitudinal feed can be combined with the
cross feed or vertical feed but cross feed and vertical feed cannot be obtained simultaneously. This is done
for safety purpose. A telescopic shaft with universal joints at its ends is incorporated to transmit feed motion
from the fixed position of the FGB to the bed (and table), which moves up and down, requiring change
in length and orientation of the shaft. The diagram also depicts that a separate small motor is provided for
quick traverse of the bed and table with the help of an over-running clutch. During the slow working feeds,
the rotation is transmitted from the worm and worm wheel to the inner shaft through three equispaced
rollers which get jammed into the tapering passage. During quick idle work-traverse, the shaft is directly
rotated by that motor on-line without stopping or slowing down the worm. Longer arbours can also be
fitted, if needed, by stretching the over-arm. The base of the milling machine is grouted on the concrete
floor or foundation. The kinematic system is suitably modified in the case of other milling machines having
different configurations.

21.3.5 Kinematic System and Working Principles of Semi-Automatic and

Automatic Lathes
There are various types of semi-automatic and automatic lathes of different configuration, capacity, kinematic
system and application.[1–3,5,6] The kinematic systems of the following three semi-automatic and automatic
lathes of common use are discussed in the following subsections:
1. Semi-automatic: Capstan lathe.
2. Automatic: Single spindle
(a) Automatic lathe.
(b) Swiss-type automatic lathe.

21.3.5.1 Capstan Lathe

The configuration and general features of capstan lathe have already been discussed in Chapter 20 and shown
in Figs. 20.3 and 20.5. Like general configurations and applications, the basic kinematic systems are also very

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Wedge
Set screw Clamp
Spindle
Unclamp

Feed collar

Bar
Push tube Collet

Wedge link Spindle nose

Ratchet bar

Bar feed linkage

Figure 21.10 Typical bar feeding mechanism in capstan lathe.

similar in capstan lathes and turret lathes (particularly single-spindle bar and horizontal types) in respect of
their major functions, such as
1. Bar feeding mechanism.
2. Turret moving and indexing.
3. Speed and feed drives.

Bar Feeding Mechanism of Capstan Lathe

Figure 21.10 shows a typical kinematic arrangement of feeding and clamping of bar stock in capstan lathes.
The bar stock is held and tightly clamped in the push-type spring collet[1–3] which is pushed by a push tube
with the help of a pair of bell-crank levers actuated by a taper ring as shown in Fig. 21.10. Bar feeding is
accomplished by four elementary operations:
1. Unclamping of the job by opening the collet.
2. Bar feed by pushing it forward.
3. Clamping of the bar by closing the collet.
4. Free return of the bar-pushing element.
After a job is complete and cleared, the collet is opened by moving the lever manually rightward to with-
draw the push force on the collet. Further movement of the lever in the same direction causes forward push
of the bar with the help of the Ratchet–Pawl system as shown. After the projection of the bar from the collet
face to the desired length controlled by a pre-set stop-stock generally held in one face of the turret or in a
separate swing stop, the lever is moved leftward resulting in closing of the collet by clamping of the barstock.
Just before clamping of the collet, the leftward movement of the lever pushes the bar feeder (ratchet) back
freely against the pawl.
Rod type blank is often held in capstan lathe and turret lathe spindle by pneumatically operated collet. Large
chucking type blanks are also held in turret lathe spindle by pneumatically or hydraulically operated chucks.

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Indexing pin
Pin

Rack
pinion
Lever Wedge Stop

(a) Sectional view

Section A–A
Bevel gear
A

Indexing pin Indexing lever

(b) T
Top (inner) view

Figure 21.11 Mechanism of turret indexing in capstan lathe.

Turret Indexing Mechanism in Capstan and Turret Lathes

Turret indexing mechanism of typical capstan and single-spindle turret lathe is schematically shown in
Fig. 21.11. The following motions have to be controlled mechanically and manually in the turret (generally
hexagonal) holding the axially moving cutting tools:
1. Forward axial traverse comprising:
(a) Quick approach – manually done by rotating the pinion.
(b) Slow working feed – automatically by engaging the clutch.
(c) Stop at preset position depending upon the desired length of travel of the individual tools.
2. Quick return – manually done by disengaging the clutch and moving the turret back.
3. Indexing of the turret by 60° (or multiple of it) – done manually by further moving the turret slide
back.
Just before indexing at the end of the return stroke, the locking pin is withdrawn by the lever which is lifted
at its other end by gradually riding against the hinged wedge as indicated in Fig. 21.11(a). Further back-
ward travel of the turret slide causes rotation of the free head by the indexing pin and lever as indicated in
Fig. 21.11(b). Rotation of the turret head by exact angle is accomplished by insertion of the locking pin in

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 Kinematic Systems of Conventional Machine Tools 603

the next hole of the six equispaced holes. After indexing and locking, the turret head is moved forward with
the next cutting tool at its front face when the roller of the lever returns through the wider slot of the wedge
without disturbing the locking pin as indicated in the figure. The forward motion of the turret head is auto-
matically stopped when the set-screw corresponding to the working tool is arrested by the mechanical stop.
The end position and hence length of travel of the tool is governed by presetting the screw. There are six such
screws; each one corresponds with particular face or tool of the turret. The drum holding these equispaced
six screws with different projection length is rotated along with the indexing (rotation) of the turret head by
a pair of bevel gears (1:1) as indicated in Fig. 21.11(a). When the bottom screw, which corresponds with the
tool on the front face of the turret, hits or touches the stop, the turret movement is stopped either manually
by feeling or automatically by disengaging the clutch between the feed rod and the turret slide.

21.3.5.2 Single-Spindle Automatic Lathe

This general-purpose and widely used automatic lathe is also known as single-spindle automatic screw cutting
lathe (SSASCL) because such lathes were introduced mainly for mass production of fasteners having screw
threads.
Figure 21.12 schematically shows the typical kinematic system of single-spindle automat. The major char-
acteristic functions that are automatically accomplished in sequence and proper synchrony in such lathes are:
1. Spindle speed change – magnitude and direction of rotation.
2. Bar feeding.
3. Transverse tools – feeding.
4. Turret indexing and travelling (for axial tool-feed).
Some additional functional components in single-spindle automatic lathes distinguish them from centre
lathes and the semi-automatic lathes, which include (Fig. 21.12):
1. An auxiliary shaft, rotating at a constant speed (120 rpm), on which several single revolution clutches
are mounted.
2. A slow rotating cam shaft (along with an auxiliary shaft) on which cams are fixed to control the cut-
ting tool movements.
3. Single revolution clutches to transmit rotation from the auxiliary shaft to the functional modules like
bar feeding, turret indexing, etc. at pre-set timings.
4. A Geneva mechanism for automatic turret indexing.
The major functions are accomplished automatically in ways explained in the following subsections.

Change of Spindle Speed

Repetitive production in large volume and limited ranges of job-tool materials and job-diameter necessitate
a small number of spindle speeds in automatic lathes unlike centre lathes. However, at least two speeds, high
and low (for threading, etc.) and provision of reversal of those speeds, need to be provided in automatic lathes.
Power and speed are transmitted from the motor to shaft I through belt–pulley and a SGB if required as can
be seen in Fig. 21.12. The two gears freely mounted on shaft I are in mesh with two gears fixed on shaft II.
Rotations are transmitted from shafts I and II to the spindle by two pairs of chain and sprockets as indicated
in the kinematic diagram (Fig. 21.12). The two sprockets are freely mounted on the spindle and simultane-
ously rotate at the same speed, low or high, but in opposite directions. The spindle is made to rotate at high

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Auxiliary shaft Single revolution clutch

A

Cylindrical cam

Spindle
Collet
Gear box

T
Turret
Tool slide
T
Bar
Finger Clutch Cam follower
stock
collet
Trip dog
Cam shaft A
II Cam Auxiliary
cam shaft Trip dog
Gear
I Section A–A
box
SGB

Clutch

Figure 21.12 Kinematic system of single-spindle automatic lathe.

or low speed and clockwise or anticlockwise by engaging the clutches on shaft I and the spindle, respectively.
Each clutch is shifted by a lever and cylindrical cam which is rotated at the desired moment by one revolution
only with the help of a single revolution clutch (set on the auxiliary shaft) which is again triggered by a trip
dog mounted on the camshaft as shown in the figure.

Bar Feeding Mechanism

For feeding the barstock to a desired projection length from the spindle nose after completing machining
and parting of the previous job, first the collet is opened by withdrawing the push force by moving the taper
ring outward by a lever automatically with the help of the cylindrical cam. Then the cam at the other end of
the cylindrical cam pushes the rod forward through the opened collet using the lever, a slide and the finger
collet as shown in Fig. 21.12. Next, half of the rotations of the two cylindrical cams cause closing of the collet
and return of the finger collet (only) by moving the levers in opposite direction. Here also the cylindrical
cam is rotated by only one revolution by actuating another single revolution clutch at the proper moment
by a trip dog.

Transverse Tool Feeds

The radially moving cutting tools (upto five) are fed sequentially at preset timings and desired length and
rate of travel by individual cams mounted on the cam shaft which rotates slowly with one rotation for one

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 Kinematic Systems of Conventional Machine Tools 605

Workpiece T
Tool Tool slide
T Tension spring
T

Gear sector Guide

Rack (under the slide)

Bell crank lever

Roller

Plate cam
Cam shaft
Cam rise
Cam lobe

Figure 21.13 Control of travel of radially moving tool by cam.

machining cycle (i.e., one product). Figure 21.13 schematically visualizes how the travel of a radially moving
tool is controlled by cam and cam follower.
Rotation of the cam with its lobe causes rotation of the gear sector at the other end of the bell crank lever,
which moves the radial tool slide linearly by rack–pinion action. The tool travel is controlled as follows:
1. Start and end of tool travel – by angular position (start and end) of the single lobe on the cam.
2. Length of tool travel – by cam rise and the ratio of length of the arms of the bell crank lever.
3. Rate of tool travel (feed) – by slope of the cam lobe (mostly Archimedean spiral for constant feed
rate).
4. Return of the tool – by ‘fall’ of the cam and the tension spring tied at the rear end of the tool slide as
indicated in Fig. 21.13.

Feed Motions of the Axially Fed Cutting Tools Mounted on the Turret
The end points, length and rate of travel of the six tools on the turret are governed by a single plate cam having
six lobes corresponding to the tools in the turret as shown in Fig. 21.12. The rotational speed of that cam is
kept same as that of the cam shaft.

Turret Indexing Mechanism

The hexagonal turret is rotated (for indexing) by a Geneva mechanism (Fig. 21.14) where a Geneva disc
having six radial slots is driven by a revolving pin. Before starting the rotation, the locking pin is withdrawn

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 606 Machining and Machine Tools

Driving disc

Geneva (driven) disc Driving pin, P

Cam (swelling)
Locking pin

T
Turret

Driving disc

Geneva disc
Driving pin, P

Figure 21.14 Geneva mechanism used for turret indexing.

by a cam lever mechanism shown in the diagram. Figure 21.14 shows the method of the turret indexing by
Geneva mechanism. The driving pin P enters in a slot of the Geneva disc and rotates it and the turret by
one-sixth of a revolution. Before and after engagement of the driving pin, the locking pin is, respectively,
withdrawn and reset by a lever as shown in Figs. 21.12 and 21.14.
The driving disc with the pin is rotated at preset moment(s) by exact one revolution which is received
from the auxiliary shaft by a single revolution clutch through the gears as can be seen in Fig. 21.12. The
functioning of the single revolution clutches is shown in more detail in Fig. 21.15. The cylindrical block with
spline inside, jaws at its face and a taper slot on the periphery transmits the rotation only when it is allowed
to engage with the fixed clutch by withdrawing the pin of the spring loaded lever through pushing its lower
end by a triangular trip rotating around the cam shaft. After one revolution, the slotted block is disengaged
from the fixed clutch (i.e., auxiliary shaft) by moving it back by dropping the pin into the returning inclined
slot which was offset early as indicated in Fig. 21.15.

21.3.5.3 Swiss-Type Automatic Lathe

The kinematic diagram of typical Swiss-type automatic lathe is shown in Fig. 21.16. The basic principle is
discussed in Chapter 20 and shown in Fig. 20.12. Both the high speed of the spindle and the low speed of the
cam shaft are derived from the same motor as indicated in the diagram. All the cutting tools mounted on the
transverse slides are pushed to the desired depth and at desired feed rate by a set of plate cams mounted on the
camshaft. The headstock with the spindle having the barstock clamped in it is moved forward and returned
at desired feed rate by a cylindrical cam mounted on the camshaft.

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Cylindrical block
A

Offset Fixed clutch

h
Auxiliary shaft

Small working shaft

X
Taper slot
T

Cam shaft

Trip dog
Section A –A
A

Figure 21.15 Working principle of typical single revolution clutch.

Feeding of the bar, after completion and parting of a job is done sequentially by
1. Opening the collet by shifting the taper ring by a cam.
2. Pushing the bar, against the last working tool, by a gravitational force.
3. Collet clamping by return of the taper ring.

21.3.5.4 Process Planning and Tool Layout for Machining in Automatic Lathes
The procedural steps to be followed in sequence for batch or lot production of a job by machining in semi-
automatic and automatic general-purpose machine tools are:
1. Thorough study of the job to be produced in respect of
(a) Volume of production, that is, number of pieces of the specific job to be produced.

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 608 Machining and Machine Tools

Cams
x x x x Camshaft

+
+ +
+

Figure 21.16 Kinematic system of Swiss-type automatic lathe.

(b) Material and its properties.

(c) Size and shape of the product.
(d) Surfaces to be machined.
(e) Required dimensions with tolerances and surfacefinish.
(f ) End use of the product.
2. Selection of machine tool (after studying the job) in respect of
(a) Type.
(b) Size.
(c) Precision.
(d) Kind and degree of automation.
3. Selection of blank (based on job and machine selected) in respect of
(a) Bar, chucking or housing type.
(b) Preformed by; casting, forging, rolling, etc.
(c) If bar type, cross section (circular, tubular, square, hexagon, etc.).
(d) Nominal size based on largest dimensions and availability.
(e) Preformed by hot working or cold working.
4. Identification and listing of the elementary machining operations required, depending upon the
product configuration.
5. Combine elementary machining operations as much as possible for saving time.

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Recess 2×2 Recess 2×2 Thread 16×1.5

Chamfer 2×45°
Chamfer 2×45°

15 30 20

7 6

XI
V IV
10
VI III 5
1,8
3
I III
VII VIII
4
X XI
9 2
3

Figure 21.17 Tool layout for a typical job in single-spindle automatic lathe.

6. Sequence the operations (after combining).

7. Select cutting tools in respect of
(a) type,
(b) material,
(c) size,
(d) geometry,
(e) availability,
depending upon the machining operations (after combining) and work material.
8. Work scheduling or preparation of the instruction sheet or operation chart giving columnwise:
(a) Description of the machining work to be done in sequence.
(b) Cutting tools: type and location.
(c) Speed and feed for each operation.
(d) Length of travel of the tools.
(e) Cutting fluid application:
• Yes or not required.
• Type of cutting fluid.
9. Tool layout showing the type and configuration of the cutting tools and their location and mounting.
A typical tool layout for a particular job being machined in a single-spindle automatic lathe is shown in
Fig. 21.17.

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Case Study

Task (say): 2500 pieces of hollow hexagonal headed mild steel bolts, as shown in Fig. 21.18, are to be
produced by machining.
Machine tool selected: Single-spindle automatic lathe for
1. Lot production (for smaller volume of production capstan lathe is better).
2. Circular bar type job.
3. Common machinable material.
4. Simple machining operations required.
Blank selected: Hot rolled hexagonal section mild steel bars for
1. Saving machining of the hexagonal head portion.
2. The hexagonal head is of standard size which is available.
3. Job size – reasonable for single-spindle automatic.
4. Not being precision job.
Elementary machining operations: Identified and listed irrespective of sequence
1. Facing.
2. Centering.
3. Chamfering (1) – front.
4. Chamfering (2) – middle portion.
5. Chamfering (3) – bolt head.
6. Rough turning (1) – to make circular from hexagon.
7. Rough turning (2) – to reduce diameter to 12 mm.
8. Finish turning – to f 10.
9. Drilling.
10. Grooving (forming).
16 flat-to-flat
f 12 f 10 × 2 thread

1 × 45°
f 6 hole

12
2
14
24
30

Figure 21.18 Shape and dimension of the specific job.

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 Kinematic Systems of Conventional Machine Tools 611

Case Study (Continued)

11. Thread cutting.

12. Initial parting.
13. Parting.
Combining elementary operations: Combining operations to be done by a compound tool in a
single travel from one tool position. Paralleling or overlapping operations to be done by different
tools moving in different directions.
The listed elementary operations can be combined and sequenced as follows:
1. Rough turning (1), initial parting and rear chamfering (3).
2. Rough turning (to f 12) and drilling and centering (for the next job).
3. Finish turning (f 10).
4. Spot facing and front chamfering (1).
5. Grooving and central chamfering (2).
6. Thread cutting.
7. Parting.
Scheduling: Operation chart indicating tools and tool positions and machining conditions. Table
21.2 shows the operation chart.

Table 21.2 Scheduling; operation chart

S. No. Operation Tool Tool position N S L CF

1. Stop stock and bar feed Stop HT (1) − − − N
2. Rough turning (1) Turning tool HT (2) 640 0.10 30 Y
Initial parting Formed RS 0.05 6 Y
Chamfering (3) Parting tool
3. Rough parting (2) Turning tool HT (3)
Drilling (f 6) Drill 640 0.10 50 Y
Centering
4. Finish turning Turning tool HT (4) 640 0.05 25 Y
5. Spot facing Compound HT (5) 640 0.05 5 Y
Chamfering (1) Tool
6. Grooving Form tool FS 640 0.05 10 Y
Chamfering (2)
7. Threading Solid die HT (6) 56 2 20 Y
8. Parting Parting tool VS 640 0.05 12 Y
N = spindle speed (rpm), S = feed (mm/rev), L = tool travel, CF = cutting fluid, HT (1) = hexagonal turret face 1, RS = rear
slide, FS = front slide, VS = vertical slide.
Tool layout: The feasible tool layout based on the scheduling made for the product is schematically
shown in Fig. 21.19.

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 612 Machining and Machine Tools

Case Study (Continued)

Vertical
slide

Headstock

Rear 2
3
slide
1
4

6
5

Front
slide

Hexagonal turret

Figure 21.19 Tool layout for machining the given job in single-spindle automatic lathe.

21.4 Kinematic System of Gear Teeth Generating Machine Tools

In this section we will discuss the kinematic system of only the following two gear-tooth generating machine
tools of very common use:
1. Gear shaping machine.
2. Hobbing machine.

21.4.1 Kinematic System of Gear Shaping Machine

For generating teeth of spur gears in gear shaping machine, five motions are required to be imparted to the
tool and workpiece.[1,3] Figure 21.20 visualizes the following five tool–work motions:
1. Cutting (reciprocating) motion (CM) – imparted to cutter.
2. Tangential feed ( ft ) motion – rotation of the cutter.
3. Indexing motion (IM) – rotation of the blank.
4. Relieving motion (RM) – to the cutter (or often blank).
5. Radial feed ( fr ) motion – to the gear blank.
All the tool–work motions, excepting the radial feed motion, are simultaneous and synchronized. All the five
motions are generally derived from a single motor (power source). So the kinematic structure is complex and
C15 type.

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Z1 SGB
Z3 ×
C2 Crank radius
Z2
Z4 Connecting rod
US
Change in
C1 stroke length

FGB
C3
Uf
C4

C5
Cutter
×
Blank
Nc ft Ng
IGB Feed cam
IM R2

C6 CM Rise cam
RM fr × × ×
× Dwell
we
C7 C9 R1
Ui C8 ×
Clutch
Job arbour Block cam
P Feed screw Sliding block

Setting of
tooth depth

Figure 21.20 Kinematic system of gear shaping machine.

Figure 21.20 schematically shows the kinematic system of a commonly used type gear shaping machine.
The gear teeth cutter looks like a gear but it is made of HSS and possesses rake and clearance angles.
The cutter reciprocates vertically and generally the downward stroke causes cutting action. The cutting motion
(CM, that is, reciprocation of the cutter) is provided by crank and connecting rod mechanism as can be seen
in Fig. 21.20. Other reciprocating mechanisms are also often used. The stroke length of the cutter is varied by
varying the crank radius by a screw–nut system as shown. The speed (i.e., number of strokes per minute, Nst)
is changed as and when required by operating the SGB. The position of stroke can also be varied as indicated
in the diagram. The tangential feed (ft, mm/stroke) is attained by continuous but slow rotation of the cutter
through a worm-and-worm wheel (ratio, C4), two pairs of bevel gears of transmission ratio C2 and C3 and
a FGB to vary feed ft or rotation speed (Nc) of the cutter. The rotation, called indexing motion (IM), of the
gear blank of speed Ng synchronized with Nc is attained through the bevel gear pairs − C5, C6 and C7 − and

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an indexing gear box (IGB) for changing Ng w.r.t. Nc depending upon the number of teeth of the chosen
cutter and the gear desired.
When all other four synchronized motions are ON, the job arbour, with the gear mounted on it, slowly
and gradually moves radially towards the cutter axis until the cutter penetrates into the blank by full depth of
the gear tooth (h) required. This depth is determined from
h = Addendum + Dedendum

= 1 × module + 1.25 module

= 2.25 × module of the gear teeth to be cut

After attaining the full depth, h, the radial infeed is stopped keeping all other motions ongoing until all the
gear teeth are produced to their full depth. Before starting the actual machining the total radial infeed of
the job arbour is preset manually. In Fig. 21.20 it is shown that the job arbour can be moved radially in two
ways: a fixed amount by the feed cam and a desired amount by the feed screw independently. Rotation of the
feed-cam pushes, by its two rollers and a plate cam (shown in Fig. 21.20), the job arbour along with the nut
and screw (unlocked). This is done with the help of the slotted cam block whose downward movement causes
forward motion of a pin along with the block in which the feed screw is locked. The total radial movement of
the gear blank by this feed cam can be varied by radially shifting the rollers R1 and R2 and mounting different
plate cam in the feed cam disc.
Before starting the gear cutting operations, the total radial infeed is manually set in the following sequen-
tial steps:
1. Assure disengagement of the clutch.
2. Keep gear blank sufficiently away from the cutter.
3. Lock the feed screw within the sliding block and push the gear blank to the fullest extent by manually
rotating the feed cam until the dwell portion of the plate cam rides on the cam follower but keeping
a small gap between the cutter and the gear blank.
4. Unlock the feed screw from the sliding block.
5. Start all other four simultaneous motions.
6. Manually rotate the feed screw slowly until the cutter just touches the gear blank.
7. Set the graduated wheel of the feed screw at zero position.
8. Stop all the motions and keep the cutter above the gear blank.
9. Push the gear blank by one full depth of the gear-teeth by rotating the graduated disc (now fixed with
the feed screw) to set to the mark or division corresponding to the desired module of the gear to be
cut.
10. Lock the feed screw with the sliding block.
11. Manually rotate the feed cam and bring back the gear blank to the fullest extent.
12. Engage the clutch for automatic rotation of the feed cam.
13. Start the machine with all its tool–work motions.
After completion of all the teeth, the sliding block will be released by another cam, as shown. The return
(going up under the action of spring) of the cam follower results in return of the sliding block along with the
feed screw, nut and the job arbour with the finished gear. Then after stopping the machine, the finished gear
is replaced by another similar gear blank and the machine is switched ON. No further setting of the radial
feed system is required unless a different gear of different module or diameter is to be cut.

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21.4.1.1 Evaluation of TR and Selection of Gears for Different Gear Boxes

The transmission ratios (TR) are evaluated for different gear boxes based on the cutting tool to be used and
the gears to be cut. According to the evaluated TRs, gears – four for each gear box – are selected from the lot
of change gears supplied with the gear shaping machine. The gears of the gear boxes are changed frequently.

Transmission Ratio and Change Gears for the SGB

First, a reasonable value of cutting velocity (Vc) is decided based on the materials of the cutter and the gear
(product), rated capacity and condition of the machine tools, desired productivity and product quality, etc.
Then the required speed (Nst, number of strokes per min) of the cutter is determined from
Vc = (Lst × Nst × 2) 1/1000 m/min (21.17)
where Lst is the length of stroke, mm. It is given by
Lst = n × B + A + O mm (21.18)
Here n is the number of identical gear blanks on the arbour, B is the width of each gear blank, A and O are
approach and overrun. Again
Nst = NM C1 US (from kinematic diagram) (21.19)
where NM is the speed (rpm) of the motor, C1 is the TR of the belt–pulley (fixed) and US is the TR of the SGB
to be determined. Using Eqs. (21.17) − (21.19) the value of US is determined from

1000Vc
US = (21.20)
2(nB + A O )N MC1

Then, the gears for the SGB are to be selected so that

Z1 Z 3
US = ×
Z2 Z4
where Z1, Z2, … are number of teeth.

Transmission Ratio (Uf ) and Change Gears for the FGB

Tangential feed ( ft, in mm/stroke) means amount of rotation of the cutter along the periphery of its pitch
circle in one stroke of the cutter. Then amount of rotation (in mm) of the cutter in one minute will be
ft × Nst = p DcNc (mm) (21.21)
where Nc is the rotational speed of the cutter (rpm) and Dc is the pitch circle diameter of the cutter given by
Dc = mZc
where m is the module of the cutter (same as that of the gear to be cut) and Zc is the number of teeth of the
cutter. Again, from the kinematic diagram in Fig. 21.20, we have
Nc = NstC2C3UfC4 (21.22)
where C2, C3 and C4 are fixed TRs of the bevel gear pairs and the worm and worm wheel. The values of TRs
of the nodal points, C1, C2, C3, … are fixed by the manufacturer of the machine tool and are provided in the

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 616 Machining and Machine Tools

operation manual. The value of feed ft is decided by the tool–work materials, desired productivity and prod-
uct quality and capacity of the machine tool. Usually, in industries, ft is taken from 0.10 to 1.0 mm/stroke.
Now, combining Eqs. (21.21) and (21.22), the TR of the FGB (i.e., Uf ) is determined from
ft 1
Uf = ⋅ (21.23)
π mZZ c C 2C 3C 4

Then, the transmission gears, Z1, Z2, Z3 and Z4, are determined from

Z1 Z 3
× = Uf (21.24)
Z2 Z4

Note that Z should be within 16 and 120.

TR, Ui and Change Gears for the 1GB

The rotations of the cutter and the gear blank are synchronized according to the relationship
Ng Zc
= (21.25)
Nc Zg

where Ng is the speed of rotation of the gear blank; Nc is the speed of the cutter; Zc and Zg are number of teeth
of the cutter and the gear blank, respectively Again, from the kinematic diagram in Fig. 21.20, we have
1
Ng Nc C5C 6U iC 7 (21.26)
C4

where C4, C5, C6 and C7 are the fixed and known values of the TRs at the nodal points. Now combining Eqs.
(21.25) and (21.26) the TRUi of the 1GB is determined from
C 4 ( Z c /Z g )
Ui = (21.27)
C5C 6C 7

Then, the change gears are to be selected based on

Z1 Z 3
× = Ui
Z2 Z4

where Z1, Z2, Z3 and Z4 are number of teeth of the change gears to be selected and used for the IGB.

21.4.2 Kinematic System of Gear Hobbing Machine

While generating teeth of spur gears in a hobbing machine, the cutting tool, called hob, and the gear blank
behave as a pair of worm and a worm wheel in mesh. The cutting action is accomplished by the travelling
(feed) motion of the HSS hob parallel to the axis of the gear blank.[1,3] Hobbing machines have mainly the
following three tool–work motions for generating teeth of straight tooth spur gear:
1. Cutting motion (CM) – rotation of the hob.

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 Kinematic Systems of Conventional Machine Tools 617

Gear blank
IM Hob

CM
C3
fr

a ±q

P
FM
SGB FGB
C2
Z1
C6
Z3
ni IGB C5
∑
Z2 Uf
Z4
n0
Ui
C4 C7
na
C1 UD
C9

C8
M CM DGB
IM

FM

Figure 21.21 Kinematic layout of gear hobbing machine.

2. Indexing motion (IM) – rotation of the gear blank.

3. Feed motion (FM) – linear travel of the hob parallel to the job axis.
One additional fine job-rotation, called differential motion, is also needed for cutting helical teeth. Figure
21.21 shows the kinematic system of typical hobbing machine. All the tool–work motions are synchronized
during operation. All the four motions are derived from only one motor, hence the kinematic structure of
hobbing machine is complex of type C13 or C14.
The hob axis is kept inclined by angle a ±q , where a is the helix angle of the hob and q is the helix angle
of gear teeth to be cut. The ‘+’ or ‘−’ depend upon the direction of helix of the gear teeth.
The rotary motion of the hob at desired speed is derived from the motor through the belt–pulley, a safety
clutch, a SGB, a pair of bevel gears of TR, C2 and then a bevel gear system C3 as can be seen in Fig. 21.21.
The synchronized rotary indexing motion of the gear blank is obtained from the rotation of the hob through

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 618 Machining and Machine Tools

the bevel gears, of TRs, C3, and C4, summation factor (Σ) of the 4-bevel gear differential box, the IGB and
finally the worm and worm wheel C5 (TR) as shown in Fig. 21.21. The FM of the hob is derived from the
job rotation through node C5, FGB, node C6 and the lead screw as shown.
The differential motion, that is, additional fine rotation of the gear blank, is attained from the rotation of
the lead screw through the pair of bevel gear of TR, C7, the differential gear box (DGB), the gearing nodes,
C8 and C9, then the differential IGB again and also finally C5 as can be seen in Fig. 21.21.

21.4.2.1 Evaluation of TR and Selection of Change Gears for

Different Gear Boxes
As in gear shaping machine, in hobbing machine also the gears in the different gear boxes need to be changed
time to time according to their TRs evaluated based on the tool–work materials and features, desired finish
and capacity of the machine tool.

TR (US ) and Change Gears for the SGB

First, cutting velocity (Vc m/min) is reasonably selected depending mainly upon the tool–work materials and
the machining environment. Then the speed of rotation of the hob is determined from
Vc = p DhNh/1000 m/min (21.28)
where Dh is the diameter of the hob (mm) and Nh is the speed of hob (rpm). Again, from the kinematic
diagram in Fig. 21.21
Nh = NMC1USC2C3 (21.29)
where NM is the speed of the motor (rpm) and US is the TR of the SGB to be evaluated. C1, C2 and C3 are
the fixed and known TRs of the belt–pulley and bevel gear pairs (Fig. 21.21). Combining Eqs. (21.28) and
(21.29), US is obtained from
1000Vc 1
US = (21.30)
π Dh N M C1C 2C 3

Then, the change gears (teeth number) are selected such that
Z1 Z 3
× = US
Z2 Z4

TR (Ui ) and Change Gears for the IGB

For automatic indexing, the speeds of the hob and the gear blank are synchronized and related as

N h Zg
= (21.31)
Ng kh

where Ng is the rpm of the gear blank, Zg is the number of gear teeth to be produced and Kh is the number
of start of the hob taken. Again, from the kinematic diagram in Fig. 21.21,
1
Ng Nh C 4 U i C5 (21.32)
C3

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 Kinematic Systems of Conventional Machine Tools 619

where Σ = 2 for four bevel gear differential mechanism. Combining Eqs. (21.31) and (21.32), Ui is deter-
mined from
Kh C3 Z Z
Ui = × = 1× 3 (21.33)
Z g 2C 4C5 Z 2 Z 4

After evaluating Ui , the change gears (Z1, Z2, Z3 and Z4) are selected.

TR (Uf) and Change Gears for the FGB

The TR, Uf , of the FGB depends upon the machine kinematic system and the value of feed rate (fh) taken
based on production rate and desired finish. The hob shifts by fh in one revolution of the gear blank. Based
on the kinematic diagram in Fig. 21.21, Uf is to be evaluated from

1
fh = 1 0 × ×U
Uf C6 × p (21.34)
C5

where fh is the feed (in mm/rev), that is, length (in mm) of travel of the hob per revolution of the gear blank
and p is the pitch (or lead) of the feed screw (mm). Therefore

f C 5 Z1 Z 3
Uf = = ⋅ (21.35)
C p Z2 Z4

After getting the value of Uf , the change gears (Z1, Z2, Z3 and Z4) are selected.

TR (UD) and Change Gears for the DGB

In hobbing machine, the kinematic chain having the DGB in it is used only when helical toothed spur gears are
machined. The basic principle of producing helical gear teeth is schematically shown in Fig. 21.22(a). During
one full revolution of the blank, the contact point of the hob and the blank move from point A to point C
instead of point B for helix angle q. Therefore, for cutting helical tooth, while the hob descends by fh (hob-feed,
mm/rev of blank), the blank rotates an extra amount BC over one full rotation of the blank. In the case of helix
in opposite direction, the blank has to rotate less than one revolution by BC. This means that if the width of the
gear is assumed to be equal to the lead of the gear, Lg, then the length BC will become equal to the perimeter,
p Dg, where Dg is the pitch circle diameter of the gear and Lg = p Dg cotq as indicated in Fig. 21.22(b).
This implies that while the hob travels by Lg the gear blank rotates one extra full rotation through the dif-
ferential mechanism, where the speeds (indicated in Fig. 21.21) are related as

Gear blank

fh pDg
pD
A

B C q Lg
Left-hand helix Left-hand helix
F
F1 E q

(a) (b)

Figure 21.22 Principle of producing helical teeth of spur gear in hobbing machine.

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 620 Machining and Machine Tools

no = (1 − e) na + eni (21.36)
where na is the rpm of the arm, ni is the rpm of the input gear, that is, the worm wheel, no is the rpm of
the output bevel gear, e is the TR between the input and the output gears = −1 (in the present 4 bevel gear
system). The gear blank receives its primary rotation from the arm (shaft) and the additional minute rotation
through the input gear (worm wheel). Based on this principle and from the kinematic diagram shown in Fig.
21.21, we have
Lg
C 7U DC8C 9U i C5 = 1(additional
dd l rotation off the
h bl
blankk ) (21.37)
p
where
Lg = p Dgcotq

Zg
Dg m (for
f helical
h l l gear
g )
cos θ

and UD = TR of the DGB

The values of the TRs, C7, C8 and C9, are known from the operator’s manual. Combining Eqs. (21.36) and
(21.37), finally we get
π mZ
Zg 1
Ui = (21.38)
p θ C 7C8C 9U i

Then select the change gear as usual.

21.5 Kinematic Systems and Working Principle of Hydraulically

Driven Machine Tools
Hydraulic drive is often preferably used in some machine tools for smooth motion without jerk and noise, self-
lubrication, flexible transmission system and stepless variation in speed and feed despite the limitations like
larger space requirement, oil leakage, difficult maintenance, etc. Figure 21.23 typically shows the circuitry[1,3,7]
of a hydraulically driven (tool travel) drilling machine. The direction and length of travel of the drilling head
fitted on the moving piston are controlled by position of the spool of the direction control valve which is actu-
ated by the pilot valve and governed by the electro-mechanical stops as indicated in the figure. The hydraulic
fluid is sucked from the reservoir through the strainer and a foot valve and pressurized by a vane or radial piston
pump. The pressure p1 input to the piston cylinder is kept constant by a relief valve. The limiting mechanical
stops control length and direction of travel of the drilling head using the solenoids and the direction control
valve which again is actuated by a pilot valve as schematically shown in Fig. 21.23. The rate of travel of the drill
head (i.e., the feed rate) is governed by the throttle valve which is again controlled by a template like cam and
a follower coupled with the spool of the throttle valve as shown in Fig. 21.23. To keep the feed rate constant
irrespective of the working force on the piston, a pressure-reducing valve is provided prior to the throttle valve.
The pressure-reducing valve helps to keep its exit pressure (i.e., input pressure of the throttle valve) fixed to
a preset value irrespective of the input pressure of the pressure-reducing valve which varies with the working
load on the drill piston. Constant pressure difference keeps constant fluid flow rate through the throttle valve
resulting in constant feed rate irrespective of the cutting force. The cam enables quick and slow travel of the
drilling head by varying the port-opening of the throttle valve.

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 Kinematic Systems of Conventional Machine Tools 621

Drilling head

Drill
p1 p2
Direction control valve

Cam

Top
Solenoid
Relief valve
pb Throttle valve
ps
Pilot valve p2

Relief valve Pressure reducing valve

M Pump
Foot valve

Strainer

Figure 21.23 Circuitry and kinematic system of hydraulically driven machine tool.

21.5.1 Working Principle of Copying Lathe

Figure 21.24 shows the working principle of typical hydraulic copying lathe.[1,7] The cross feed is con-
trolled, under fixed longitudinal feed, hydraulically. A steel template of same configuration of the job-
profile to be produced is fixed outside. The spring loaded stylus functions as the spool. While turning
straight, the stylus remains steady over a straight portion of the template. When the stylus moves in
the transverse direction slightly (by say Δ x) due to slope or profile in the fixed template, the ports open
enabling the high pressure fluid to enter in the lower chamber. Since the piston is fixed, the sliding cyl-
inder holding the cutting tool will start moving down. When the tool also retracts by Δ x, the ports get
closed. This way the incremental or discrete motion of the stylus is replicated by the tool tip resulting in
true copying of the profile from the template to the job. The incremental movements Δ x and Δy are so
small that the machined surface becomes reasonably smooth. In this way, any profile, convex or concave,
can also be produced.

21.6 Design of Kinematic System for Special-Purpose Machine Tool

Special-purpose machine tools are generally designed and used for rapid production, consistent quality (inter-
changeability) and overall economy in repetitive production of same item in mass scale. Such machine tools
are characterized by
1. A suitable fixture or jig for automatic, accurate and rapid loading, locating, supporting, clamping,
ejection and unloading of the workpiece after machining.

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 622 Machining and Machine Tools

Spring

Stylus
T
Template

Figure 21.24 Principle of hydraulic copy turning.

2. Automatic travel of the tool and the job before, during and after machining, in preset direction and
speeds.
3. No need of large number of speeds and feeds and hence gear boxes.
4. Automatic feeding and transfer of blank and products.
5. The entire kinematic layout and the design and construction of the machine tool should be simple
and compact as far as possible.
Figure 21.25 shows, for instance, a feasible kinematic system of a typical special-purpose automatic machine
tool suitable for drilling a through diametral hole (pin-hole) of given diameter (d, say) at given distance (x)
from one end-face of a pre-machined rod of fixed diameter (D) and length (L) as shown in Fig. 21.25(a).
The machine tool comprises several parts and mechanisms to carry out various functions automatically and
in synchronized way.
The major components and their functions in this fully automatic special-purpose drilling machine are as
follows:
1. Power drill: The drilling spindle receives rotation and power from the motor without or with some
reduction by gears as indicated in Fig. 21.25. An SGB may be present for change of spindle speed, if
necessary. This is how the desired cutting motion (rotation) is imparted to the drill.
2. Feed motion: The drilling head along with the drill is moved down and up by a rack and pinion.
The rack is clamped or fixed on the drilling head body and the pinion is rotated clockwise and anti-
clockwise by engaging the clutch as shown in the diagram. There may be an FGB, if necessary, to
vary the speed of the pinion for changing the drill’s feed rate. The gearing layout also enables quick

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 Kinematic Systems of Conventional Machine Tools 623

X Spindle
fd
SGB M

L
(a) Product
Stop FGB

Drilling head

Clutch
Spindle

Blanks Drill Bush

Clamp
block

V-block for loading and supporting

Slope
Pusher

Feeder Ejector

Tension spring
T

(b)
Figure 21.25 Kinematic system a special-purpose drilling machine.

return of the drilling head. The two stops, clamped at suitable locations on the drilling head, not only
enable change in direction of travel of the drilling head at desired moments but also control its start,
end and length of travel (Fig. 21.25).
3. Loading, machining and unloading of job: The rod-like pre-machined blanks automatically pro-
ceed in a row on a slope, wait for some time and then pass one at a time through the opening of
the U-shaped gate and take position on the V-groove for automatic locating and strong supporting
as can be seen in Fig. 21.25. Then the blank is gradually and firmly clamped by the spring loaded

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 624 Machining and Machine Tools

clamp-block. Just before clamping, the blank is axially pushed against a fixed stop by a push lever.
The spring loaded pusher is actuated by the slope in the plunger or ejector while descending. This
light push before clamping assures the location X of the axis of the hole to be drilled. Further down-
ward travel of the drilling head raises the force of clamping and accomplishes the drilling work.
After completing drilling, the drilling head returns when the upper stop strikes the lever-head of the
clutch. After drilling, when the clamp block rises sufficiently the spring loaded ejector throws the
drilled rod out from the V-block on another slope or conveyor.
Thus all the operations are carried out systematically, in synchronizing and fully automatically manner,
enabling very fast production of a particular product in huge quantity over long period in a special-purpose
machine tool. In this way several other machine tools and their kinematic systems are designed and used for
mass production of different types of products.

21.7 Solved Problems

PROBLEM 1
Determine the values of the transmission ratios of the gear quadrant (Ug), norton gear (UN) and the
meander drive (UM) that will be required for cutting a screw thread of pitch 10 mm in a centre lathe
having feed gear system for cutting all the standard metric threads and lead screw of pitch 6 mm.

Solution: The overall transmission ratio (TR) required is given by

U = UgUNUM
where Ug is the TR of the gear quadrant; UN is the TR through the Norton gear; and UM is the TR
through the Meander drive. There can be number of solutions and answers depending upon the value of
Ug assumed (reasonably). Let Ug = 4/3 (assumed). Here

10 mm 5
U = =
6 mm 3
One feasible answer can be drawn from
5 4 5 1
= × ×
3 3 4 1
Then
5 ⎛ 40 ⎞
UN = = and U M = 1 : 1
4 ⎝ 32 ⎠

PROBLEM 2
Prepare an operation chart and tool layout for lot production of mild steel pins as shown in Fig. 21.26
in a single-spindle automatic lathe.

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 Kinematic Systems of Conventional Machine Tools 625

f 20
f16 × 2 mm

15
20
30

Figure 21.26 Solved problem 2.

Solution: Steps
(i) Blank selected: Mind steel rod of diameter 20 mm
(ii) List of elementary machining operations:
• Rough turning to diameter, 17 mm.
• Rough parting.
• Chamfering (rear side).
• Facing.
• Chamfering (front side).
• Grooving.
• Finish turning to diameter, 16 mm.
• Thread cutting.
• Parting.
(iii) Combined operations in sequence and corresponding cutting tools and tool position
• Rough turning and rough parting with chamfering by turning tool (in turret) and parting tool (in
rear slide).
• Facing by spot facing tool (in turret).
• Front chamfering and grooving by a compound form tool (in front slide).
• Finish turning by turning tool (in turret).
• Thread cutting by solid die (in turret).
• Parting by parting tool (in vertical slide).
(iv) Draw the tool layout as indicated in this chapter.

PROBLEM 3
If, in the kinematic system of a gear shaping machine, shown in Fig. 21.20, the values of C1, C2, C3 and
C4 be 1/2, 1, 1/3 and 1/20, respectively, then what should be the number of teeth of the four gears in the
FGB for producing the teeth of a straight toothed spur gear by a cutter of 20 teeth and 4 mm module at
tangential feed of 0.5 mm/stroke?

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 626 Machining and Machine Tools

Solution: We have,
ft 1
Uf = ⋅
π mZZ c C2 C3 ⋅ C 4

Substituting the given values, we get

05 1
Uf = ⋅
π × 4 × 20 1× (1/3)
3 × (1/20)

15 3
= = 0.1194 ≅
π ×4 25
So,
Z1 Z 3 3 3 12 30 36
× × = ×
Z2 Z4 25 12 25 36 75

PROBLEM 4
Considering Fig. 21.21 of a gear hobbing machine determine the TRs of all the gear boxes assuming
(a) C1 = 1/2, C2 = 1, C3 = 1, C4 = 1, C5 = 1/10, C6 = 1, C7 = 1, C8 = 1/2, C9 = 1/10
(b) Hob speed, Nh = 120 rpm and motor speed Nm = 1000 rpm
(c) Hob-single start, gear to be cut −Zg = 40 and θ = 30°
(d) Axial feed of hob = 2.0 mm/rev of the gear blank

Solution: Transmission ratio, TR

(a) of the speed gear box, SGB
1000Vc 1
US = ⋅
π Ds N M C1 C 2 ⋅ C 3
Putting the values, we get
1000 × Vc 1
US = ⋅
π × Dh × 1000 (1/2)
2 ×1×1

Assuming, Vc = 50 m/min and hob-diameter Dh = 50 mm we get

1000 × 50 2 7
US = ×2 = =
π × 50 ×1000 π 11
(b) of the indexing gear box, IGB
⎛ Kh ⎞ C3
Ui = ⋅
⎜⎝ Z g ⎟⎠ 2 × C 4 C5

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 Kinematic Systems of Conventional Machine Tools 627

Putting the values we get

⎛ 1⎞ 1 10 1
Ui = ⋅ = =
⎝ 40 ⎠ 1 × (1 / 10) 40 4

(c) of the feed gear box, FGB

f C5
Uf =
C p

Putting the given values we get

2 × (11
/10)
Uf =
1× p

Assuming pitch p = 6 mm,

2 1
Uf = =
10 × 6 30
(d) of the differential gear box DGB
p sin θ 1
UD = ⋅
π mZZ g C5C 7C8C 9U i

Putting the given values and the obtained value of Ui we get

6 sin30° 1
UD = ×
π × m × 40 (11
/10) × 1 × (1/2 ) × (11
/10) × (1/4 )
Assuming module m = 3 mm,
6 × (1/2)
2 20 70
UD = ⋅ 800 = =
π × 3 × 40 π 11

PROBLEM 5
How much should be the speed (rpm) of the gear blank having 40 teeth if these teeth are to be cut by a
single start HSS hob of diameter 70 mm at cutting velocity of 44 m/min?

Solution: The rpm of the hob is

1000Vc 1000 × 44
Nh = = = 200 rpm
π Dh (22/7)
7 70
So, speed of the gear blank is
1
N g = 200 × = 5 rpm
40

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 628 Machining and Machine Tools

PROBLEM 6
Determine the TRs US, Uf and Ui and select gears (number of teeth) for the SGB, FGB and IGB for
generating the teeth of straight toothed cast iron spur gears of Zg = 80, m = 3.5 and B = 20 mm by a 20
teeth HSS cutter in a gear shaping machine. Given: C1 = 1/2, C2 = 1, C3 = 1/2, C4 = 1/20, C5 = 1, C6 = 1
and C7 = 1/30. Assume: ft = 1.0 mm/stroke, motor speed NM = 1000 rpm.

Solution: Let Vc = 20 m/min for tool–work materials HSS VS Cast Iron; n = 4 (number of gear blanks in a
stack) and
A + O = 10 + 10 = 20 mm
Using Eq. (21.20), we get
1000Vc
Us =
B + A )N MC1
2(nB
1000 × 20
=
2( 4 × 20 + 20)1500(1/22)

1 20 20
= ≅ ×
5 40 50
Using Eq. (21.23), we get
ft 1
Uf =
π mZZ c C 2C 3C 4
05 1
=
7 × 3.5 × 20 1(1/2)
(22/7) 2 × (1/20)

1 20 20
= ≅ ×
11 55 80
Using Eq. (21.27),
C 4 ( Z c /Z g ) 20(200/880) 1 20 20
Ui = = = = ×
C5C 6C 7 1 × 1 × (1/330) 6 40 60

SU M M A R Y
The importance of kinematic systems and their func- machine, have been displayed and explained. The
tional purposes in machine tools have been briefly gear layouts, as a part of the kinetic system, for cut-
highlighted. The kinematic systems of different con- ting all standard screw threads in centre lathes are also
ventional machine tools of regular industrial use have presented. Then the kinematic systems of semi-auto-
been schematically shown and their functioning have matic capstan lathe, single-spindle automat and Swiss-
also been described here. First, the kinematic systems type automatic lathe have been described in detail. The
of centre lathe, drilling machine, shaping and slotting method of process planning and tool layout in such

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 Kinematic Systems of Conventional Machine Tools 629

lathe has also been visualized. The relatively complex The design of a typical special-purpose automatic
shaped hobbing machine and gear shaping machine machine tool has been introduced with suitable
requiring large number of automated and synchro- illustration. However, each type of machine tool is
nized tool–work motions are taken up. Hydraulically designed, built and used to carry out a set of machin-
driven machine tools need use of hydraulic power ing operations. For example, lathes are considered
pack and hydraulic circuit(s) comprising several and used mainly for turning and similar operations
hydraulic devices and valves for control of tool–work on cylindrical blanks. The machining applications of
motions at desired directions, speed and feed. This the different machine tools with and without use of
has been highlighted with a specific case study. attachments have been covered in the next chapter.

M U L T I P L E CH O I C E QU E S T I O N S
[Answers are provided in the CD]
1. In all geared centre lathes, cluster gears are 6. The bar feeding and turret indexing operations
used in their in capstan lathes are
(a) Speed gear box (a) Non-automatic
(b) Feed gear box (b) Semi-automatic
(c) Apron box (c) Fully automatic
(d) Tailstock (d) Flexibly automatic
2. Screw threads are machined in centre lathe by 7. A number of single revolution clutches are
engaging its used in single-spindle automatic lathe and are
(a) Feed rod and half nut mounted on its
(b) Feed rod and friction clutch (a) Spindle
(c) Lead screw and half nut (b) Auxiliary shaft
(d) Lead screw and friction clutch (c) Cam shaft
3. The quill or barrel containing the rotating (d) Turret lead
spindle in a vertical drilling machine is moved 8 In single-spindle automatic lathes, a Geneva
up and down by mechanism is used for automatic
(a) Screw and nut mechanism (a) Bar feeding
(b) Rack and pinion method (b) Cutting tool travels
(c) Crank and connecting rod mechanism (c) Change of spindle speed
(d) Oscillating lever mechanism (d) Indexing of the turret
4. The ram along with the cutting tool is recipro- 9. In gear shaping machine, the speed of rota-
cated in a shaping machine by tion of the gear blank is varied by changing the
(a) Crank and connecting rod mechanism gears in the
(b) Rack and pinion method (a) Speed gear box
(c) Cam and cam follower mechanism (b) Feed gear box
(d) Oscillating lever mechanism (c) Indexing gear box
5. A telescopic shaft with two universal joints at (d) None of the above
its two ends is essentially used in the kinematic 10. In gear hobbing, the transmission ratio of the
system of conventional differential gear box is adjusted depending
(a) Centre lathes upon the
(b) Drilling machines (a) Helix angle of the gear to be cut
(c) Milling machines (b) Number of teeth to be cut
(d) Planing machines (c) Involute angle of the teeth
(d) Pressure angle of the teeth

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 630 Machining and Machine Tools

11. In centre lathes, power is transmitted from the 16. The axial feed motion is given by moving the
motor to the headstock by headstock in
(a) Belt and pulley (a) Single-spindle automatic lathe
(b) Chain and sprocket (b) Swiss-type automatic lathe
(c) Gear train (c) Multiple spindle automatic lathe
(d) Any of the above (d) None of the above
12. The kinematic structure of hobbing machine is 17. For cutting BSW threads in a metric lathe,
(a) Elementary structure its feed gear system needs use of a special gear
(b) Complex structure having
(c) Compound structure (a) 65 teeth
(d) None of the above (b) 93 teeth
13. In gear hobbing machine, the cutting tool (c) 117 teeth
receives its rotary motion from the motor (d) 127 teeth
through the 18. The kinematic structure is compound struc-
(a) Speed gear box ture in
(b) Feed gear box (a) Milling machine
(c) Indexing gear box (b) Gear shaping machine
(d) Differential gear box (c) Gear hobbing machine
14. Worm and worm wheel are not used in (d) None of the above
(a) Centre lathes 19. There are no lead screws in
(b) Column drilling machine (a) Centre lathes
(c) Knee type conventional milling machine (b) Milling machines
(d) None of the above (c) Single-spindle automatic lathes
15. In gear shaping machine, the tool and job (d) Hydraulic copying lathes
together are provided with 20. Quick return effect is not available in
(a) Three motions (a) Shaping machine
(b) Four motions (b) Planing machine
(c) Five motions (c) Slotting machine
(d) Six motions (d) Any of the above

R E V I E W QU E S T I O N S
1. State the major roles or functions of kinematic or attained from the driving motor in centre
systems in machine tools. lathe.
2. Schematically show how power and motion 5. Draw schematically a feasible gearing arrange-
are transmitted from the motor to the work- ment of the feed gear box of a metric lathe for
piece in a centre lathe. cutting all standard metric threads.
3. Mention the mechanisms or the mechanical 6. Show the kinematic layout of the feed gear
elements that are used in sequence to derive box of a British lathe suitable for cutting all
the longitudinal feed motion of the cutting the standard BSW threads.
tool from the rotary motion of the spindle in a 7. Show and briefly describe by a block diagram
centre lathe. the kinematic system of the feed gear box for
4. Describe briefly with the help of suitable dia- cutting all the standard metric threads and
gram how the work–tool motions are derived BSW threads in a metric lathe.

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 Kinematic Systems of Conventional Machine Tools 631

8. Describe briefly with the help of a suitable 19. Describe briefly with the help of suitable kine-
kinematic diagram or gear-layout, how all matic diagrams the methods of
the standard metric threads and BSW threads (a) automatic bar feeding
are cut in a metric lathe (or a British lathe). (b) automatic turret indexing
9. Draw schematically the kinematic system (or (c) change of spindle speeds (magnitude and
diagram) of a drilling machine having 12 spin- direction of rotation)
dle speeds and 6 feeds. (d) feeding the transverse tool slides in a
10. Describe briefly with the help of a suitable dia- single speed automatic lathe.
gram how the cutting motion (at different speeds) 20. Draw a feasible kinematic system (or diagram)
and feed motion (at different feed rates) of the of a single-spindle automatic lathe and briefly
drill are derived (or attained) from the single or state its working principle.
main motor (source of power and motion) in a 21. State the purposes of having, in single-spindle
column (or radial) drilling machine. automatic lathes,
11. Draw and describe the kinematic system of a (a) single revolution clutch
shaping machine. (b) Geneva mechanism by schematic dia-
12. Describe briefly with the help of simple sketches grams explain their way of functioning
how the length and position of stroke of the (or working).
cutting tool are changed in a shaping machine. 22. State the (a) constructional features, (b) opera-
13. Draw schematically the kinematic system (of tional characteristics and (c) applications of
a shaping machine) that enables deriving from Swiss-type automatic lathe.
the motor 23. Draw schematically the kinematic diagram of
(a) the reciprocating motion (at different Swiss-type automatic lathe and briefly explain
Nst) of the cutting tool. its working principle.
(b) the horizontal feed motion (at different 24. State the steps that are followed in sequence
feed rates) of the workpiece. for preparing the operation chart (or instruc-
14. Draw a feasible kinematic system (or diagram) tion sheet) and tool layout for lot production
of a slotting machine and briefly state how of a job in a single-spindle automatic lathe.
the tool–work motions are produced from the 25. Draw a feasible kinematic diagram of a gear
single motor. shaping machine and briefly state its working
15. Draw schematically the kinematic system principle.
of a horizontal arbour type milling machine 26. Why and how are the followings varied in a
and explain how the cutting motion and feed gear shaping machine?
motion (at different speeds and rates) are, (a) Number of strokes (of the cutter) per
respectively, derived from the motor (only minute, Nst.
power source). (b) Length and position of stroke of the
16. Describe briefly with the help of suitable kine- cutter.
matic diagram the way of getting quick tra- (c) Rotational speed, Nc and Ng of the cutter
verse of the worktable in a milling machine. and the blank, respectively.
17. Draw and describe the kinematic arrange- (d) Depth (total) of radial penetration of the
ment of semi-automatic bar feeding in capstan cutter (teeth) in the blank.
lathe. 27. Draw the kinematic diagram of a gear hob-
18. Describe briefly with the help of suitable kine- bing machine to be used for producing the
matic diagram the mechanisms and method of teeth of
indexing the turret head (with cutting tools) (a) Straight toothed spur gear.
in a capstan or turret lathe. (b) Helical toothed spur gear.

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 632 Machining and Machine Tools

28. Why and how are the followings varied in a (a) the length, direction and speed of travel
gear hobbing machine? of that drilling head are controlled.
(a) Cutting speed (Nh) of the hob (cutter). (b) the feed rate during drilling operation is
(b) Speed (Ng) of rotation of the gear blank. maintained constant irrespective of the
(c) Speed of rotation of the feed screw. drilling thrust force.
29. The drilling head of a drilling machine is hori- 30. Visualize schematically and explain the work-
zontally moved (fed) hydraulically for a drilling ing principle of a hydraulic copying lathe.
operation in a transfer machine. Draw schemat-
ically the hydraulic circuitry and explain how

PR O B L E M S
With Answers Without Answers
1. Determine the transmission ratios of the 1. Determine the values of the transmission ra-
Noton gear (UN) that will be required to set in tios of the gear quadrant (Ug), the Norton gear
a metric lathe for cutting external screw thread (UN) and the Meander derive (UM), which
of pitch 4 mm. Assume: Pitch of the single need to be set for cutting BSW thread of a 9
start leadscrew of the lathe is 6 mm; transmis- TPI in a British lathe whose leadscrew pos-
sion ratio of the gear quadrant (Ug) is 2/3; Me- sesses 4 TPI.
ander drive ratio, UM = 1/2. 2. Determine the values of the gear quadrant,
Ans: 2/1 or 64/32 Norton gear and the Meander drive that will
2. If in the kinematic system of a gear shaping be required to set for cutting external screw
machine (shown in Fig. 21.20 in the text) the thread of 6 mm pitch in a British lathe having
values of the constants are C1 = 2, C2 = 1/2, leadscrew with 4 TPI.
C3 = 1 and C4 = 1/30 respectively, then what 3. If in the kinematic system of a gear shaping
should be the number of teeth of the four machine (shown in Fig. 21.20 in the text), the
gears in the feed gear box for producing all the values of C1, C2, C3 and C4 be 1, 1/2, 2/3 and
teeth of a straight-toothed spur gear by using 1/20, respectively, then what should be the
a shaping cutter having 16 teeth and 5 mm number of teeth of the four gears in FGB for
module at tangential feed of 0.5 mm/stroke. producing teeth of straight-toothed spur gears
30 36 by an HSS cutter of 24 teeth and 3.0 module
Ans: ×
36 75 at tangential feed ( ft ) of 0.4 mm/stroke?
3. For producing the teeth of a straight-toothed 4. Considering the kinematic diagram as shown
mild steel spur gear having 60 teeth by a in Fig. 21.21 of a gear hobbing machine,
double start HSS hob (cutter) in a hobbing determine the transmission ratios (TRs) of
machine at cutting velocity Vc = 55 m/min, all the gear boxes of that machine. Assume:
at what speed (rpm) should the gear blank be C1 = C2 = C3 = C4 = 1; C5 = C9 = 1/20;
rotated, if the hob diameter is 56 mm? C6 = C7 = C8 = 1/2; hob speed, N4 = 200 rpm;
Ans: 12.5 rpm motor speed = 1000 rpm; hob: single start;
4. The teeth of a 60 teeth straight-toothed spur gear to be cut; zg = 60 teeth; module = 2.5 mm;
gear are to be cut in a gear shaping machine helix angle q = 20°.
by an HSS cutter having 20 teeth. If the cutter
speed (Nc) is 6 rpm then what should be the
speed (in rpm) of rotation of the gear blank?
Ans: 2 rpm

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 22 Machining Applications of
Conventional Machine Tools
Learning Objectives
The contents of this chapter would enable the readers to:
• Be aware of the types and ranges of machin- • Understand selection of machine tool and
ing operations generally done in different cutting tool appropriate for the machining
machine tools of various configuration and requirements.
characteristics. • Design, build, select and employ various
• Be conversant with the various types of cutting feasible types of attachments for accom-
tools being used for different types of machin- plishing additional special machining oper-
ing operations in different machine tools. ations in different machine tools.

22.1 Introduction
A large number of machine tools of different types, sizes, classes, degree of automation, capacity and preci-
sion have gradually evolved to meet the rapidly and widely growing machining requirements and product
design. To accomplish such wide ranges of machining operations, obviously various types of cutting tools
are necessary. Appropriate cutting tool is to be selected based on the exact machining requirement. Accord-
ingly, the machine tools also need to be properly selected. For appropriate selection of cutting tool and
machine tool for specific machining requirement and product, one must be thoroughly conversant with the
availability of various cutting tools, their characteristics and applicability as well as the availabilities of dif-
ferent types of machine tools and their application ranges. Each type of machine tool is generally designed
and built for a particular type or set of operations. For example, centre lathes are generally used for turn-
ing, drilling, forming, threading, knurling, etc. However, some of the machine tools can often be used, if
required and feasible, for carrying out additional uncommon or unusual types of machining work incorpo-
rating some attachments specially designed for the purpose. Of course, use of attachments in conventional
machine tools is decreasing day-by-day after the advent of the flexibly automatic CNC machine tools and
versatile machining centres.

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 634 Machining and Machine Tools

22.2 General Applications of the Conventional Machine Tools

22.2.1 Machining Applications of Lathes
In various lathes, generally the following machining operations are accomplished:
1. Turning – both external and internal; straight, taper, stepped or any form.
2. Facing, chamfering, grooving, recessing, etc.
3. Centring (Fig. 22.1), drilling, boring and reaming (for finishing bores).
4. Threading – both external and internal and also radial (scroll), if required.
5. Knurling – for roughing handles, etc. to facilitate stronger grip.
6. Parting.
The cutting tools commonly used in lathes are as follows:
1. Turning tools:
(a) Shank type single-point HSS tools.
(b) Square, triangular, rhomboidal and round-shaped carbide and ceramic inserts for high speed
turning.
(c) cBN and diamond tipped tools.
2. Form tools: external and internal, HSS and carbides, shank and circular type.
3. Centre drills, ordinary straight and taper shank twist drills and also boring tools.
4. Facing, chamfering, grooving, recessing and parting tools.
5. Reamers: HSS, straight and helical fluted
(a) Solid reamers in centre lathes.
(b) Floating and expansion type in semi-automatic and automatic lathes.
6. Threading tools:
(a) For external screw threads,
• Single-point HSS or carbide tools mainly in centre lathes.
• Self-opening die in capstan lathes.
• Solid button die in automatic lathes.
(b) For internal screw threads,
• Single-point HSS or carbide tool in centre lathe.
• Taps of different types in different lathes.
Besides these common tools, some other tools like spot facing tool, shell milling cutter, etc. are also often
used in semi-automatic and automatic lathes. Knurling tools are used only for roughening cylindrical surfaces
as and when required. Non-automatic but versatile centre lathes are generally used for piece or job-order or
very small lot production. Semi-automatic lathes are used for batch production and automatic lathes for mass
or lot production.

22.2.2 Machining Applications of Drilling Machine

Drilling machines of different types and capacities are widely used in industries but for few specific purposes.
Drilling machines are mostly used for originating cylindrical holes in solid bodies. Generally, they are used for
some other purposes where different types of drills and tools are also used depending upon the work material
and shape, size and finish of the holes or allied features desired. However, the machining applications of drills
cover:

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 Machining Applications of Conventional Machine Tools 635

1. Originating in solid bodies, cylindrical holes, both

(a) Through type – mostly.
(b) Blind type – occasionally.
Those holes may be
(a) Straight – mostly.
(b) Stepped – occasionally.
(c) Taper – seldom.
2. Centre drilling (Fig. 22.1) in cylindrical blanks for supporting by centres.
3. Making rectangular section slots by using slot drills occasionally.
4. Enlarging diameter of existing holes.
5. Boring after drilling for accuracy and finish or prior to reaming.
6. Counter boring, counter sinking, chamfering and combination using suitable tools (Fig. 22.2).
7. Spot facing by flat end tools (Fig. 22.3).
8. Trepanning for getting wide and long through holes and a cylindrical core (Fig. 22.4).

Figure 22.1 Centre drilling by centre drill.

(a) (b)

Figure 22.2 (a) Counter boring and (b) counter sinking.

CM CM
Feed

Figure 22.3 Spot facing.

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 636 Machining and Machine Tools

CM
FM

Workpiece

Core

Trepanning tool
Hole

Cutting teeth

Figure 22.4 Trepanning in drilling machine.

In drilling machines mainly drills of different materials, shapes and sizes and some other tools are used
which can be classified:
1. According to material as
(a) High speed steel – most common.
(b) Cemented carbides
• In the form of brazed, clamped or solid.
• Without or with coating.
2. According to size as
(a) Large twist drills of diameter 30−40 mm.
(b) Micro-drills of diameter 0.10−2.00 μm.
(c) Medium range (more widely used) diameter ranging between 3 mm and 25 mm.
3. According to number of flutes as
(a) Two fluted – most common.
(b) Single flute – for example, gun drill (robust), generally used for deep-hole drilling.
(c) Three or four flutes – called slot drill.
4. According to helix angle of the flutes as
(a) Usual: 20° to 35° – most common.
(b) Large helix: 45° to 60° – suitable for deep holes and softer work materials.
(c) Small helix: for harder/stronger materials.

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 Machining Applications of Conventional Machine Tools 637

(d) Zero helix: spade drills for high production drilling, micro-drilling and for hard work materials.
5. According to length-to-diameter ratio as
(a) General (common): L/D = 5 to 10.
(b) Deep-hole drill: crank shaft drill, gun drill, etc. L/D > 10.
(c) Small length: centre drill.
6. According to shank as
(a) Straight shank: small size drill being held in drill chuck.
(b) Taper shank: medium-to-large size drills being fitted into the spindle nose directly or through
taper sockets.
7. According to specific applications as
(a) Centre drills for small axial hole with 60° taper end to accommodate lathe centre for support-
ing workpiece.
(b) Step drill and subland drill (Fig. 22.5) for small holes with two or three steps.
(c) Half round drill, gun drill and crank shaft drill (for making oil holes) (Fig. 22.6).
(d) Ejector drill for high speed drilling of large diameter holes.
(e) Taper drill for batch production of taper holes.
(f ) Trepanning tool for large holes in soft materials.
(g) Deep-hole drills without or with inner passage(s) for flow of pressurized cutting fluid.

22.2.3 Applications of Shaping Machines

It is already mentioned that shaping machines are neither productive nor versatile. However, their limited
applications include:
1. Machining flat surfaces in different planes: Figure 22.7 shows how flat surfaces are produced in shap-
ing machines by single-point cutting tools in (a) horizontal, (b) vertical and (c) inclined planes.

(a) (b)

Figure 22.5 (a) Stepped drill and (b) subland drill.

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 638 Machining and Machine Tools

(a) (b)

(c)

Figure 22.6 (a) Half round drill, (b) gun drill and (c) crank shaft drill.

CM
FM
FM CM

(a) (b)

FM CM FM CM

(c)

Figure 22.7 Machining of flat surfaces in shaping machines: (a) Horizontal surface, (b) vertical surface,
(c) inclined surfaces (dovetail slides and guides). Here CM is cutting motion and FM is
feed motion.

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 Machining Applications of Conventional Machine Tools 639

2. Making features like slots, steps, etc. which are also bounded by flat surfaces. Figure 22.8 visu-
alizes the methods of machining (a) slot, (b) pocket, (c) T-slot and (d) Vee-block in shaping
machine.
3. Forming grooves bounded by short width curved surfaces by using form tools. Figure 22.9 typically
shows how (a) oil grooves and (b) straight tooth of spur gears can be made in shaping machine, if
necessary.

FM CM CM FM

(a) (b) (c)

(d)

Figure 22.8 Machining: (a) Slotting, (b) pocketing, (c) T-slot cutting and (d) finishing Vee-block in
shaping machine.

(a) (b)

Figure 22.9 Making (a) Grooves and (b) gear teeth cutting in shaping machine by form tools.

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 640 Machining and Machine Tools

4. Some other machining applications of shaping machines are cutting external keyway and splines, slitting
or parting, cutting teeth of rack for repair, etc. using simple or form type single-point cutting tools.
Some unusual work can also be done, if needed, by developing and using special attachments. However,
due to very low productivity, less versatility and poor process capability, shaping machines are not employed
for lot and even batch production. Such low-cost primitive machine tools are used only for little or few
machining work on one or few pieces required for repair and maintenance work in small machine shops.

22.2.4 Applications of Planing Machines

The basic principles of machining by relative tool–work motions are quite similar in shaping machine and
planing machine. The fast straight cutting motion is provided by reciprocation of the job, and the slow, inter-
mittent transverse feed motions are imparted to the tool in planing machine. In respect of machining appli-
cations also these two machine tools are very close. All the operations done in shaping machine can be done
in planing machine. However, due to large size, large stroke length and higher rigidity, the planing machines
can undertake heavy duty work on large jobs and their long surfaces. Simultaneous use of a number of tools
further enhances the production capacity of planing machines. The usual and possible machining applica-
tions of planing machines include the following:
1. The common machining work shown in Fig. 22.7 − 22.9 which are also done in shaping machines.
2. Machining of features like the principal surfaces and guideways of beds and tables of various machines
such as lathes, milling machines, grinding machines, planing machines, broaching machines, etc. are the
common applications of planing machine (Fig. 22.10). Here several parallel surfaces of typical machine
bed and guideways are surfaced by a number of single-point HSS or carbide tools. Besides these, the
long parallel T-slots, Vee- and inverted Vee-type guideways are also machined in planing machines.
3. Besides the general machining work, some other critical work such as helical grooving on large rods,
long and wide 2-D curved surfaces, repetitive oil grooves, etc. can also be produced, if needed, by
using suitable special attachments.

FM FM

FM FM
FM

FM FM

Figure 22.10 Machining of a machine tool bed in planing machine.

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 Machining Applications of Conventional Machine Tools 641

22.2.5 Applications of Slotting Machine

Slotting machines are very similar to shaping machines in respect of machining principle and tool–work
motions. However, the characteristics of slotting machines are
1. Vertical tool reciprocation with downward cutting stroke.
2. Have longer stroke length.
3. Are less strong and rigid.
4. Contain an additional rotary feed motion of the worktable.
5. Are used mostly for machining internal surfaces.
The usual and possible machining applications of slotting machines are:
1. Internal flat surfaces.
2. Enlargement and/or finishing non-circular holes bounded by a number of flat surfaces as shown in
Fig. 22.11(a).
3. Blind geometrical holes like hexagonal socket [Fig. 22.11(b)].
4. Internal grooves and slots of rectangular and curved sections.
5. Occasionally, internal keyways and splines, straight tooth of internal spur gears, internal curved
surface of circular section, internal oil grooves, etc. which are usually not possible in shaping
machines.
However, it has to be borne in mind that productivity and process capability of slotting machines are very
poor and hence used mostly for piece production as required for maintenance and repair in small workshops.
Scope of use of slotting machine for production has been further reduced by regular use of high production
broaching machines.

22.2.6 Applications of Milling Machines

Milling machines are mostly general purpose and have wide range of applications requiring various types and
size of milling cutters. Intermittent cutting nature and usually complex geometry necessitate making the mill-
ing cutters mostly of HSS which is known for high tensile and transverse rupture strength, fracture toughness
and formability almost in all respects, that is, forging, rolling, powdering, welding, heat treatment, machining

(a) (b)

Figure 22.11 Typical machining application of slotting machine: (a) Through rectangular hole;
(b) hexagonal socket.

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 642 Machining and Machine Tools

(in annealed condition) and grinding. Tougher grade cemented carbides are also used with or without coat-
ing, where feasible, for high productivity and product quality. Milling cutters are broadly classified as
1. Profile sharpened cutters: Here the geometry of the machined surfaces are not related with the tool
shape, viz.,
(a) Slab or plain milling cutter – straight or helical fluted.
(b) Side milling cutters – single side or both sided type.
(c) Slotting cutter.
(d) Slitting or parting tools.
(e) End milling cutters – with straight or helical teeth.
(f ) Face milling cutters.
2. Form relieved cutters: Here the job profile becomes the replica of the tool form, for example
(a) General form cutters – for machining grooves of various sections.
(b) Gear (teeth) milling cutters.
(c) Spline shaft cutters.
(d) Tool form cutters.
(e) T-slot cutters.
(f ) Thread milling cutters.

22.2.6.1 General Machining Applications of Milling Machines

Using Profile Sharpened Cutters
The profile sharpened cutters are used for making flat surfaces or features bounded by a number of flat surface
only.

Slab or Plain Milling

Plain milling cutters are hollow straight HSS cylinder of 40−80 mm outer diameter having 4−16 straight
or helical equispaced flutes or cutting edges and are mounted in horizontal arbour to machine flat surface as
shown in Fig. 22.12.

Side and Slot Milling

These operations are done by using arbour mounted disc type cutters having a large number of cutting teeth
at equal spacing at the periphery in one or both the faces. One-sided cutters are used to produce one flat

Feed
Job Job

Figure 22.12 Machining flat surface by slab milling.

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 Machining Applications of Conventional Machine Tools 643

surface or steps comprising two flat surfaces at right angle as shown in Fig. 22.13. Both sided cutters are used
for making rectangular slots bounded by three flat surfaces. Slotting is also done by another similar cutter
having teeth only on the periphery. These cutters may be made from a single piece of HSS or its teeth may
be of carbide blades brazed on the periphery or clamped type uncoated or coated carbide inserts for high
production machining.

Slitting or Parting
These milling cutters (Fig. 22.13) are very similar to the slotting cutters (teeth on the periphery). However,
the slitting saws,
1. Are larger in diameter and very thin.
2. Possess large number of cutting teeth but of small size.
3. Are used only for slitting or parting.

End Milling
The shape and common applications of end milling cutters (profile sharpened type) are typically shown in
Fig. 22.14. The common features and characteristics of such cutters are as follows:
1. Are solid, unlike hollow slab milling cutter.
2. Are made of HSS or sintered carbide.
3. Have 4 − 12 straight or helical teeth on the periphery and face.
4. Diameter ranges from about 1 mm to 40 mm.
5. Are very versatile and widely used in vertical spindle type milling machines.
6. End milling cutters requiring larger diameter are made as a separate cutter, called shell mill, which is
fitted in the spindle through a taper shank arbour [Fig. 21.14(d)].

(a) Parallel facing by (b) Slotting by side (two)

two side (single) milling cutter
cutters

(c) Parting by slitting saw

Figure 22.13 Side milling cutters and slitting saw and their use.

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 644 Machining and Machine Tools

Spindle

Shank
End mill

(b) Angular milling

(c) Slot milling

(a) Face milling

Spindle

Shell milling cutter

Workpiece

(d) Shell milling

Figure 22.14 Milling operations using end milling cutters (a−c) and shell mill (d).

Face Milling
The shape, geometry and use of face milling cutters are typically shown in Fig. 22.15. The main features are
as follows:
1. Usually large in diameter (80−800 mm) and heavy.
2. Used only for machining flat surfaces in different orientations.
3. Mounted directly in the vertical and/or horizontal spindles.
4. Coated or uncoated carbide inserts are clamped at the outer edge of the carbon steel body.
5. Generally used for high production machining of large jobs.

Using Form Relieved Cutters

The distinguishing characteristics of such cutters, in contrast to profile sharpened cutters, are:
1. Form of the tool is exact replica of the job profile to be made.
2. Clearance or flank surfaces of the teeth are of Archimedean spiral shape instead of flat.
3. Teeth are re-sharpened by grinding the rake surface only.
4. Used for making 2-D and 3-D contour surfaces.
The configurations and applications of several form relieved type milling cutters of common use are briefly
presented.

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 Machining Applications of Conventional Machine Tools 645

(a) (b)

Figure 22.15 Face milling cutters and their working: (a) Solid HSS type; (b) carbide inserts at periph-
ery (courtesy: LMW, India).

Simple Form Milling

Disc type HSS cutters are generally used for making grooves or slots of various profiles as indicated in
Fig. 22.16. Form cutters may be also end mill type, for example, T-slot cutter (Fig. 22.17).

Gear Teeth Milling

In milling machines, the teeth of gears are produced by using disc type or end mill type HSS form cutters as
indicated in Fig. 22.18. The form of these tools conforms to the shape of the gear tooth-gaps bounded by two
involutes. Such form relieved cutters can be used for producing teeth of straight and helical toothed external
spur gears and worm wheels as well as straight toothed bevel gears.

Figure 22.16 Form milling cutters and their use.

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 646 Machining and Machine Tools

Figure 22.17 T-slot machining and cutter.

Cutter

Feed

Gear blank

(a) (b)

Figure 22.18 Gear milling cutters and their use: (a) Cutter configuration; (b) machining application.

Milling Spline Shaft

Disc type HSS form relieved cutters are used for producing the slots of external spline shafts having 4 to 8
straight axial ribs. Figure 22.19 typically shows such an application.

Milling Flutes of Cutting Tools

Form milling type cutters are also used widely for cutting slots or flutes of different cross-section, for example,
the flutes of twist drills (Fig. 22.20), milling cutters, reamers, etc., and gushing of hobs, taps, short thread
milling cutters, etc.

Thread Milling
Shank type solid HSS or carbide cutters having thread-like annular grooves with equispaced gushings are used
in automatic single purpose milling machines for cutting the threads in large lot production of small screws,
bolts, etc. (Fig. 22.21). Both internal and external threads can be produced by thread milling.

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 Machining Applications of Conventional Machine Tools 647

Figure 22.19 Spline shaft cutter.

Figure 22.20 Cutting of drill flutes by form milling cutter.

Axial feed

Figure 22.21 Short thread milling.

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 648 Machining and Machine Tools

22.2.6.2 Some Other Applications of Milling Machines Using Suitable

Milling Cutters
Straddle Milling
For faster and accurate machining two parallel vertical surfaces at a definite distance, two separate side milling
cutters are mounted at appropriate distance on the horizontal milling arbour as shown in Fig. 22.22.

Gang Milling
Gang milling is employed for quick production of complex contours comprising a number of parallel flat or
curved surfaces. A proper combination of several cutters is mounted tightly on the same horizontal milling
arbour as indicated in Fig. 22.23.

Figure 22.22 Straddle milling.

Cutters

Workpiece

Figure 22.23 Gang milling.

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 Machining Applications of Conventional Machine Tools 649

Turning by Rotary Tools (Milling Cutters)

During turning like operations in large, heavy and odd-shaped jobs, the jobs’ its speed (rpm) is essentially
kept low. For enhancing productivity and better cutting fluid action, rotary tools like milling cutters are used
as indicated in Fig. 22.24. Such milling operation is generally done in lathe.

Free Form Milling by Ball Nose Cutter

Small HSS or carbide end mill cutters with hemispherical end( Fig. 22.25) is used in CNC milling machines
and machining centres for machining free form 3-D or 2-D contoured surfaces.
Beside the aforesaid applications, versatile milling machines are also employed for many other machining
works such as cam milling, keyway cutting, making hob cutter, etc.

(a)

(c) (b)

Figure 22.24 Turning by rotary milling cutters.

Figure 22.25 Ball nose end mills.

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 650 Machining and Machine Tools

22.2.7 Machining Applications of Broaching Machines

Broaching is characterized by high production rate and very good dimensional accuracy and surface finish.
The broaching machines as well as the broaching tools are highly expensive. So, broaching is justifiably
employed for large lot and mass production. Broaching machines have number of various machining applica-
tions using different types of broaching tools (or simply, broaches). Broaching tools are classified in several
aspects, such as
1. Internal broaching or external broaching.
2. Pull type (longer) or push type (shorter).
3. Ordinary cut or progressive cut.
4. Solid, sectional or module type.
5. Profile sharpened or form relieved type.

22.2.7.1 External Broaching

External surface(s) broaching competes with milling, shaping, planing and slotting and, wherever feasible,
outperforms these processes in both productivity and product quality. The major applications of external
broaching include
1. Machining unobstructed outer surfaces: flat, peripheral and contoured.
2. Grooves, slots, keyways, etc. on free surfaces.
3. Teeth of racks and small external spur gears as indicated in Fig. 22.26.
4. Axial grooves of spline shafts.

22.2.7.2 Internal Broaching

Internal broaching tools are used to enlarge and finish various contours in through holes preformed by cast-
ing, forging, rolling, drilling, punching, etc. Internal broaching tools are mostly pull type but may be push
type also for lighter work. Pull type internal broaching tools are generally provided with a set of roughing
teeth followed by few semi-finishing teeth and then some finishing teeth which may also include a few bur-
nishing teeth at the end. The wide range of internal broaching tools and their applications include

Broach
Gear

Cutting stroke

Figure 22.26 Machining external gear teeth by broaching.

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 Machining Applications of Conventional Machine Tools 651

1. Through holes of different form and dimensions.

2. Non-circular holes and internal slots.
3. Internal keyway and splines.
4. Teeth of straight and helical fluted internal spur gears.

22.2.8 Applications of the Gear Teeth Generating (by Machining)

Machines
Teeth of various types of gears are generated in
1. Sunderland machine using rack type cutter.
2. Hobbing machines.
3. Gear shaping machines.
4. Bevel gear generators.
5. Hypoid gear generating machines.
The general and occasional applications of these machine tools are as follows:
1. Sunderland machines: These are used for generation of straight and single helical teeth of racks, gear
sectors, external spur gears and cluster gears. The teeth of double helical spur gears or herring bone
gears are also produced in this machine.
2. Hobbing machines: These are used for generation of teeth of straight and single helical external spur
gears, gear sectors, spiral gears and worm wheels. The grooves of spline shafts are also produced in
some hobbing machine using suitable tool.
3. Gear shaping machines: These are used for generation of straight and helical teeth of both exter-
nal and internal spur gears and cluster gears. Besides that, the grooves of both external splines and
internal splines are also produced in this machine tool. The profiles of various plate cams can also be
generated in gear shaping machine having suitable systems.
4. Bevel gear generators: There are different types of bevel gear generating machines which can pro-
duce
(a) Straight toothed bevel gears.
(b) Helical toothed bevel gears.
(c) Skewed bevel gears.
(d) Hypoid gears.

22.3 Special Applications of Conventional Machine Tools Using

Various Attachments
22.3.1 Definition and Need of Attachments
Each general-purpose conventional machine tool is designed and used for a set of specific machining work on
jobs of limited range of shape and size. However, often some unusual work also needs to be done in a specific
machine tool, for example, milling in a lathe, tapping in a drilling machine, gear teeth cutting in shaping
machine and so on. For such purposes, some special devices/systems are additionally used in the ordinary
machine tools which augment the processing capability of any ordinary machine tool – known as attach-
ments. Unlike accessories, attachments are not inevitable and are procured separately as and when required

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 652 Machining and Machine Tools

and obviously on extra payment. Some attachments being used in the general-purpose conventional machine
tools are:
1. In centre lathes:
(a) Taper turning attachment.
(b) Copy turning attachment.
(c) Milling and cylindrical grinding attachments.
(d) Spherical turning attachment.
(e) Relieving attachment.
2. In drilling machines:
(a) Tapping attachment.
3. In shaping machines:
(a) Double cut tool head.
(b) Thread rolling attachment.
(c) Matterson’s attachment (gear teeth cutting).
4. In planing machines:
(a) Contour forming attachment.
(b) Helical grooving attachment.
(c) Oil grooving attachment.
(d) Milling and grinding attachments (heads).
5. In milling machines:
(a) Universal milling attachment.
(b) Indexing/dividing head.
(c) Slotting attachment.

22.3.2 Conditions Favourable for Application of Attachments in

Machine Tools
With the rapid advancement of science and technology, the manufacturing systems including machine
tools are becoming more and more versatile and productive on one hand for large lot or mass production
and, on the other hand, are becoming flexibly automatic having high precision required for production
of more critical components in pieces or small batches. With the increase of versatility and precision
(e.g., CNC machines) and the advent of dedicated high productive special purpose machines, the need
of use of special attachments is gradually decreasing. However, some attachments are occasionally still
being used in some non-automatic general-purpose machine tools in small- and medium-scale machining
industries:
1. When and where machining facilities are limited.
2. When production requirement is very small, may be few pieces.
3. When product changes frequently as per job order.
4. For repair work under maintenance, especially when spare parts are not available.
5. When CNC machine tools and even reasonable number of conventional machine tools cannot be
afforded.
Therefore, use of aforesaid attachments is restricted to manufacture of unusual jobs in small quantities
under limited facilities and at low cost.

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 Machining Applications of Conventional Machine Tools 653

22.3.3 Working Principles and Application of Various Attachments in

Different Machine Tools
22.3.3.1 Attachments Used in Centre Lathes
Taper Turning Attachment
Taper cylindrical surface, which is a very common feature of several engineering components, is generally
produced in lathes using a number of methods, depending upon length and angle of the tapered portion of
the job. These methods include offsetting tailstock, swiveling the compound slide using form tool and com-
bined (longitudinal and cross) feed motions. Reasonably wide ranges of length and angle of taper are possible
to be produced by using a simple attachment, called taper turning attachment. Figure 22.27 schematically
shows a taper turning attachment where the cross slide is delinked from the saddle and is moved crosswise
by the guide block which moves along the guide bar preset at the desired taper angle. Thus, the cutting tool,
which is fitted on the cross slide through the tool post and the compound slide, also moves along with the
guide in the same direction resulting in the desired taper turning.

Copy Turning Attachment

There are two common types of copy turning: (a) mechanical type and (b) hydraulic type. We will discuss
them next.

Mechanical Copying
A simple mechanical type copy turning attachment is schematically shown in Fig. 22.28. The entire attach-
ment is mounted on the saddle after removing the cross slide from the saddle. The template replicating
the desired job profile is clamped at a suitable position on the bed. The stylus is fitted in the spring loaded
tool slide and while travelling longitudinally along with saddle, moves in transverse direction according
to the template profile enabling the cutting tool to produce the same profile on the job as visualized in
Fig. 22.28.

Guide bar

Guide block

Bracket
Lathe bed

Saddle

Cross slide

Figure 22.27 Taper turning attachment.

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 654 Machining and Machine Tools

Body
Lathe bed guide

Stylus

Template

Spring loaded tool slide

Figure 22.28 Mechanical type copying attachment.

Hydraulic Copying Attachment

The mounting and working principle of hydraulic copying attachment for profile turning in centre lathe
are schematically shown in Fig. 22.29. Here also, the stylus moves along the template profile to replicate it
on the job. In mechanical system (Fig. 22.28) the heavy cutting force is transmitted at the tip of the stylus,
which causes vibration, large friction and faster wear and tear. Such problems are almost absent in hydraulic
copying, where the stylus works simply as a valve-spool against a light spring and is not affected by the cut-
ting force. Hydraulic copying attachment is costlier than the mechanical type but works much smoothly and
accurately. The cutting tool is rigidly fixed on the cross slide which also acts as a valve-cum-cylinder. As long
as the stylus remains on a straight edge parallel to the lathe bed, the cylinder does not move transversely and
the tool causes straight turning. As soon as the stylus starts moving along a slope or profile (i.e., in cross-feed
direction) the ports open and the cylinder starts moving accordingly against the piston fixed on the saddle.
Again the movement of the cylinder (i.e., the slide holding the tool), by the same amount travelled by the

Lathe bed

Stylus
Template Lead screw

Figure 22.29 Hydraulic copying attachment.

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 Machining Applications of Conventional Machine Tools 655

stylus, closes the ports. Repeating of such quick incremental movements of the tool, Δx and Δy result in the
profile with insignificant surface roughness.

Milling Attachment
It is a milling head, comprising a motor, a small gear box and a spindle to hold the milling cutter. The milling
head is mounted on the saddle after removing the cross slide, etc. as shown in Fig. 22.30(a). Milling attach-
ments may be used for making flat surfaces, straight and helical grooves, splines, etc. in centre lathes. Long
thread milling is also done in centre lathes by using an attachment to produce long and deep screw threads,
large lead screws, press screws, worm, etc. [Fig. 22.30(b)].

Grinding Attachment
Grinding attachment is very similar to milling attachment. However, in the former, there is no gear box
and the spindle speed is much higher as needed for grinding operation. Such attachments are employed
for external and internal cylindrical grinding, finishing grooves, splines, etc. and also for finish grinding of
screw threads in centre lathe. But unlike dedicated machines, attachments cannot provide high accuracy and
finish.

Spherical Turning Attachments

These simple attachments are used in centre lathes for machining spherical (both convex and concave) sur-
faces and similar surfaces. Figure 22.31 schematically visualizes the usual setting and working principle of
such attachments. In Fig. 22.31(b), the distance R can be set according to the radius of curvature desired. In
the type shown in Fig. 22.31(a), the desired path of the tool tip is controlled by the profile of the template

Milling cutter

Milling attachment
Workpiece

Saddle

Lathe bed

(a) (b)

Figure 22.30 Milling attachment used in lathe: (a) Facing and slotting; (b) long thread milling.

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 656 Machining and Machine Tools

Saddle
Cross slide

Template

Tailstock

Lathe bed

(a)

Saddle

Ri Saddle Ri

(b)

Figure 22.31 Spherical turning attachments: (a) With template; (b) without template.

which is pre-made as per the radius of curvature required. The saddle is disconnected from the feed rod and
the leadscrew. So when the cross slide is moved manually in transverse direction, the tool moves axially freely
being guided by the template only.

Relieving Attachment
The teeth of form relieved milling cutters such as gear milling cutters, taps, hobs, etc. are provided with flank
having Archimedean spiral curvature. Machining and grinding of such curved flanks of the teeth need reliev-
ing motion of the tool (or wheel) as indicated in Fig. 22.32(a). The attachment [shown in Fig. 22.32(b)]
comprises a spring loaded bracket which holds the cutting tool and is radially reciprocated on the saddle by a
plate cam driven by the feed rod as shown. Similar attachments can also be used for finish-machining of the
lobes of various types of plate cams.

Thread Pitch Correction Attachment

While cutting screw thread in centre lathes by single-point chasing tool, often the actual pitch (pa) deviates
from the desired (or stipulated) pitch (ps) by an error (say ± Δp) due to some kinematic error in the lathe.
Mathematically,
ps − pa = ± Δp (22.1)

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 Machining Applications of Conventional Machine Tools 657

Pin
Cam

Saddle
Tool
Milling cutter Lathe bed
Feed rod
(a) (b)

Figure 22.32 Relieving attachment used in lathe: (a) Principle; (b) attachment.

Therefore for correct pitch, the error ± Δp needs to be compensated and this can be done by a simple differ-
ential mechanism, namely correcting bar attachment, as shown in Fig. 22.33. In Eq. (22.1),
pa = 1 × Uc × L

± Δp = ps tan(± α)L/(pmZ) (22.2)

where Uc is the transmission ratio; L is the lead of the leadscrew; m and Z are the module and number of teeth
of the gear which is fixed with the nut and is additionally rotated slightly by the movement of the rack along
the bar. Such differential mechanism of this attachment can also be used for cutting thread whose pitch will
be slightly more or less than the standard pitch. This may be required for making differential screws having
threads of slightly different pitch at two different locations of the screw.

ps

Saddle
Uc

Lathe bed

L
a°
Nut cum pinion

Rack

Correcting bar

Figure 22.33 Thread pitch correcting attachment used in centre lathe.

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 658 Machining and Machine Tools

22.3.3.2 Attachments Used in Drilling Machines

Tapping Attachment
It has been mentioned earlier that several machining work other than drilling can also be done in drilling
machine using different types of cutting tools and job holding devices. Tapping of nuts for their internal
threads is also often done in a drilling machine by using tapping attachment as shown in Fig. 22.34. Return
of the tap by reverse rotation of the spindle without damage of the thread and tap is the most critical design.
Figure 22.34(a) visualizes that the spring loaded sliding clutch engages with the free tapping clutch during
threading. The clearance between the jaws of the two clutches and the spring action enable safe return of the
tap following that of the spindle. Figure 22.34(b) shows another faster working tapping system where the
hexagonal blanks are fed one by one and the tapping unit, rotating at a constant speed in the same direction,
moves only up and down for ejecting the threaded nuts by centrifugal force.

22.3.3.3 Attachments Used in Shaping Machine

Some attachments are often used for extending the working capability of shaping machine and also for get-
ting some unusual work done in ordinary shaping machine.
Attachment for Double Cut
This simple attachment is rigidly mounted on the vertical face of the ram replacing the clapper box. It com-
prises a fixed body with two working flat surfaces and a swing type tool holder having two tools on either faces

(a) (b)

Figure 22.34 Tapping attachment used in drilling machine.

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 Machining Applications of Conventional Machine Tools 659

as shown in Fig. 22.35. The tool holder is tilted by a spring loaded lever which is moved by mechanical stops
at the end of its strokes. Such attachment simply enhances the productivity by utilizing both the strokes for
cutting action in shaping machines (and also possible in planing machine).

Thread Rolling Attachment

The threads of fasteners are made by mass production methods. Thread rolling is hardly done now-a-days in
shaping machines. The configuration, mounting and the working principle of an attachment used for thread
rolling in shaping machine are visualized in Fig. 22.36. In between the flat dies, one fixed and one reciprocat-
ing, the blanks are pushed and thread-rolled one by one.

Figure 22.35 Double cut attachment used in shaping machine.

Figure 22.36 Thread rolling attachment used in shaping machine.

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 660 Machining and Machine Tools

Matterson’s Attachment
Various machines and processes have been developed for producing gear teeth with high productivity and
job quality. Gear teeth are hardly produced now-a-days in shaping machines. However, if required, it may
be occasionally done by shaping machine in some small tool room or small workshop especially for repair
and maintenance work. One or two, even all, teeth of a gear may be cut by forming tool in shaper using an
indexing head. However, such forming, especially in shaper, is not only a very slow process but also not at
all accurate. But Matterson’s attachment can produce gear (spur) teeth reasonably precisely even in shaping
machine by generation process. The working principle of the attachment is shown in Fig. 22.37. For gen-
eration of the tooth by rolling action, the blank is rotated and the bed is travelled simultaneously at same
linear speed by the synchronized kinematics as indicated in the diagram. After completing one tooth gap,
both the tool and blank are returned to their initial positions and then after indexing the blank for one tooth
gap, the tool–work motions are repeated for the next teeth. The necessary condition of the motions for such
generation is

V = wDp/2

where V is the linear feed of the worktable (mm/min), w is the angular speed of rotation of the blank, Dp is
the pitch circle diameter of the gear blank.

22.3.3.4 Attachments Used in Planing Machines

Contour Forming Attachment
This simple and low cost attachment may be used in planing machine for producing 2-D form of circular
section in long heavy tables or beds as indicated in Fig. 22.38(a). The basic working principle is shown in
Fig. 22.38(b). The concave circular arc form is produced by a swinging bar hinged at the upper bracket and
connected with one tool head which is manually or automatically moved axially by the horizontal leadscrew.
The horizontal rail is kept delinked from the vertical leadscrews. The horizontal feed alone will move the
tool-tip in circular path with the help of the swing bar. Similarly, with slight modification the convex form
can also be made.

Blank
(before cut)
Shaping tool
Gear blank
(after cut)

Bracket Spockets
Worktable
Bed

Figure 22.37 Matterson’s attachment for gear teeth generation in shaping machine.

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 Machining Applications of Conventional Machine Tools 661

(a)

(b)

Figure 22.38 Contour forming attachment used in planing machine: (a) Job configuration;
(b) attachment.

Helical Grooving Attachment

Long lead helical grooves on large rod type jobs can be done easily and inexpensively in a planing machine
by using a simple attachment as shown in Fig. 22.39. During the forward (cutting) strokes of the worktable,
the swing bar gradually descends and causes slow rotation of the workpiece (rod) along with axial travel of the
rod against the cutting tool. This results in the formation of a helical groove. By indexing the job, a number
of grooves can be cut.

Other Attachments Used in Planing Machine

1. Shallow oil grooves of various patterns can be cut on the flat surfaces of large tables or beds of large
machineries by replacing the stationary fixed single-point tool(s) with a rotary tool driven by a sepa-
rate motor.
2. Hydraulic tracer control type attachments are often used in planing machines for making complex
shaped 2-D contours on large components. The form of the template is replicated on the product as
described in the case of hydraulic copying lathe.
3. Milling and grinding attachments.

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 662 Machining and Machine Tools

Workpiece

Swing bar

Figure 22.39 Attachment in planing machine for cutting long lead helical grooves.

Both productivity and process capability of conventional planing machines are low for use of single-
point tools. Productivity and finish are substantially increased by replacing those single-point tool heads by
milling and grinding heads on the horizontal and vertical rails. Such powered heads with rotary tools led
to development of high productive plano-millers and plano-grinders which are widely used in the present
industries.

22.3.3.5 Attachments Used in Milling Machines

Universal Milling Attachment
Amongst the conventional milling machines, horizontal arbour type is very common. In this machine, vari-
ous types and sizes of milling cutters, viz. plain or slab milling cutters and disc type cutters including single
and double side(s) cutter, slot cutter, form cutters, gear milling cutters, slitting cutter, etc. having axial bore
are mounted on the horizontal arbour. For milling by solid end mill type and face milling cutters, separate
vertical axis type milling machines are available. Horizontal arbour type milling machines can also be used for
operations done by end milling and small face milling cutters, by using a suitable attachment. Figure 22.40
shows a typical universal milling attachment. The rotation of the horizontal spindle is transmitted into rota-
tion of the cutter about vertical and also in any inclined direction by this attachment which thus extends the
processing capabilities and application range of the milling machine.

Indexing or Dividing Head

This device is needed and used very frequently and widely. Therefore, it is also considered as an accessory. It is
taken as an attachment because it can be procured separately. This attachment is basically used for equi-angu-
lar rotation by simple, compound or differential indexing of the job desirably. Figure 22.41 shows a universal
type dividing head and its mounting and an application.

Rotary Table
This device may also be considered as an accessory or attachment and is generally used in milling machines
for both offline and online indexing or rotation of the job, clamped on it, about vertical axis. Figure 22.42
visualizes such a rotary table which is clamped or mounted on the machine bed or table.

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 Machining Applications of Conventional Machine Tools 663

X
Y

Figure 22.40 Universal milling attachment.

Figure 22.41 A universal type dividing head and its application.

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 664 Machining and Machine Tools

Figure 22.42 A rotary table which can be clamped or mounted on the machine bed.

Slotting Attachment
Such simple and low cost attachment is mounted on the horizontal spindle for producing internal keyways
and contoured surface requiring linear travel of single-point tool in milling machine when slotting machine
and broaching machine are not available. The configuration of such a slotting attachment and its mounting
and operation can be seen in Fig. 22.43. The mechanism inside converts rotation of the spindle into recipro-
cation of the single-point tool in vertical direction. The direction of the tool path can also be tilted by swivel-
ing the circular base of the attachment body.
There are several other possible attachments which can be designed, built and used for some specific appli-
cations which are not included in the basic range of a particular machine tool. New attachments can also be
developed if so demanded. But need and use of attachments are gradually decreasing for rapid developments
in various types of machine tools and more so after the advent of CNC machine tools with flexible automa-
tion and versatility.

Tool
Blank

Figure 22.43 Slotting attachment used in milling machine.

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 Machining Applications of Conventional Machine Tools 665

SU M M A R Y
There are few hundred types of machine tools of dif- in detail. The cutting tools used to accomplish those
ferent constructional features, functional character- machining operations in different machine tools
istics, size, capacity, types and degree of automation, have also been presented in this chapter.
precision and applicability, which essentially evolved The conventional machine tools also can be, and
to meet the gradually expanding ranges of machin- are often, used to do some additional unusual op-
ing requirements and product design. To meet these erations, if feasible and needed, by incorporating
demands of various machining operations, several suitable attachments in those machine tools. The de-
cutting tools of different materials, shapes, sizes and sign, working principle and possible applications of
geometries are required and made available. For several such attachments have been described with
effective, efficient and economic machining, appro- ample illustrations.
priate machine and cutting tools are essential. Each Performance of the machine and the cutting tools
machine tool is designed, built and generally used in respect of productivity and process capability sig-
for a particular set of machining operations. The nificantly depends upon the perfect and firm hold-
ranges of machining operations generally carried out ing of the tools and the blanks in the machine tools.
in the different machine tools have been described The next chapter addresses this issue.

M U L T I P L E CH O I C E QU E S T I O N S
[Answers are provided in the CD]
1. External screw threads are never produced in (b) Drilling machine
(a) Automatic lathes (c) Broaching machine
(b) Centre lathes machines (d) None of the above
(c) Milling machines 6. Large through cylindrical holes are originated
(d) Broaching machines in drilling machine using
2. Knurling operation is done in (a) Boring tool
(a) Lathe (b) Counter boring tool
(b) Drilling machines (c) Counter sinking tool
(c) Milling machines (d) Trepanning tool
(d) Slotting machines 7. The machine tool, which is not used to finish
3. Straight cylindrical holes are finished by Vee-block (surfaces) is
(a) Drilling (a) Centre lathe
(b) Reaming (b) Shaping machine
(c) Forming (c) Milling machine
(d) Centring (d) Planing machine
4. External screw threads are produced in cap- 8. The machine tool, which is becoming obso-
stan lathes using lete, is
(a) Split die (a) Centre lathe
(b) Multiple-point chaser (b) Drilling machine
(c) Self-opening die (c) Shaping machine
(d) Solid button die (d) Milling machine
5. The diameter of existing holes cannot be en- 9. Large lathe-bed casting can be finished by ma-
larged in chining in minimum time in
(a) Centre lathe (a) Shaping machine

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 666 Machining and Machine Tools

(b) Milling machine (a) Taper turning attachment

(c) Plano-miller (b) Relieving attachment
(d) Planing machine (c) Spherical turning attachment
10. The internal keyway of gears, during their (d) Copy turning attachment
mass production, is done in 16. For producing the internal threads of nuts, a
(a) Broaching machine tapping attachment is used in
(b) Slotting machine (a) Drilling machine
(c) Shaping machine (b) Milling machine
(d) Vertical spindle milling machine (c) Planning machine
11. Large (wide and long) flat surfaces are semi- (d) Shaping machine
finished by 17. For producing external threads on small
(a) Plain milling machine screws in mass production, a thread
(b) End milling rolling attachment is used in
(c) Shell milling (a) Centre lathe
(d) Face milling (b) Shaping machine
12. The milling cutter which is ‘form relieved’ (c) Planing machine
type is (d) Slotting machine
(a) T-slot cutter 18. Straight teeth of spur gear can be produced by
(b) Gear (teeth) milling cutter generation using Matterson’s attachment in
(c) Face milling cutter (a) Centre lathe
(d) End milling cutter (b) Shaping machine
13. The helical teeth of internal spur gears are not (c) Planing machine
produced in (d) Milling machine
(a) Broaching machine 19. Universal dividing head used in machine tools
(b) Gear hobbing machine is a
(c) Gear shaping machine (a) Mechanism
(d) Slotting machine (b) Device
14. Gear hobbing machine produces the teeth of (c) Attachment
(a) Straight toothed spur gear (d) Any of the above
(b) Helical (single) toothed spur gear (e) None of the above
(c) Worm wheel 20. Slottting attachment is used in
(d) All of the above (a) Centre lathe
(e) None of the above (b) Slotting machine
15. The curved (archemedian spiral) flank surfaces (c) Drilling machine
of the teeth of disc type gear milling cutters are (d) Milling machine
produced in lathe using

R E V I E W QU E S T I O N S
1. List the types of machining operations that are generally used in lathes and state their pur-
done in various types of lathes. poses of use.
2. Name the different machining operations that 4. Mention the common and other feasible ma-
are generally conducted in centre lathes. chining operations which are accomplished in
3. Name the different cutting tools which are drilling machines.

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 Machining Applications of Conventional Machine Tools 667

5. Classify the cutting tools that are used in drill- 21. Mention various special attachments and state
ing machines and state their purposes of use. their applications in centre lathes.
6. Show, by a sketch, centre drilling operation 22. Describe briefly with proper diagrams the
and state its use. principle of functioning of hydraulic copy
7. Describe briefly with the help of simple turning attachment.
sketches the process of counter boring, spot 23. How are the large screw threads of long lead
facing and trepanning that are done in drilling screws produced in centre lathe? Also briefly
machines. state the working principle of such process and
8. Show by simple sketches the machining opera- system.
tions usually done in shaping machine. 24. Describe briefly the method of turning spheri-
9. State the various machining applications of cal surfaces by using suitable attachments in
shaping machines. Also state why shaping ma- centre lathes.
chines are becoming obsolete. 25. State the purposes of using relieving attach-
10. State the differences of machining applications ment in centre lathe. Also describe briefly the
of shaping machines and planning machines. method of working of such attachment.
11. Briefly illustrate how the various long, straight 26. How is it possible to cut in a centre lathe screw
and parallel features (surfaces) of lathe bed are threads of pitch slightly different from any
produced by machining in planing machine. standard pitch?
12. What are the usual machining applications of 27. Show and describe how the internal threads
slotting machines? How are slotting machines of nuts in its lot production, are produced in
different from shaping and planing machines drilling machine using suitable attachment.
w.r.t. applications? 28. While mass production of small machine
13. State the general machining applications of screws, their threads are often produced by
conventional milling machines. using a thread rolling attachment in a shap-
14. Classify milling cutters and give example of ing machine. Visualize the construction and
each type of milling cutter. describe the working method of any such
15. How are “profile sharpened” type milling cut- attachment.
ters different from “form relieved” type cutters 29. Show and explain how one or more teeth of a
in respect of shape, re-sharpening and applica- straight toothed spur gear is/are produced by
tions? method of generation using any attachment in
16. How are the straight teeth of spur gears and a shaping machine.
bevel gears produced in milling machines? 30. Describe briefly the principle of producing
17. Describe briefly how external screw threads of straight teeth of spur gear by using a Matter-
small products in lot are produced by milling son’s attachment in a shaping machine.
process. 31. How can helical grooves be cut on the periph-
18. State the purpose of gang milling and briefly ery of a large rod in a planing machine?
describe the process with the help of a suitable Describe briefly with the help of a suitable
sketch. diagram.
19. When and why are some special attachments 32. State and briefly explain how the capability
used in conventional machine tools? range of a commonly used Knee type milling
20. Describe briefly with the help of a suitable dia- machine is extended by using various attach-
gram the construction and working principle ments.
of taper turning attachment.

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MAMT_Chapter 22.indd 668 7/21/2011 11:56:32 AM
 23 Methods of Mounting Blanks
and Cutting Tools in Machine
Tools
Learning Objectives
The contents of this chapter would enable the readers to:
• Conceive and follow the principles and the • Select the appropriate device and method of
conditions to be fulfilled for proper mounting mounting the job and the tool depending
and fixing of the workpiece and the cutting tool upon the type of the job and tool to be used,
in the machine tool before machining. the machining operation to be conducted
• Be conversant with the different devices and and the machine tool.
methods which are currently available and • Be familiar with the implementation of the dif-
being widely used for mounting jobs and tools ferent methods of mounting cutting tools and
in different machine tools for various machin- blanks in fixed and flexibly automatic machine
ing requirements. tools and different grinding machines.

23.1 Introduction
Machining in any machine tool needs proper positioning, firm gripping and desired motions of the job and
the tool. Mounting and gripping of the workpiece and the cutting tools plays a vital role on the perfection
of the machining work and hence on the overall productivity and product quality, or process capability.
While mounting any workpiece for machining, an appropriate job-holding device and method need to be
selected based on the type and configuration of the machine tool, size and shape of that workpiece, machin-
ing requirements and the rate and precision of the targeted production. Besides these, correct location, strong
support and rigid clamping of the blank, ease and quickness of mounting and even unobstructed chip flow
and cutting fluid application are also essentially considered while mounting a job in a machine tool. Similarly,
several factors need to be considered while selecting the method of rigid and accurate mounting of cutting
tools based on their type, shape and size. The designers and the users of machine tools need to be aware of
the various existing methods and systems of mounting different tools in different machine tools including
grinding machines and both fixed and modern flexibly automatic machine tools. This chapter addresses these
aspects.

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 670 Machining and Machine Tools

23.2 Mounting Blanks and Cutting Tools in Machine Tools

The workpiece or blank and the cutting tools essentially need to be properly mounted in the machine tool
to achieve the desired functioning of the machining system. Generally, the following principles are followed
and the conditions maintained:
1. While mounting the job or blank in the machine tool
(a) An appropriate work-holding device or system from the available resources needs to be selected
based on the
• Configuration of the machine tool.
• Shape, size and weight of the blank.
• Kind of machining work to be done.
• Order of dimensional accuracy desired.
• Volume (number of same job) of production.
(b) Correct location, strong support and rigid clamping of the blank against the cutting and other
forces is essential.
(c) Easy and quick loading and unloading to and from the machine tool or the holding device is
required.
(d) Proper alignment like coaxiality, concentricity, etc. of rotating jobs is a must.
(e) Free flow of chips and cutting fluid needs to be ensured.
2. While mounting the cutting tools
(a) An appropriate tool holder needs to be selected and the tool must be properly fixed in it.
(b) Proper positioning and orientation of the tool should be done depending upon its.
• Type.
• Size and shape.
• Geometry.
• Proper alignment in respect of coaxially, concentricity and machine tool configuration.
• Accuracy and ability to quickly locate strongly support and clamp rigidly. Minimization of
run out and deflection during cutting operation.
• Easy and quick mounting and replacement.
• Unobstructed chip flow and cutting fluid action.

23.3 General Methods of Mounting Blanks and Cutting Tools in

Different Machine Tools
23.3.1 Mounting of Blanks and Tools in Lathes
23.3.1.1 Mounting in Centre Lathes
Mounting of Jobs or Workpieces in Centre Lathes
Jobs requiring no support from the tailstock are usually mounted in
1. Three-jaw self-centering chuck.
2 Four-independent jaw chuck.

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 Methods of Mounting Blanks and Cutting Tools in Machine Tools 671

3. Face plate.
4. Jigs and fixtures.
Figure 23.1 typically shows the three-jaw and four-jaw chucks which are mounted at the spindle nose
and firmly hold the job. Pre-machined round bars are quickly and coaxially fitted in the three-jaw chuck by
simultaneously moving the three jaws radially by rotating the scroll (disc with radial threads) using a key as
can be seen in Fig. 23.1.
Four-jaw chucks are available in varying sizes and are generally used for strongly holding non-circular bars
such as square, rectangular, hexagonal and even more irregular sectional jobs in addition to cylindrical bars,
both with and without pre-machining at the gripping portion. The jaws are moved radially and indepen-
dently by rotating the corresponding screws.
For turning, facing, boring, threading and similar operations, jobs of odd shape and size are usually
mounted on large face plate (instead of a chuck) which is fitted on the spindle nose as shown in Fig. 23.2.
The job may be (a) directly clamped on the face plate or (b) in a fixture which is clamped on the face plate in
batch or small lot production.

Figure 23.1 Holding jobs in centre lathes by three-jaw and four-jaw chucks.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 23.2 Mounting of odd-shaped jobs on a face plate in a centre lathe for boring.

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 672 Machining and Machine Tools

Jobs requiring support from the tailstock are mounted

1. In between the centres.
2. In between the chuck and centre.
3. In between the headstock and the tailstock with additional support of rest.
Figure 23.3 schematically shows how long slender rods are held in between the live centre fitted into the
spindle and the dead centre fitted in the quill of the tailstock. The torque and rotation are transmitted from
the spindle to the job with the help of a lathe dog or catcher which is again driven by a driving plate fitted at
the spindle nose.
Depending upon the situation or requirement, different types of centres are used at the tailstock end as
indicated in Fig. 23.4. A revolving centre is preferably used when it is desired to avoid sliding friction between
the job and the centre which also rotates along with the job.
Heavy and reasonably long jobs which have large diameters and require heavy cuts (cutting forces) are
essentially held strongly and rigidly in the chuck at headstock with support from the tailstock through a re-
volving centre as can be seen in Fig. 23.5.

Driving plate
Lathe dog

Lathe dog

Figure 23.3 Mounting bar type job in between centres in centre lathe.

(a) (b) (c)

Dead centres

(d) Revolving centre

Figure 23.4 Type of dead centres and revolving centre being fitted in the quill of the tailstock.

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 Methods of Mounting Blanks and Cutting Tools in Machine Tools 673

Figure 23.5 A job mounted in between the chuck and the centre in a centre lathe
(courtesy: IIT Kharagpur).

During machining, to prevent deflection of long slender jobs like feed rod, lead screw, etc. due to sagging
and cutting forces, some additional supports are provided as shown in Fig. 23.6. Such additional support may
either be a steady rest which remains fixed at a suitable location or a follower rest which moves along with the
cutting tool during long straight turning without any steps in the job-diameter.

Figure 23.6 Slender job held with extra support by steady rest.

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 674 Machining and Machine Tools

Mounting of Cutting Tools in Centre Lathes

Different types of tools which are used in centre lathes are usually mounted in the following ways:
1. HSS tools (shank type) in the tool-post.
2. HSS form tools and threading tools in the tool-post.
3. Carbide and ceramic inserts in standard tool-holders.
4. Drills and reamers, if required, in the tailstock.
5. Boring tools in the tool-post.
Figure 23.7 shows mounting of shank type HSS single-point tools in rotatable (only one tool) and indexable
(up to four tools) tool-posts. Small tool bits are preferably fitted in a rectangular sectional bar-type-tool holder
which is mounted in the tool-post.
Figure 23.8 typically shows how a circular form or thread chasing HSS tool is fitted in the tool-holder
which is mounted in the tool-post. Carbide, ceramic and cermet inserts of various sizes and shapes are
mechanically clamped in the seat of standard rectangular sectional steel bars which are mounted in the tool-
post. Figure 23.9 shows the common methods of clamping of such inserts. After the cutting point wears out,
the insert is indexed and after using all the corner-tips the insert is thrown away.

(a) (b)

Figure 23.7 Mounting of form tool in tool-posts: (a) Single tool; (b) up to four tools.

Tool holder

Form tool

Figure 23.8 Mounting of shank type lathe tools in tool-posts.

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 Methods of Mounting Blanks and Cutting Tools in Machine Tools 675

For originating axial holes in a centre lathe, the drill bit is fitted into the quill of the tailstock which is
slowly moved forward against the rotating job as indicated in Fig. 23.10. Small straight shank drills are fitted
in a drill chuck whereas a taper shank drill is fitted directly into the tailstock quill without or with a socket.
Often boring operations are done in centre lathes for enlarging and finishing holes by simple shank type
HSS boring tool. The tool is mounted on the tool-post and moved axially forward along with the saddle,
through the hole in the rotating job as shown in Fig. 23.11.

Insert

Insert

(a) (b)

Insert Insert

(c) (d)

Figure 23.9 Mounting of tool inserts in tool holders by mechanical clamping: (a) Clamp type; (b) lever
type; (c) pin and clamp; (d) screw type.

Figure 23.10 Mounting the blank and tool for drilling in centre lathe (courtesy: IIT Kharagpur).

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 676 Machining and Machine Tools

Boring tool
Tool-post

Figure 23.11 Boring tool mounted in the tool-post in centre lathe.

23.3.1.2 Mounting in Semi-Automatic and Automatic Lathes

Automation is incorporated in machine tool systems to enable faster and consistently accurate processing of
operations for increase in productivity and reduction in manufacturing cost in batch and mass production.
Therefore in semi-automatic and automatic machine tools, mounting and feeding of the job or blank and the
tool are also done much faster but properly.

Mounting of Jobs in Semi-Automatic and Automatic Lathes

Semi-automatic lathes like capstan and turret lathes work on both chucking type (disc-like) and bar type
jobs. But automatic lathes like single-spindle automat work on long bars of small (f = 6 to 20 mm) circular
or regular polygon section (square, hexagonal and octagonal). However, there is no scope of support from the
tailstock in any semi-automatic or automatic lathe. Occasionally, additional support is taken from the turret
through a revolving centre during heavy transverse or radial cut in a turret lathe. The devices or systems which
are commonly used to hold the job or blank quickly, coaxially (with the spindle axis), strongly and rigidly in
the aforesaid semi-automatic and automatic lathes are
1. Coventry concentric chucks: In these devices, the three jaws are actuated quickly and accurately by
a ring cam.
2. Air operated chucks: In these devices, the jaws are moved more quickly and accurately by com-
pressed air. Often, hydraulically operated quick acting chucks are used in turret lathes for heavy jobs
and cuts.
3. Quick acting soft jaw chucks: These are preferably used where the gripping portion of the job needs
to be unaffected.
4. Collet chucks: These are used for holding long thin bars of regular section passing and are fed
through the hollow spindle.
Collet chucks inherently work at high speeds with an accurate location and a strong grip. The collets are actu-
ated manually or semi-automatically in semi-automatic lathes like capstan and turret lathes. On the other
hand, they are actuated automatically in automatic lathes.
Basically there are three types of spring collets as shown in Fig. 23.12. All of these collets are split at their
gripping end to provide springiness and reduction in the bore diameter in order to grip the bar by radial force.
All the collet types such as push, pull and stationary have some relative advantages based on which they are
selected appropriately for the application.

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 Methods of Mounting Blanks and Cutting Tools in Machine Tools 677

Collet Blank (rod)

Spindle

Stock

Collet

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 23.12 Collets used to hold bar stock in semi-automatic and automatic lathes: (a) Push type;
(b) pull type; (c) stationary type.

Mounting of Cutting Tools in Semi-Automatic Lathes

In semi-automatic lathes like the capstan lathe and turret lathe, a maximum of 10 or 11 cutting tools are
mounted in the
1. Front slide: Fixed type lathes hold only one tool while turret type lathes may hold up to four tools.
2. Rear slide: Only one cutting tool can be mounted.
3. Hexagonal turret: A maximum up to six cutting tools can be mounted.
The cutting tools mounted on the front and rear slides are used for external machining operations such as
facing, shouldering, grooving, recessing, forming, chamfering, parting, etc. in addition to turning. For exter-
nal or internal work requiring axial feed motions such as in turning, drilling, boring, reaming, threading,
etc., the cutting tools are mounted on the faces of the turret. The turret holding up to six different tools for
different machining operations, as shown in Fig. 23.13, moves slowly with one acting tool in front of it at the
desired feed rate. After a particular machining operation is completed, the turret returns at the end of which
it gets indexed (i.e., rotated by 60° or a multiple of it).
For faster production as long as it is feasible, multiple machining works are carried out simultaneously
either by compounding the cutting tool or by partially/fully overlapping the duration of action of a radially
moving tool with that of an axially moving tool. In addition to cutting tools, some other objects like stop-
stock, revolving centre, etc. are also often need to be fitted in the turret.

Mounting of Tools in Automatic Lathes

In general-purpose automatic lathes such as single-spindle automats, the tools requiring transverse feed
motions are mounted in the radial slides and those requiring axial travels are mounted in the hexagonal or
octagonal turret as shown in Fig. 23.14.

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 678 Machining and Machine Tools

Figure 23.13 Mounting of cutting tools on the turret in semi-automatic lathe (courtesy: IIT Kharagpur).

Work Turret
Spindle 2
3
1
4
6
5

Work support

(a) (b)

Figure 23.14 Mounting of tools in single-spindle automatic lathe: (a) Radially moving tools; (b) axially
moving tools in a turret (courtesy: IIT Kharagpur).

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 Methods of Mounting Blanks and Cutting Tools in Machine Tools 679

23.3.2 Mounting of Jobs and Tools in Drilling Machines

Mounting of jobs and tools in drilling machines is typically shown in Fig. 23.15(a).

(a)

(i)

(ii) (iii)
(b)

Figure 23.15 (a) Mounting of tool and job in drilling machine; (b) vices to hold jobs in drilling
machines (courtesy: IIT Kharagpur).

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 680 Machining and Machine Tools

Mounting of Jobs or Blanks in Drilling Machines

In general purpose drilling machines like column and radial arm type, the blank is generally mounted in the
following ways
1. By directly clamping on the drilling machine bed particularly when the job is heavy or odd shaped.
2. In a vice which is clamped on the bed as shown in Fig. 23.15 (a).
3. In a suitable jig clamped on the bed.
Figure 23.15(b) shows the type of vices such as plain, swiveling and universal type being used for holding
small jobs in drilling machines.
Direct clamping of job or clamping of the vice and jig on the drilling bed are done with the help of clamp
plates, T-bolts, etc., as indicated in Fig. 23.16. Figure.23.16 also typically shows how a job is fitted in a jig for
drilling in batch production.

Mounting of Tools in Drilling Machines

In drilling machines, mostly drills of various types and sizes are used for drilling holes. Often, some other
tools are also used for enlarging and finishing drilled holes, counter boring, countersinking, tapping,
etc. The basic methods of mounting drill bits in the spindle are simple and have already been shown in
Fig. 23.15(a).
Small straight shank type solid HSS and carbide drills are held in a drill chuck which is fitted in the drill
spindle at its taper bore. Larger taper shank drills are put straight in the spindle without the drill chuck. How-
ever, some sockets are put in between for fitting the taper shank of the drill chuck and the taper shank drills
in the spindle having larger taper bore. The sockets of varying sizes, as shown in Fig. 23.17, are tapered inside
to accommodate the taper shank of the drill chuck, whereas drills and smaller sockets and tapered outside for
fitting in the taper bore of the spindle.
Carbide drills are available in the form of
1. Solid carbide with two helical flutes: Usually, these drills are of small diameter (≤ 6 mm).
2. Carbide tips: These are brazed in the steel shank.
3. Carbide inserts: These are mechanically clamped in a straight or helically fluted steel shank as shown
in Fig. 23.18.

Jig

Job

Bed

Figure 23.16 Mounting of job in a jig which is clamped on the drill-bed.

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 Methods of Mounting Blanks and Cutting Tools in Machine Tools 681

Figure 23.17 Drill socket for mounting drill chuck and taper shank drills in spindle.

Figure 23.18 Drills with carbide inserts.

Small solid carbide drills are generally of straight shank type and held in the drill chuck. The medium
size (f = 6 to 12 mm) spade and lug type drills having carbide tip(s) brazed at their tips are provided
with taper shank and hence mounted in the drill spindle directly or through taper socket(s). Mechani-
cally clamped type carbide tipped drills are manufactured over a wide range of diameters and are of the
following types
1. The taper shank type is usually fitted in the taper bore of the spindle with or without taper socket.
2. The straight shank type is fitted in a suitable collet or drill chuck.

23.3.3 Mounting of Jobs and Cutting Tools in Shaping, Planing and

Slotting Machines
23.3.3.1 Job-Tool Mounting in Shaping Machines
Shaping machines with their limited stroke length and rigidity are used for machining small or medium size
jobs. The job is mounted on the bed of a shaping machine in the following ways
1. Relatively large and odd-shaped blanks are generally directly clamped on the bed with the help of
clamps and supports, with the T-bolts being fitted in the T-slots in the bed. Some odd-shaped jobs
are often clamped on the side surfaces of the bed.
2. Blanks of small size and geometric shape are gripped in a vice which is firmly clamped on the bed as
shown in Fig. 23.19. For locating and supporting the blank in the vice, parallel blocks or Vee-blocks
are used.
3. In case of batch or small lot production, the blank is mounted in the fixture designed and used for
that purpose. The fixture remains rigidly clamped on the bed.

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 682 Machining and Machine Tools

Figure 23.19 Mounting of the job and tool in shaping machine (courtesy: IIT Kharagpur).

Machining is done in shaping machines only by single-point tools, even if it is a form tool. And only one tool
is used at a time. The shank type tool is mounted either directly in the clapper box or in a tool-holder which
is fitted in the clapper box, as can be seen in Fig. 23.19.

23.3.3.2 Job-Tool Mounting in Planing Machines

Planing machines are used for machining large and heavy jobs requiring large worktables, large stroke lengths
and large cutting forces.
1. Mounting of jobs in planing machines
(a) For conventional machining, the large and heavy job is directly mounted on the worktable and
rigidly clamped with the help of a number of clamps, angle plates and T-bolts.
(b) Occasionally, a rod-like job is mounted in between the centres for some special work requiring
rotation of the rod.
(c) In case of batch or lot production, often a suitable fixture is designed and used where the fix-
ture is fixed on the table and the jobs are mounted and clamped in the fixtures for the desired
machining work.
2. Mounting of tools in planing machines
In planing machines too, only single-point cutting tools are used but usually more than one tool is used
simultaneously from different planes and angles. Figure 23.20 typically shows the method of tool mounting
in planing machines.

23.3.3.3 Job-Tool Mounting in Slotting Machines

Vertical shapers or slotting machines are used for lower volumes of machining work with light cuts and lower
MRR using only one single-point tool at a time.

Job Mounting on Slotting Machines

It is already known that in slotting machines, the flat worktable can linearly slide along X and Y directions
over the guides. In addition to that, there is a rotary table fitted on the top of the sliding bed. On the rotary

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 Methods of Mounting Blanks and Cutting Tools in Machine Tools 683

Figure 23.20 Mounting of cutting tools in a planing machine (courtesy: IIT Kharagpur).

table chuck, the face plate and even small fixtures can be mounted. Depending on the type of the job and the
machining work required, the blank is mounted
1. Directly on the top of the sliding bed with the help of clamps, etc.
2. On the rotary table or in the chuck as shown in Fig. 23.21.
3. Occasionally in the fixture which is clamped on the flat bed or the face plate.

Tool Mounting in Slotting Machines

The method of mounting a single-point cutting tool in slotting machines is also typically shown in
Fig. 23.21.

23.3.4 Mounting of Jobs and Tools in Milling Machines

23.3.4.1 Mounting of Job or Blank in Milling Machines
A job or blank is mounted in general purpose milling machines in the following ways
1. Relatively large and irregular shaped jobs for piece or job order production are directly mounted and
clamped on the table with the help of clamps, supports, vee blocks, T-bolts, etc.
2. Small components of geometrical shapes are gripped in the vice which is rigidly clamped on the
table.
3. Jobs requiring indexing motion, for example, prisms, bolt-heads, gears, splines, etc. are mounted
directly or indirectly (using a mandrill) in a dividing or indexing disc as shown in Fig. 23.22.
4. Small jobs for repetitive or batch production, are preferably mounted (located, supported and
clamped) in the fixture (designed for the purpose) which is firmly clamped on the table.

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 684 Machining and Machine Tools

Cutting tool

Figure 23.21 Mounting of the job and tool in a slotting machine (courtesy: IIT Kharagpur).

Figure 23.22 Mounting of the job on the dividing head in a milling machine.

23.3.4.2 Mounting of Cutting Tools in Milling Machines

Milling cutters are rotary tools of various sizes, configurations and materials. The usual methods of mounting
cutting tools in general purpose milling machines are
1. Plain or slab milling cutters and disc-type profile sharpened or form relieved cutters (having central
bore) are mounted on a horizontal milling arbour as shown in Fig. 23.23.
2. End milling cutters with straight shanks are mounted coaxially in the spindle-bore with the help of
a collet chuck as shown in Fig. 23.24.
3. Shell milling cutters and heavy face milling cutters are mounted in the hollow spindle with the help
of a short but rugged arbour, a fastening screw and a draw bar as shown in Fig. 23.25.

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 Methods of Mounting Blanks and Cutting Tools in Machine Tools 685

Right hand

Left hand

Milling-machine
arbour

Figure 23.23 Mounting of cutting tools on milling arbour (courtesy: IIT Kharagpur).

Figure 23.24 Mounting of straight shank end milling cutters in the spindle by a collet.

Arbour

Cutter

Bore

Figure 23.25 Mounting shell and face milling cutters in milling machine spindle.

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 686 Machining and Machine Tools

4. In the case of carbide tipped milling cutters, the uncoated or coated carbide inserts of the desired
size, shape and number are mechanically clamped at the periphery of the plain and disc-type
milling cutters, large end milling cutters and face milling cutters as typically shown in Fig. 23.26.
End mills of very small diameter are provided with one or two carbide inserts clamped at the
tool-end.

23.3.5 Mounting of Jobs and Tools in Grinding Machines

The method of mounting jobs and tools (wheels), especially jobs, depends upon the type of the grinding
process under consideration.

23.3.5.1 Mounting of Job (Workpiece/Blank) in Grinding Machines

Figure 23.27 schematically shows the typical methods of mounting the jobs in cylindrical grinding machines.
The cylindrical job is mounted in between the centres for external grinding and in a chuck for internal
grinding.
In reciprocating-type surface grinding, the workpiece is mounted on the worktable in four possible ways:
1. On a rectangular magnetic chuck which is clamped on the table as shown in Fig. 23.28
2. Gripped in a vice which is held on the magnetic chuck or directly clamped on the table.
3. Directly clamped on the table by clamps, T-bolts, etc.
4. In a fixture clamped on the table or the magnetic chuck.

Figure 23.26 Carbide inserts clamped in milling cutter shanks (courtesy: LMW).

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 Methods of Mounting Blanks and Cutting Tools in Machine Tools 687

DW

dp

Lp

(a) (b)

Figure 23.27 Mounting of job in cylindrical grinding: (a) External; (b) internal.

Grinding wheel

Worktable
Grinding face

Workpiece

Worktable traverse

Figure 23.28 Mounting job on magnetic chuck in reciprocating-type surface grinding (courtesy: IIT
Kharagpur).

While grinding a large number of small identical jobs such as races of ball and roller bearings in a single spell,
the jobs are kept in an array on the rotary or reciprocating magnetic worktable as indicated in Fig. 23.29.
Form grinding such as grinding of screw threads, gear teeth, cutter flutes, etc. may be in both cylindrical
grinding and surface grinding modes. Therefore, job mounting is done accordingly. Figure 23.30 schemati-
cally shows how the job is mounted and ground in centreless grinding. In external centreless grinding, the
rod-shaped job is held in position, slowly rotated and also axially moved, if necessary by a rest and a guide
wheel which rotates slowly providing the desired work-feed motions. In internal centreless grinding, the ring-
shaped blank is held in position by the guide wheel and the supporting wheels but it attains its rotary feed
motion from the rotating guide wheel only.

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 688 Machining and Machine Tools

(a) Horizontal wheel axis (b) Vertical wheel axis

and rotating table and sliding table

(c) Vertical wheel axis

and rotating table

Figure 23.29 Mounting of small jobs for surface grinding in batch production.

Grinding
wheel axis

Reg a
u
whe lating
el ax
is
(a) External grinding

(b) Internal grinding

Figure 23.30 Mounting of the job in centreless grinding.

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 Methods of Mounting Blanks and Cutting Tools in Machine Tools 689

23.3.5.2 Mounting Wheel in Grinding Machines

All grinding wheels are circular in shape and rotate only about their own axis. A grinding wheel is always
coaxially mounted on the spindle nose as shown in Fig. 23.31. This figure visualizes the variation in the exact
method of mounting of the wheel depending upon the type, size and shape of the wheels.

23.3.6 Mounting of Jobs and Tools in CNC Machine Tools

23.3.6.1 Mounting of Jobs in CNC Machine Tools
Mounting of job on the bed by clamping in CNC milling machine is shown in Fig. 23.32. The way of
mounting and indexing cutting tools in vertical CNC drilling machine are schematically shown in
Fig. 23.33.
Figure 23.34 typically shows (a) a tool bank, (b) an auto-tool-changer (ATC) and (c) the configuration
of tool-holder being used in a versatile CNC milling machine or machining centre. Sophisticated precision
CNC machine tools are essentially characterized by quick and accurate mounting and rigid clamping of the
cutting tools and also by proper and rigid mounting of the blanks in appropriate positions.

(a) (b) (c)

(i) For internal grinding

Balancing
mechanism
(d) (e) (f)
(g)
(ii) For external grinding with horizontal wheel axis

1 2 3

(i)
(h)
(iii) Large and heavy ring shaped wheel on vertical spindle

Figure 23.31 Mounting of grinding wheels on spindle.

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 690 Machining and Machine Tools

Figure 23.32 Mounting of job on the bed by clamping in CNC milling machine.

Column
Ram

10 tool turret

CNC controller
X

Y Base

Figure 23.33 Tool mounting in turret type CNC drilling machine.

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 Methods of Mounting Blanks and Cutting Tools in Machine Tools 691

Figure 23.34 (a) Tool bank; (b) auto-tool changer (ATC) and (c) configuration of the tool holder used
in a CNC milling machine (courtesy: LMW Ltd. India).

SU M M A R Y
The factors to be essentially considered while select- fixtures for machining in batch production has also
ing the tool and job holding devices or systems been highlighted. It is also briefly discussed with
and while mounting the blank and the tool in a illustrations how to mount the blanks and wheels
fixture have been highlighted. Proper knowledge, of different configurations in grinding machines.
awareness and care are required while selecting and The unique methods of properly storing, quickly
using job-tool mounting systems as there exists sev- changing and precisely mounting cutting tools in
eral types of machine tools, cutting tools, possible CNC machining systems have also been highlighted
product configurations and job-tool devices. The for the benefit of the readers. For repetitive produc-
prime objectives of the machining work also vary. tion in batch or even mass production by machin-
The different types of devices, systems and methods ing, special devices called jigs and fixtures are often
for desirably mounting the workpiece and the cut- designed and used for easily, quickly and accurately
ting tools of various types have been discussed and locating, strongly supporting and rigidly clamping
illustrated here. The methods of holding the blanks the jobs in conventional machine tools. The next
and the cutting tools in automatic machine tools chapter deals with the design and use of such jigs
are also briefly addressed. Mounting jobs in jigs and and fixtures.

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 692 Machining and Machine Tools

MU LT I P L E CH O I C E QU E S T I O N S
[Answers are provided in the CD]
1. For machining in a centre lathe immediately 8. A long bar-type blank is held in the spindle of
after casting, the cast iron is mounted in a an automatic lathe by a
(a) Two-jaw chuck (a) Self-centering chuck
(b) Three-jaw self-centering chuck (b) Spring collet
(c) Four-independent-jaw chuck (c) Hydraulic chuck
(d) Face plate (d) Magnetic chuck
2. For high speed turning in a lathe, a heavy rod is 9. The maximum number of cutting tools that
provided support from the tailstock by a can be mounted in a capstan lathe having a
(a) Live centre hexagonal turret is
(b) Dead centre (a) 3
(c) Revolving centre (b) 5
(d) Half centre (c) 7
3. In a centre lathe, the lathe dog is used to (d) 11
enable transmit rotation and power 10. In a single-spindle automatic lathe, a boring
(a) From the headstock to the workpiece tool, if required, is mounted in the
(b) From the tailstock to the workpiece (a) Turret
(c) From the headstock to the cutting tool (b) Front slide
(d) None of the above (c) Rear slide
4. In centre lathes, a follower rest is used for (d) Vertical slide
(a) Straight turning of a short rod 11. In drilling machines, a drill chuck is used to
(b) Straight turning of a long slender rod hold a
(c) Taper turning of a rod (a) Large (diameter) taper shank drill
(d) Coaxial drilling of a long hole (b) Small (diameter) straight shank drill
5. For centre drilling in a rod in a centre lathe, (c) Large (diameter) straight shank drill
the drill bit is mounted in the (d) Small (diameter) taper shank drill
(a) Spindle 12. Drill sockets are tapered along their
(b) Tailstock (a) External surface only
(c) Tool-post (b) Internal surface only
(d) Saddle (c) Both external and internal surfaces
6. The solid square turning insert is fitted in a (d) None of the above
tool holder with the help of a 13. In milling machines, jobs are mounted on the
(a) Lever and a clamp worktable by
(b) Pin and a clamp (a) Direct clamping
(c) Screw and a clamp (b) Using a vice
(d) None of the above (c) Using a fixture
7. In centre lathes, for enlarging and finishing (d) Any of the above
an existing axial hole in the blank, the cutting 14. The milling cutter which is mounted on the
tool is mounted in the horizontal milling arbour is
(a) Tailstock quill (a) An end milling cutter
(b) Spindle (b) A shell milling cutter
(c) Tool-post (c) A face milling cutter
(d) None of the above (d) None of the above

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 Methods of Mounting Blanks and Cutting Tools in Machine Tools 693

15. For internal grinding in a cylindrical grinding 16. A magnetic chuck is generally used to mount
machine, the cylindrical blank is mounted in the workpiece in
(a) Between two centres (a) Surface grinding machine
(b) A chuck (b) Cylindrical grinding machine
(c) A collet (c) External centreless grinding
(d) An adopter (d) All of the above

R E V I E W QU E S T I O N S
1. What factors are essentially considered while 10. How are straight and taper shanked drills of
mounting a workpiece in any machine tool? different sizes and blanks mounted in column
2. What factors need to be and are generally con- and radial drilling machines?
sidered while mounting cutting tools in any 11. Mention the different methods of mounting
machine tool? workpieces and cutting tools in (a) shaping
3. List the various methods of mounting jobs machines, (b) planing machines and (c) slot-
or blanks of different sizes and shapes for ting machines.
machining in centre lathes. 12. Where and how are the workpieces mounted
4. State and show the different methods of for different machining operations in milling
mounting different cutting tools for machin- machines? How is a gear blank mounted in a
ing in centre lathes. milling machine for machining the straight
5. Describe briefly with the help of suitable teeth of that spur gear?
sketches the ways of mounting turning tool 13. Classify milling cutters and state how these
inserts in their tool-holders. different types of cutters are mounted in the
6. State the purposes and briefly describe the milling machine.
methods of using steady rest and follower rest 14. Classify grinding wheels w.r.t. size and shape
in a centre lathe. only. State and visualize how these wheels
7. How are blanks mounted in the spindle of are mounted in the spindle of the grinding
bar-type and chucking-type capstan lathes and machine.
turret lathes? 15. How are the workpieces or blanks mounted or
8. Classify spring collets which are used to clamp held in (a) cylindrical grinding machines, (b)
bar-type blanks in semi-automatic and auto- surface (flat) grinding machines and (c) cen-
matic lathes. Explain their differences with treless grinding machines.
diagrams.
9. Where and how are different cutting tools
mounted for machining jobs in single-spindle
automatic lathes?

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MAMT_Chapter 23.indd 694 7/18/2011 8:22:42 PM
 24 Design and Application of
Jigs and Fixtures for
Aiding Machining
Learning Objectives
The contents of this chapter would enable the readers to:
• Define fixture and jig and state the benefits • Be conversant with the basic design principles
or purposes of using properly designed jigs and various feasible systems and methods of
and fixtures in machining industries. locating, supporting and clamping the work-
• Decide whether application of fixture or jig piece in fixtures.
would be economically justified or not for a • Design suitable fixture or jig according to the
given machining task. job and machining requirements.
• Follow the procedural steps, considering the
essential factors, while designing jig or fix-
ture for any specific task.

24.1 Introduction
Since a long time, jigs and fixtures have been designed and used to facilitate and economize machining
work especially in the case of both lot and mass production. These fixtures are nothing but manually or
semi-automatically operated mechanical devices which enable easy, quick and consistently accurate locating,
supporting and clamping the workpieces against the cutting tool(s). Jigs additionally provide tool guidance.
However, before using jig or fixture for a machining task, it needs to be economically justified. Several factors
are essentially considered while designing any fixture or jig. There are basic principles and general systems
and methods of designing jigs and fixtures for locating, supporting and clamping of the workpiece, easy and
quick loading and unloading in and from the fixture and guidance of slender tools like drills, reamers, etc. The
designer makes proper selection of methods of locating, supporting, clamping and tool guidance according
to the type of job and the machining requirements. Quick clamping system is preferably employed. Bushes
of various designs are used in the jigs for tool guidance. They are carefully designed or selected. Indexing is
another feature that often needs to be incorporated in jig or fixture.

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 696 Machining and Machine Tools

Hole to be drilled

∅d

∅D

Figure 24.1 A through hole has to be drilled in a pre-machined mild steel disc.

24.2 Purpose of Using Fixtures and Jigs in Machine Shops

Fixtures, being used in machine shop, are strong and rigid mechanical devices which enable easy, quick and
consistently accurate locating, supporting and clamping blanks against cutting tool(s) and result in faster
machining with consistent quality, functional ability and interchangeability. Jig is also a fixture but with an
additional feature of tool guidance.
The purpose or benefits of using jigs and fixtures in machine shops can be described with a specific
example. If, for instance, a through hole of given diameter has to be drilled eccentrically in a pre-machined
mild steel disk (shown in Fig. 24.1) in a conventional drilling machine without using any fixture of jig, the
following elementary work are to be carried out sequentially:
1. Cleaning and deburring the blank (disc).
2. Marking on the blank showing the location of the periphery and axis of the hole to be drilled.
3. Punch the centre at the desired location and prick punch the periphery of the hole to be made in the
disc.
4. Mount the blank in a drilling vice using parallel block, a small Vee-block, etc. to provide support and
clamp the blank firmly.
5. Position the vice along with the marked blank to bring the hole axis in alignment with the drill
axis by

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 Design and Application of Jigs and Fixtures for Aiding Machining 697

Breakeven points
F
Machining cost, C T
A

P B M

Volume of production, Q

Figure 24.2 Role of jigs and fixtures on machining cost: W, without using jig and fixture; F, using
jig and fixture; A, automatic (special purpose) machine; P, piece production; B, batch pro-
duction; M, mass production.

(a) Either adjusting the vise position w.r.t. the fixed drill axis.
(b) Or moving the drilling machine table and then locking the table position.
(c) Or moving the radial arm and the drill head, if it is a radial drilling machine.
6. After fixing the blank, vise and the table, alignment should be checked again.
7. If error, like eccentricity, is found to occur after starting drilling then readjustment of location of the
hole-axis is to be done.
8. Complete drilling of the hole.
Therefore, one can see that many operations are needed to be carried out carefully and skillfully by the
machinist or operator for such a simple job. Even after that there may be inaccuracies in machining. Such
tedious and time-consuming manual work are eliminated or drastically reduced in mass production by auto-
matic or special purpose machine tools. These machine tools are quite expensive and hence are economically
justified for only huge or mass production and not viable for small lot or batch production. For batch produc-
tion, proper design and use of simple but effective jigs and fixtures are appropriate and economically justified.
This is schematically illustrated in Fig. 24.2. Such drilling in batch production can be done easily, without
marking and even using any jig, in CNC drilling machines. However, CNC machine tools are expensive and
are justified for batch production of more complex and expensive jobs.
The basic purposes of developing and using suitable jigs and fixtures for batch production in machine
shops are:
1. To eliminate the need of marking, punching, positioning, alignments, etc.
2. Easy, quick and consistently accurate locating, supporting and clamping the blank in alignment with
the cutting tool.
3. Guidance to the cutting tool like drill, reamer, etc.

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 698 Machining and Machine Tools

4. Increase in productivity and maintain product quality consistently.

5. To reduce operator’s labour and skill requirement.
6. To reduce measurement and its cost.
7. Enhancing technological capacity of the machine tools.
8. Reduction of overall machining cost and also increase in interchangeability.

24.3 Considerations While Designing Fixtures and Jigs

Jigs and fixtures are manually or partially power operated devices. To fulfill their basic purposes, jigs and
fixtures comprise several elements as typically shown in Fig. 24.3 (for drilling a transverse through hole in a
pre-machined plate or bar). These elements are
1. Base and body or frame with clamping features.
2. Locating elements for proper positioning and orientation of the blank.
3. Supporting surfaces and base.
4. Clamping elements.
5. Tool guiding frame and bushes (for jig).
6. Indexing plates or systems, if necessary.
7. Auxiliary elements.
8. Fastening parts.
After completion of the machining operation and withdrawal of the cutting tool, the machined job is
unclamped and unloaded from the jig or fixture. Then the next blank is loaded in the fixture or jig, that is,
properly supported and located by pins and then clamped followed by machining as schematically visualized
in Fig. 24.3. Therefore, keeping in view the increase in productivity, product quality, repeatability, inter-
changeability and overall economy in batch production by machining, the following factors are essentially
considered during design, fabrication and assembly of jigs and fixtures:
1. Easy, quick and consistently accurate locating of the blank in the jig or fixture in reference to the
cutting tool.

Clamping screw

Drill
Jig bush
Jig bracket

Workpiece

Supporting
Adjustable pins
locating pin Base

Machine table
Locating pins

Figure 24.3 Major elements of jigs and fixtures.

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 Design and Application of Jigs and Fixtures for Aiding Machining 699

2. Providing strong, rigid and stable support to the blank.

3. Quick, strong and rigid clamping of the blank in the jig or fixture without interrupting any other
operations.
4. Tool guidance for slender cutting tools like drills and reamers.
5. Easy and quick loading and unloading the job to and from the jig or fixture.
6. Use of minimum number of parts for making the jig or fixture
7. Use of standard parts as much as possible.
8. Reasonable amount of flexibility or adjustability, if feasible, to accommodate slight variation in the
major dimensions of the blank.
9. Prevention of jamming of chips, that is wide chip space and easy chip disposal.
10. Easy, quick and accurate indexing system, if required.
11. Easy and safe handling and moving the jig or fixture on the machine table, that is, their shape, size,
weight and sharp edges and corners need to be taken care of.
12. Easy and quick removal and replacement of small parts.
13. Manufacturability (i.e., ease of manufacture).
14. Durability and maintainability.
15. Service life and overall expenses.

24.4 Principles and Methods of Design of Fixtures and Jigs

It is already emphasized that the main functions of the jigs and fixtures are:
1. Easy, quick, firm and consistently accurate (a) locating, (b) supporting and (c) clamping the blank
(in the jig or fixture) in respect to the cutting tool(s).
2. Providing guidance to the slender cutting tools using proper bushes.
There are several methods of locating, supporting and clamping depending upon the size, shape and material
of the job, cutting tool and the machining work required. However, some basic principles or rules are usually
followed while designing for locating, supporting and clamping of blank in fixtures.
For accurate machining, the workpiece is to be placed and held in correct position and orientation
in the fixture or jig which is again appropriately located and fixed with respect to the cutting tool and
the machine tool. It has to be assured that the blank, once fixed or clamped, does not move at all in the
fixture.
Any solid body may have maximum 12 degrees of freedom as indicated in Fig. 24.4. By properly locating,
supporting and clamping the blank, all degrees of freedom are to be arrested as shown in Fig. 24.5. The three
adjacent locating surfaces of the blank (workpiece) are resting against 3, 2 and 1 pins, respectively, which
prevent nine degrees of freedom. The rest three degrees of freedom are arrested by three external forces usually
provided directly by clamping.

24.4.1 Design for Locating

Some basic principles or rules need to be followed while planning for locating blanks in fixtures, such as:
1. One or more surfaces (preferably machined) and/or drilled/bored hole(s) are to be taken for
reference.

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 700 Machining and Machine Tools

Y
X

Figure 24.4 Possible degrees of freedom of a solid body.

Locating and
supporting

Locating pin Clamping forces

Workpiece

Locating and
supporting pins

Figure 24.5 Arresting all degrees of freedom of blank in a fixture.

2. The reference surfaces should be significant feature(s) based on which most of the dimensions are laid
down.
3. Locating should be easy, quick and accurate.
4. In the case of locating by pin, the pins and their mounting and contact points should be strong, rigid
and hard.
5. A minimum of three points must be used to locate a horizontal flat surface.
6. The locating pins should be as far apart as feasible.

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 Design and Application of Jigs and Fixtures for Aiding Machining 701

Cutting
tool Workpiece

Workpiece

Machine table

Figure 24.6 Locating by Vee-block and cone.

7. Vee-block and cones should be used for self-locating solid and hollow cylindrical jobs as typically
shown in Fig. 24.6.
8. Sight location is applicable to first operation, that is, location of blank with irregular surfaces pro-
duced by casting, forging, etc. as indicated in Fig. 24.7 where the bracket is first located on two edges
to machine the bottom surface which will be used as the reference plane for subsequent locating.
9. Adjustable locating pin(s) as indicated in Fig. 24.3 is to be used to accommodate limited part size
variation.

24.4.1.1 General Methods of Locating

Locating Blanks for Machining in Lathes
In lathes, where the job rotates, the blanks are located
1. By fitting into self-centering chuck.

Bracket

Rocker

Rough bottom surface

to be machined

(a) (b)

Figure 24.7 (a) Sight location and (b) pivoted arm with two points.

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 702 Machining and Machine Tools

2. By fitting into four independent jaw chuck and dead centre.

3. In self-centering collets.
4. In between live and dead centres.
5. By using mandrel fitted into the head stock-spindle.
6. By fitting in a separate fixture which is properly clamped on a face plate which again is coaxially fitted
into the lathe spindle.

Locating for Machining in Other than Lathes

In machine tools such as drilling machine, boring machine, milling machine, planing machine, broaching
machine and surface grinding machine, the job remains fixed on the bed or worktable. Fixtures are mostly
used in these machine tools and jig especially for drilling, reaming, etc. for batch production. For machining in
those jigs and fixtures, the blank is located in several ways as follows.

Locating by Flat Surfaces

Figure 24.8 typically shows how jobs are located by their flat surfaces using various types of pins and buttons.

Locating by Holes
In several cases, workpieces are located by pre-machined (drilled, bored or pierced) holes, such as
1. Locating by two holes as shown in Fig. 24.9(a) where one of the pins has to be diamond-shaped to
accommodate tolerance on the distance between the holes and their diameters.
2. Locating by one hole and an external pin which prevents rotation of the blank around the inner pin
as indicated in Fig. 24.9(b).
3. Locating by one hole and one Vee-block as shown in Fig. 24.10.

Locating on Mandrel or Plug

Ring or disc type workpieces having pre-machined axial hole are conveniently located on mandrel or single
plug as shown in Fig. 24.11. However, blanks of various sizes and configurations may be located in several
other ways for the specific purposes.

Workpiece Workpiece

Locating Locating
pin pin

(a)

(b)

Figure 24.8 Locating by (a) flat surfaces and (b) types of pins used for that the same.

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 Design and Application of Jigs and Fixtures for Aiding Machining 703

Job Diamond pin Inner pin Job Outer pin

Locating pins
Clamping force

Base

(a) (b)

Figure 24.9 Locating by holes: (a) Locating by two holes; (b) locating by one hole and one surface.

Pin Job V-block

Figure 24.10 Locating by a pin and Vee-block.

Workpiece
Mandrel Job
Jig plate

Plug

Figure 24.11 Locating on mandrel or plug.

24.4.2 Design for Supporting

A workpiece has to be properly placed in the jig or fixture not only for desired positioning and orientation but
also on strong and rigid support such that the blank does not elastically deflect or deform under the actions
of the clamping forces, cutting forces and even by its own weight. Some basic principles or rules are followed
while planning and designing for supporting blank in fixtures, which include
1. Supporting at the bottom surface should be done at least by three points.
2. Supporting elements and system have to be strong and rigid enough to prevent deformation due to
clamping and cutting forces.
3. Unsupported span should not be large to cause sagging as indicated in Fig. 24.12.

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 704 Machining and Machine Tools

Force Workpiece

Bearing area

Figure 24.12 Deflection due to force(s) for wide gap in between supports.

Force Workpiece Force

(a) (b)

Figure 24.13 Stability in supporting: (a) Not correct (unstable) and (b) correct (stable).

Job Job

Recess Supporting Recess

Figure 24.14 Recess in long span supporting on flat surfaces.

4. Supporting should keep the blank in stable condition under the forces as indicated in Fig. 24.13.
5. For supporting large flat area, proper recess is to be provided, as indicated in Fig. 24.14, for better
and stable support.
6. Round or cylindrical workpieces should be supported (along with locating) on strong Vee-block of
suitable size.
7. Heavy workpieces with pre-machined bottom surface should be supported on wide flat areas, or on
flat ended strong pins or plugs.
8. If more than three pins are required for supporting large and heavy workpieces then the additional
supporting pins are to be spring loaded or adjustable.
9. Additional adjustable supporting pins need to be provided
(a) To compensate part size variation.
(b) When the supporting surfaces are large and irregular.
(c) When clamping and cutting forces are large.
10. Ring or disc type jobs, especially requiring indexing, should be supported (and located) on mandrel.

24.4.2.1 General Methods of Supporting Job in Fixtures

1. Supporting on vices.
2. Supporting at flat surfaces or blocks as indicated in Fig. 24.15(a).

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 Design and Application of Jigs and Fixtures for Aiding Machining 705

Workpiece

(a) (b)

Figure 24.15 Supporting (a) by flat surface and (b) by pins.

Workpiece Workpiece

Component

Workpiece

Figure 24.16 Adjustable supporting pins.

3. Supporting by fixed pins as shown in Fig. 24.15(b).

4. Additional supporting by adjustable pins and plugs or jack screws as shown in Fig. 24.16, where the
pin or screw head is gradually moved up to touch the blank and then locked by screw–nut system.
5. Supporting and locating on Vee-blocks and mandrels.

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 706 Machining and Machine Tools

24.4.3 Design for Clamping the Blank in Jig and Fixture

In jigs and fixtures, the workpiece or blank has to be strongly and rigidly clamped against the supporting
surfaces and the locating features so that the blank does not get displaced at all under the cutting forces during
machining. While designing for clamping, the following factors are essentially considered:
1. Clamping should be strong and rigid enough to hold the blank firmly during machining.
2. Clamping should be easy, quick and adequate.
3. Clamping should be such that it is not affected by vibration, chatter and pressure.
4. The method employed for clamping and unclamping should not hinder loading and unloading the
blank in the jig or fixture.
5. The clamp and clamping force must not damage or deform the workpiece.
6. Clamping operation should be simple and quick acting when the jig or fixture is to be used more
frequently and for large volume of work.
7. Clamps, which move by slide or slip or tend to do so during applying clamping forces, should be
avoided.
8. Clamping system should comprise less number of parts for ease of design, operation and maintenance.
9. The wearing parts should be hard or hardened and also be easily replaceable.
10. Clamping force should act on heavy part(s) and against supporting and locating surfaces.
11. Clamping should be away from the cutting tool.
12. Clamping method should be foolproof and safe.
13. Clamping must be reliable but also inexpensive.

24.4.3.1 General Methods of Clamping

Clamping methods are basically of two categories:
1. General type without much consideration on speed of clamping operations.
2. Quick acting types.

General Clamping Methods

1. Screw operated strap clamps as typically shown in Fig. 24.17. The clamping end of the strap is
pressed against a spring which enables quick unclamping and unloading.
2. Clamping from side for unobstructed through machining (like milling, planing, grinding, broaching,
etc.) of the top surface. Figure 24.18 typically shows some of those methods.

Clamping knob
Workpiece
Spherical
Clamping bar washer
Groove

Workpiece Pillar pin

Spring

Figure 24.17 Common strap type clamping.

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 Design and Application of Jigs and Fixtures for Aiding Machining 707

Workpiece Workpiece

Socket-head
cap screw

Workpiece

Figure 24.18 Clamping from side for free machining of the top surface.

Clamping force +
Clamping force

Blank
+ Blank

(a) (b)

Figure 24.19 Clamping by swing plates: Swing (a) in vertical plane and (b) in horizontal plane.

3. Clamping by swing plates: Such clamping, typically shown in Fig. 24.19, is simple and relatively
quick in operation. It is suitable for jobs of relatively smaller size, simpler shape and requiring lesser
clamping force.
4. Other conventional clamping methods include:
(a) Vices, like drilling and milling vices.
(b) Magnetic chucks.
(c) Chucks and collets for lathe work.

Quick Clamping Methods

1. Use of quick acting nut: Figure 24.20 schematically shows a typical use of quick acting nut for fast
clamping. For unclamping, the nut is first unscrewed and then tilted and pulled out. Similarly, for
clamping the blank the nut is pushed in inclined way and then tilted and tightly screwed.

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 708 Machining and Machine Tools

Job

Nut
8°–10°

ds dn

Jig frame Shift

Rotate
d s > dn Tilt
Movement of nut for clamping

Figure 24.20 Quick acting nut for rapid clamping.

2. Cam clamping: Quick clamping by cam is very effective and very simple in operation. Some popular
methods and systems of clamping by cam are shown in Fig. 24.21. The cam and screw type clamping
systems can be used for clamping through some interior parts where other simple system will not
have access [Fig. 24.21(b)].

Clamp
Workpiece Workpiece
Base

(a)

Workpiece

(b)

Figure 24.21 Quick clamping by cams: (a) Clamping by cam; (b) screw and cam clamping from
distance.

MAMT_Chapter 24.indd 708 7/21/2011 12:14:40 PM

 Design and Application of Jigs and Fixtures for Aiding Machining 709

Figure 24.22 Quick multiple locating and clamping of cylindrical jobs.

Workpiece

Rotate
Shift

Figure 24.23 Quick acting screw (bayonet type) clamping.

3. Quick multiple clamping by pivoted clamps in series and parallel: This method, shown in Fig.
24.22, is capable to simultaneously clamp number of rods even with some variation in their diameter.
4. Quick clamping by hydraulic and pneumatic forces for strong and light clamping, respectively.
5. Light but quick clamping by bayonet type clamp as indicated in Fig. 24.23.

24.5 Functions and Design Aspects of Bushes Used in Jigs

Slender and cantilever type cutting tools, mainly drills, usually suffer from run-out due to possible errors in
the drill, sockets and drilling machine spindle and finally in the overall alignment. Such run-out causes over
sizing, out of roundness and surface roughening of the drilled holes. Such run-out aggravates further with the
increase in drill speed (rpm) and the thrust force, especially if the drill is not geometrically symmetrical. This
often leads to, in addition to poor product quality, breakage of the drill by bending. To reduce such problems,
bushes are used in the jigs to guide the drill bits (Fig. 24.3), reamers, etc.

24.5.1 Factors to be Considered While Designing for Jig Bushing

1. The bushes, used to properly locate and guide drills, reamers, etc. are generally made of carbon or
alloy steel and made wear resistive by hardening to RC 60 and above. Often bushes are also made
from grey cast iron due to lesser friction and for protection of the tools.

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 710 Machining and Machine Tools

2. The hardened jig bushes are finished outside by grinding and inside by grinding and lapping if high
precision is required.
3. The bush’s length should be sufficient (≥ twice drill diameter) and its diameter should be slightly
larger than the drill diameter.
4. Design and construction should enable easy, quick and proper fitting and removal or replacement of
the bushes.
5. Bushes should not come out from the seat along with the drill during its return.

24.5.2 Types of Bushes Used in Jigs

Depending upon the nature of fitting, quick mounting, replacement, job requirement, etc., jig bushes are
classified into several types.
1. Bushes may be
(a) Press fitted type.
(b) Slip type.
(c) Screwed type.
Press fitted thin sleeve type bushes are generally used for shorter runs and are not renewable. Renew-
able type slip bushes are used with liner. Screwed bushes, though renewable may be used without
or with liner.
2. Again bushes may be
(a) Without head.
(b) With head.
(c) With a flange being screwed on the bracket.
Figure 24.24 typically shows such bushes.
3. Frequently replaceable bushes are provided with some locking system as shown in Fig. 24.25.
4. Some special jig bushings are designed and used for drilling two closed parallel holes as indicated in
Fig. 24.26.
Many other types are possible and made depending upon the working situation and critical requirements.

Bush

Jig plate

Workpiece Drilled hole

(a) (b)

(c)

Figure 24.24 Bush (a) without head, (b) with head and (c) flanged with screws.

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 Design and Application of Jigs and Fixtures for Aiding Machining 711

Figure 24.25 Locking of frequently replaceable bushes.

(a) (b)

(c)

Figure 24.26 Special jig bushes for critical requirements. (a) Two close holes – in one bush; (b) one
indexable hole – using eccentric bush; (c) two close holes – by two adjacent modified
bushes.

24.6 Design of Jigs and Fixtures for Specific Machining

Requirements
24.6.1 Economic Viability Analysis Prior to Use of a Fixture or Jig
The machining work required in lot production of an object may be accomplished in number of different
modes such as:
1. In an ordinary machine tool without using jig or fixture.
2. In an ordinary machine tool by using jig or fixture.
3. In a semi-automatic or automatic special purpose machine tool.

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 712 Machining and Machine Tools

Such work could also be done in CNC machine tool. However, expensive CNC machine tools are generally
used for batch production especially for jobs of complex geometry. Again, CNC machine tools may be very
expensive and not readily available. The selection of appropriate mode is governed mainly by
1. Technological feasibility of those modes.
2. Technical feasibility, that is, availability of the resources and facilities for the different modes.
3. Economical viability, considering
(a) Cost of manufacturing, based on
• Cost of the basic machine.
• Cost of the jig or fixture, if to be used.
• Volume of production (i.e., number of pieces).
• Material and labour cost.
(b) Expected quality of the products and its sale value (i.e., revenue).
(c) Total time that will be required to complete the assignment.
It is to be borne in mind that sophisticated automatic system not only provides and maintains consistency of
quality of the products but also drastically reduces the total time of completing the production; this means
substantial socio-economic benefits. Use of jigs and fixtures also helps to some extent in saving time and
maintaining consistent quality. However, sophisticated automatic machines are very much expensive and
justified for mass production only.

Case Study
Selection of Appropriate Mode for a Specific Machining Task
Task: Suppose a lot of 120 pieces have to be machined. The estimated cost components in three differ-
ent modes are as follows:

Mode Fixed cost (Rs.) Machining cost(Rs./piece)

1. W: In ordinary machine without any jig or fixture 2,00,000.00 5000.00
2. JF: In ordinary machine but with jig or fixture 3,00,000.00 2500.00
3. A: In automatic special purpose machine 6,00,000.00 1000.00

The most appropriate mode is to be selected and it is to be decided whether use of the jig/fixture will
be justified.
Considerations and steps
1. Assuming uniform quality possible by all the modes, selection is made on the basis of total pro-
duction cost.
2. With the given cost components a graph, total machining cost versus quantity of production,
is plotted as shown in Fig. 24.27. From the graph it appears that mode-1(W) is most economic
when quantity of production (i.e., number of pieces to be machined) is less than 40 and mode-
3(A) will be most economical when the number of pieces exceeds 200. Mode-2(JF) appears to
be economically most viable if the production volume lies within 41 and 199.
3. Since the number of pieces desired to be produced is 120 only, it is clear that for 120 pieces,
mode-2(JF) (i.e., machining in ordinary machine tool but using jig or fixture) is justified.

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 Design and Application of Jigs and Fixtures for Aiding Machining 713

Case Study (Continued)

20
W : ordinary machine and without fixture W
18 JF: ordinary machine but with fixture
Total machining cost, Rs. (lacs)
16 A : automatic sepcial purpose

14 JF
12
Breakeven points
10
A
8
6
4
2
0
0 40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320 360 400
Quantity of production (no. of pieces)

Figure 24.27 Economic viability of jig and fixture for batch production.

24.6.2 Planning Prior to Design and Construction of a Fixture or Jig

After reasonably deciding that a jig or fixture will be used for a given machining work, a thorough planning
has to be done prior to actual physical design and construction of the jig or fixture. This is explained by a
specific example as follows.

Case Study
Task: A fixture or jig has to be designed and built for drilling a through hole in pre-machined mild steel
pins (small rods) at a given distance from one end-face as indicated in Fig. 24.28.
Planning in steps for design and construction of a jig or fixture suitable for the purpose
1. Whether fixture or jig? Since a hole has to be drilled precisely at a particular location within
tolerance, a suitable drill-guide will be necessary. So it has to be a jig.
∅d ΔD
±
D
∅

X ± ΔX
L ± ΔL

Figure 24.28 A through transverse hole to be drilled at a distance from one end-face.

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 714 Machining and Machine Tools

Case Study (Continued)

2. Positioning and orientation: Since a diametral through hole has to be drilled perpendicular to
the rod-axis, and the drill-axis in the machine is vertical, the suitable orientation and location
of the job in the jig and against the drill-axis will be horizontal as shown in Fig. 24.29.
3. Locating the blank in the jig and w.r.t. the drill-axis: The facts that (a) the blanks are straight
cylindrical and pre-machined, (b) blank diameter may vary though within a tolerance and (c)
the blank axis is to be horizontal clearly justify that the basic locating by Vee-block will be
appropriate as indicated in Fig. 24.30. To essentially maintain the desired distance of the hole-
axis from one machined face of the block, a pin also has to be used for axial location and it
should be adjustable type for variation in the dimension, X, if required.
4. Supporting the blank against forces: Since the blanks are solid steel rods of small L/D ratio
and it has been reasonably decided to locate it on Vee-block, the same Vee-block can be used
for the desired support. In such case, the Vee-block needs to be strong and rigid and also be
provided with a recess at the central portion as indicated in Fig. 24.31.
5. Clamping: Clamping system should be, as far as possible, simple and quick. It also should be strong,
rigid and stable. It should not obstruct or hamper blank’s loading and unloading as well as machin-
ing work. Keeping all such factors in view, a cam-clamping system may be considered as indicated
in Fig. 24.32. The clamping plug should retreat sufficiently from the blank for its easier removal and
entering of the next blank and for that a spring has to be used. For more effective and stable clamping
on cylindrical surface, a pivoted clamping would be more suitable as shown in Fig. 24.32.
6. Tool guidance: Since it is drilling and over a deep hole, especially on a cylindrical surface, tool
guidance must be provided as indicated in Fig. 24.33. The holding screw keeps the bush in position
and also enables time to time replacement of that bush, as and when required by another bush.
7. Consistent precise locating and ejection: It is to be ensured that the locating pin is in proper
contact with the end face of the blank and preferably under the same amount of force all the time.
This can be done by applying a spring force on the blank against the locating pin as indicated in

Figure 24.29 Blank and its apparent positioning during drilling.

X
Blank
Axis of hole
and drill

Locating pin V-block

(adjustable)

Figure 24.30 Locating by Vee-block and adjustable pin.

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 Design and Application of Jigs and Fixtures for Aiding Machining 715

Case Study (Continued)

Blank

V-block

Recess in V-block

Figure 24.31 Supporting on Vee-block.

Cam clamping

Pivoted clamp

Figure 24.32 Quick clamping by cam.

Jig bush for

Holding screw guiding drill

Locating Clamping
pin
Clamp

Figure 24.33 Jig bushing for tool (drill) guidance.

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 716 Machining and Machine Tools

Case Study (Continued)

Ejector

Swinging pusher Stop pin

Figure 24.34 Complete jig with assured location and ejection.

Fig. 24.34. Such pushing system, again, should not hinder placing and removal of the blank in
and from the jig or fixture. One of the possible methods is shown in Fig. 24.34 where the swing
type lever holding the spring loaded pushing-pin is manually operated with the help of a spring
and a stop-pin. For easy removal of the machined job from the jig or fixture, an ejector may be
used. Figure 24.34 also shows such an ejector to facilitate unloading of the job from the jig after
sequentially withdrawing the tool, the clamping unit and the push-lever.

This way, by planning work one can understand the proper schematic layout of the entire jig or fixture with
its vital parts and configuration. Next step, for the design, will be selection of materials for various parts and
determination of their dimensions based on strength and rigidity.

24.6.3 Examples
In this section we will see how fixtures and jigs are designed for some specific jobs.

Example 24.1 In a pre-machined hollow metallic disc, six equispaced blind holes have to be drilled
radially as indicated in Fig. 24.35. Design the configuration and working method
of the fixture or jig for aiding such drilling work in a batch production.

Design: A feasible design is schematically shown in Fig. 24.35.

1. Since the machining requirement is drilling where the tool will essentially need guidance, a jig has to
be designed and used.
2. Since it is required to produce equi-angular spaced holes by drilling, an indexing system has to be
incorporated.
3. The indexing work can be accomplished by indexing the jig, with the job clamped inside, manually
by bringing the desired hole-axis aligned with the fixed drill axis by manual adjustment. Six bushes are
fitted equispaced in the jig. The design of the jig is shown in Fig. 24.35. [The same work could also
be done by indexing the workpiece only within the fixed jig having only one bush (Example 2).]

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 Design and Application of Jigs and Fixtures for Aiding Machining 717

Bush Drill

Blank

Mandrel

Manually
indexed jig

Figure 24.35 Jig for drilling six equispaced radial blind holes in a disc.

Example 24.2 Four equispaced through holes have to be drilled radially in a disc (like rotor of radial
piston pump) as shown in Fig. 24.36(a). Design a jig for batch production of such discs.

A
Workpiece Holding pin

Indexing
system

Four holes
to be drilled Handle

Section A – A

A
(a) (b)

Figure 24.36 Jig for drilling four equispaced through radial holes in a ring: (a) Product and (b) jig.

Design: A suitable design is shown in Fig. 24.36(b). It has been done based on the following:
1. Drilling four equispaced through radial holes will need indexing in the jig to be designed.
2. The jig possesses a rotable mandrel on which the pre-machined blank (hollow disc) will be mounted
as shown.

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 718 Machining and Machine Tools

3. The axial location of the blank with respect to the axis of the desired hole, that is drill, is provided by
the step in the mandrel.
4. The blank gets desirably strong support from the mandrel, both radially and axially.
5. Only one bush is mounted coaxially with the drill for necessary tool guidance.
6. The blank will be strongly and rigidly clamped by the front nut, a quick acting nut could also be
used.
7. A suitable indexing system has been incorporated which will enable 90° rotation of the blank, within
the fixed jig, by unlocking the indexing pin and rotating the mandrel with the help of the handle
shown. The small fixed (screwed) pin will prevent any axial shift of the mandrel during its rotation
under unlocked condition.
8. This jig will remain clamped on the drilling machine bed (table) with the axis of the bush aligned
with that of the drill spindle.

Example 24.3 A through rectangular section slot has to be cut on a rod as shown in Fig. 24.37.
Design a fixture or jig for cutting the slot in batch production.

Figure 24.37 A through slot to be produced on a rod.

Design: A feasible design is shown in Fig. 24.38.

1. It will be a fixture, not jig, since there is no need of making holes.
2. A slot milling cutter of width equal to the width of the slot desired has to be used as shown.
3. Since the blank is a cylindrical piece, Vee-block type system is to be used for locating and
supporting.
4. The axial location (and supporting) will be accomplished by the axial pin and the contact will be
assured by the swing type spring loaded pusher as shown.
5. Clamping will be done quickly by pressing the strap with the help of the cam as shown.
6. The fixture holding the workpiece will be properly fixed on the table of the milling machine and will
move along that table.
7. After completion of the work (i.e. cutting of the slot), the job will be removed, a spring loaded ejector
(cum locator) can be used as shown in the Fig. 24.38.
It is to be noted that jigs and fixtures are not standard items and are as such not available in the market. They
have to be designed and built as and when required based on the exact requirements.

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 Design and Application of Jigs and Fixtures for Aiding Machining 719

Clamping

Slot milling
Locator cum Workpiece cutter
ejector
Slot

Pusher

Figure 24.38 Fixture for milling the slots on the rod.

24.7 Solved Problems

PROBLEM 1
150 pieces of a product are to be produced by machining. The cost components in three modes are given
as follows:
Mode Fixed cost(Rs) Machining cost(Rs/piece)
(i) In ordinary machine tool without any jig or fixture 2,00,000.00 3,000.00
(ii) In ordinary machine tool using a fixture 3,00,000.00 2,000.00
(iii) In automatic machine too 5,00,000.00 1,000.00

Select the most economic mode.

Solution: For economy of using jig or fixture in ordinary machine tools,

3,00,000 + 2,000 × Ymin ≤ 2,00,000 + 3000 × Ymin
where Ymin is the minimum number of pieces. Here, Ymin ≥ 100 pieces. Similarly, for economy of doing
the work in ordinary machine but using jig or fixture compared to that in the automatic machine
tool,
3,00,000 + 2,000 × Ymax < 5,00,000 + 1000 × Ymax
where Ymax is the maximum number of pieces. Here, Ymax ≤ 200 pieces. Therefore, for 150 pieces the
second mode should be selected.

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 720 Machining and Machine Tools

PROBLEM 2
Design and draw a jig to aid drilling a hole eccentrically in a number of identical pre-machined MS discs
as shown in Fig. 24.39.
Hole, ∅16
to be drilled

20

10

Figure 24.39 Solved problem 2.

Solution: Several scheme and design are feasible for the present task. One feasible and simple design is
schematically shown and indicated in Fig. 24.40. The blank in the form of pre-machined disc will be
supported horizontally on the rigid base of the jig-body. The blank will be located by the Vee-block.
Clamping will be done by a screw. The bush will guide the drill while drilling. After drilling is over, the
blank will be unclamped and ejected out by the ejector.

Drill
Clamping
screw
Bush
Blank

Base plate Body

10

Machine
table

Vee-plate
Ejector

D
∅
20

Dowel pin

Figure 24.40 A simple jig feasible for drilling an eccentric hole in discs.

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 Design and Application of Jigs and Fixtures for Aiding Machining 721

PROBLEM 3
A radial through hole has to be drilled in a number of identical cast iron hollow rods as shown in
Fig. 24.41. Design and draw a suitable jig for this purpose.

∅20 hole has to

25
be drilled

80
60 40

Figure 24.41 Solved problem 3.

Solution: A number of scheme and design are possible. One simple feasible jig suitable for the given task
is schematically shown in Fig. 24.42. The pre-machined cylindrical block will be located and supported
horizontally on a threaded rod fixed in the jig-body. Clamping will be done by a quick acting nut. The
bush is for grinding the rotating drill. After completion of drilling, the quick nut will be removed and
the job will be taken out.

Drill
Bush 25 Frame
Quick
acting nut
Blank

∅20

Locating and
supporting pin

80
Machine Base
table

Figure 24.42 Schematic view of a feasible jig for the given job.

PROBLEM 4
Design and draw a fixture suitable for aiding milling a slot in pre-machined cast iron brackets as shown
in Fig. 24.43.

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 722 Machining and Machine Tools

0
∅4
100
20

10
10
50 Slot to be made
by drilling

Figure 24.43 Solved problem 4.

Solution: One of the feasible designs is indicated in Fig. 24.44. The bracket with pre-machined central
hole will be placed horizontally and located mainly by the central locating pin and further by the two
spring loaded Vee-blocks. Clamping will be done by the screws as shown. After the desired slot is
machined by a slot milling centre, the job will be unclamped and removed. The design is to be done such
a way that loading and unloading of the workpiece is not hampered.
Slot milling cutter
Locating pin Workpiece

Clamping screw
Sliding Vee-plate
Base plate
Table guide

Figure 24.44 A feasible fixture for the given task.

PROBLEM 5
Design and draw a jig to help drilling a through inclined hole in a number of pre-machined mild steel
rods as shown in Fig. 24.45.
40
∅40

20

60
75

Figure 24.45 Solved problem 5.

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 Design and Application of Jigs and Fixtures for Aiding Machining 723

Solution: There may be several designs suitable for the given task. Only one of such feasible design is
schematically shown in Fig. 24.46. The blank will be placed in inclined way to enable drilling the hole in
a vertical drilling machine. The blank can be easily and precisely loaded, located, supported and clamped
as indicated. The rotating drill will be guided by the bush. After completion of drilling, the workpiece
will be unclamped and thus removed by using the ejector.

Drill
Blank

Clamping screw
Bush
Swing bar

+ Knob
Desired hole
Machine body
+
Ejector
Chip space
Knob + Base

Machine table

Figure 24.46 Schematic view of a feasible design of the jig for the given task.

PROBLEM 6
Design and draw a jig suitable for drilling four through holes parallel to the axis of a number of pre-
machined aluminium discs as shown in Fig. 24.47.

0
10
∅
40
80

15

4 holes of ∅10 are

to be drilled

Figure 24.47 Schematic view of a feasible design of the jig for the given task.

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 724 Machining and Machine Tools

Solution: There may be a few designs feasible. One of them is schematically shown in Fig. 24.48.
Drilling four equispaced holes will need use of indexing. The blank having the pre-machined central
larger hole will be supported horizontally and located by the central locating pin. The blank will be
clamped by the quick acting nut. After drilling a hole through the fixed bush, the blank will be indexed
through 90o and clamped again for drilling the next hole.
Indexing pin
B

A A

Blank

Section B – B
Drill (fixed) Quick acting nut
for clamping
Bush

Locating pin

Blank

Base
Section A – A

Figure 24.48 Solved problem 6.

PROBLEM 7
Design and draw a jig for drilling a blind hole parallel to the axis of mild steel rods as shown in Fig. 24.49.

∅10, hole to be drilled

30

20
10

60

Figure 24.49 Solved problem 7.

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 Design and Application of Jigs and Fixtures for Aiding Machining 725

Solution: A suitable jig for the above task is schematically shown in Fig. 24.50. The cylindrical blank
will be placed vertically and located by the Vee-block and the base plate. Clamping of the blank will be
done by a screw fitted in the swing bar. Then drilling will be done through the bush at desired location.
The drilled job then will be unclamped and ejected out.

Drill
Vee-block for locating Bush
Jig plate

Drilled hole Vee-block

Ejector
Clamping screw

Swing bar
Base
Machine
table

(a) Locating the cylindrical blank (b) Complete configuration of the job
vertically by Vee-block

Figure 24.50 The design of the jig suitable for the given job.

SU M M A R Y
The definition, basic features and use of fixtures of use, types and selection of bushes for guiding slen-
and jigs in manufacturing by machining have been der tools like drills, reamers, etc. in jigs are presented
highlighted. The method of assessment of economi- here. Few common methods of indexing of the jig or
cal justification of employing jigs or fixtures is illus- fixture have also been addressed.
trated. The factors to be essentially considered while Jigs and fixtures are generally employed for batch
designing any jig or fixture have been pointed out. production. The present and future trend is also
The design principles and the usual systems and methods towards batch production. Even then, use of such
of designing fixture and jigs for locating, supporting jigs and fixtures in manufacturing by machining
and clamping workpiece against the working tool(s) is reasonably gradually decreasing after the advent
have been addressed with illustrations. The proce- of the flexibly automatic programmable CNC
dure of actual design of a jig (or fixture) for a typi- machining systems. The next chapter deals with the
cal job requiring some specific machining task has various aspects of CNC machine tools including
been demonstrated with illustrations. The purposes programming.

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 726 Machining and Machine Tools

MU LT I P L E CH O I C E QU E S T I O N S
[Answers are provided in the CD]
1. In manufacturing by machining, jigs and fix- 7. Adjustable supporting pins are additionally
tures are justifiably used for used to support (in fixture or jig)
(a) Piece production (a) Small and light jobs
(b) Batch production (b) Fragile and light jobs
(c) Large lot production (c) Large and heavy jobs
(d) Mass production (d) Thin plate like jobs
2. Jig is distinguished from fixture by having 8. A spring is used in nut-operated clamping sys-
additionally the provision of tem of any jig or fixture for ease of
(a) Locating (a) Clamping of the job in the fixture
(b) Supporting (b) Unclamping of the job
(c) Clamping (c) Loading the job in the fixture
(d) Tool guidance (d) Unloading the job from the fixture
3. In batch production by machining, use of jigs 9. Quick acting nut is often used in fixtures for
and fixture makes the work (a) Quick location of the job
(a) Easy (b) Quick supporting
(b) Quick (c) Quick clamping
(c) Consistently accurate (d) Quick loading and unloading
(d) All of the above 10. Jig-bushes may be
(e) None of the above (a) Press fitted type
4. Vee-blocks are preferably used for locating and (b) Slip type
supporting (in any fixture) (c) Screwed type
(a) Cylindrical workpieces (d) Any of the above
(b) Plate type workpieces (e) None of the above
(c) Block type workpieces 11. Jig-bushes are used to guide travel of cutting
(d) Box type workpieces tools like
5. A solid body may have maximum (a) Drills
(a) 2 degrees of freedom (b) End milling cutters
(b) 4 degrees of freedom (c) Boring tools
(c) 6 degrees of freedom (d) Taps
(d) 12 degrees of freedom 12. Ejector is often used in some jig or fixture for
6. In locating a job in a fixture by two parallel easy and quick
holes, one of the pins is (a) Loading of workpiece or blank
(a) Made of square section (b) Unloading of the workpiece
(b) Made of rectangular section (c) Clamping of workpiece
(c) Diamond shaped (d) Unclamping of workpiece
(d) Triangular shaped (sectional)

R E V I E W QU E S T I O N S
1. State the purposes of using fixtures and jigs in 2. State the advantages of using fixtures and jigs
manufacturing by machining. in batch production by machining.

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 Design and Application of Jigs and Fixtures for Aiding Machining 727

3. Under what condition of manufacturing by 9. Show by simple sketches the general methods
machining, use of fixtures or jigs is justified. of supporting blank (workpiece) in jig and fix-
Explain with a specific example. tures for machining.
4. Mention the essential components of any fix- 10. Draw an adjustable supporting pin and briefly
ture and jig used in machining shops and also explain its functioning in jig or fixture.
state the functions of those components. 11. What factors are essentially considered while
5. What factors need to be considered while designing for clamping the workpiece in any
designing any fixture or jig to be used in fixture or jig before machining?
machining shop? 12. Show by simple diagrams the various meth-
6. State the basic principles of designing for ods or ways of clamping workpiece in any
location of workpieces or blanks for machin- fixture.
ing in a fixture. Describe briefly with the help 13. Describe briefly with the help of suitable dia-
of simple sketches the methods of grams, the methods of quick-clamping of job
(a) location by Vee-block in the fixture or jig by
(b) sight location (a) quick acting (clamping) nut
7. Describe briefly with the help of suitable (b) using cam and lever
sketches the methods of locating blank in fix- (c) quick acting screw or bayonet type
tures by using system
(a) flat surfaces and pins 14. Where, when and why are jig-bushes used?
(b) pre-machined holes What factors are considered while designing
(c) mandril or plug for jig-bushing?
8. State the basic principles and rules that are 15. Show by simple sketches, different types of
followed while designing for supporting the bushes being used in jigs for tool guidance.
workpiece in any fixture or jig.

PR O B L E M S
With Answer
1. Design and draw a jig for drilling a diametric 2. For 150 radial piston pumps the MS rotor
through hole in a number of pre-machined discs are to be produced. Design and draw
brass rods as shown in Fig. 24.51. a jig suitable for drilling the six equispaced
through radial holes as shown in Fig. 24.52.
6, Holes of ∅ =16
are to be drilled
30

30
A

20
50
∅100
∅40

Figure 24.51

Hint: The desired jig will be similar to that A

Section A – A
shown in Figure 24.34.
Figure 24.52

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 728 Machining and Machine Tools

Hint: The jig required for the given task will 3. Schematically draw a fixture suitable for cut-
be very similar to that shown in Fig. 24.36 in ting four equispaced slots in mild steel discs
the text. The only difference will be 6 holes having pre-machined axial hole of diameter 25
instead of 4 holes for indexing purpose. mm as shown in Fig. 24.55.
A
10
Without Answer
12
1. Design and draw a jig for reamer-finishing the
hole already drilled in a number of pre-ma-
chined rectangular cast iron blocks as shown ∅25
∅80
in Fig. 24.53.
Hole (∅20) to be 80
finished by reaming
A
50
Figure 24.55
30

4. In a batch production, a rectangular slot has

30 to be cut by end mill cutter in pre-machined
rectangular cast iron blocks as shown in Fig.
20

24.56. Schematically design and draw a fixture

suitable for this work.
65
Figure 24.53

2. Design and schematically draw a fixture suitable

10 45
for cutting a rectangular slot in a batch of pre-
machined cast iron discs having a central hole
A A
of 25 mm diameter as shown in Fig. 24.54.
40
A
16 12
12

45

∅25
∅60 Section A – A

Figure 24.56

A
5. A through hole is to be drilled in pre-machined
hollow cylindrical brass pieces in a batch pro-
Figure 24.54 duction as shown in Fig. 24.57. Schematically
design and draw a suitable jig for such purpose.

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 Design and Application of Jigs and Fixtures for Aiding Machining 729

Hole, ∅6

60
30

∅30
∅50

∅6

Figure 24.57

6. Design and draw a jig with suitable bush to aid mating two close drilled holes is pre-machined cast iron
plates as shown in Fig 24.58.

10
8

10

Hole, ∅6 25

30
8

Figure 24.58

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MAMT_Chapter 24.indd 730 7/21/2011 12:14:48 PM
 25 Computer Numerical
Controlled Machine Tools
Learning Objectives
The contents of this chapter would enable the readers to:
• Be aware of the historical background and • Distinguish between conventional and simi-
necessity behind the advent and gradual lar but NC machine tools in respect of con-
incorporation of flexible automation in struction, operational control, advantages and
machine tools. applications.
• Define, characterize and illustrate numerical • Identify the advantageous roles of the inbuilt
control system w.r.t. machine tools. computer in CNC machine tools and machin-
• Be conversant with and use the coordinate ing centres.
system and dimensioning systems associated • Write manual part programs for various machin-
with NC machine tools. ing operations in different NC and CNC machine
• Demonstrate the principles of control of tools using the standard codes available.
motion or path of tool/work in NC and • Prepare computer aided part programs for
CNC machine tools using linear and circular different machining tasks using available pro-
interpolation. gramming languages like APT.

25.1 Introduction
Development and implementation of mechanization and automation in manufacturing processes and sys-
tems including machining and machine tools revolutionized the industry, society and economy by enabling
the quick availability of quality goods in large numbers. Demand for such goods has increased exponentially
over the last few decades due to population explosion and solvency of a section of the people. Automation
could rise up to the glorious stage of mass production by transfer machines. But present and future trends
have inherently changed to batch production for rapid progress in science and technology, taste and solvency
of the purchasers, and competitiveness and challenges in defense. In batch and piece production, the prod-
ucts and the machining requirements change very frequently, and conventional automatic systems which are
very expensive and rigid that is, dedicated for fixed type of products cannot cope with this. The necessity and
attempts to overcome this problem have led to the innovation, development and incorporation of flexible
automation. Spectacular improvements in electronics and computers have enabled such flexible automatic

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 732 Machining and Machine Tools

numerically controlled (NC) or computer numerically controlled (CNC) machine tools to easily and quickly
change the desired tool–work motions – location, direction, length and speed – simply by a few alphanumeric
statements called part programs.
To enhance capability, versatility and overall economy, a number of stand-alone CNC machine tools
have later been combined into machining centres (MCs). Frequent users of NCs, CNCs and MCs must
be thoroughly conversant and capable of writing suitable part programs, both manually and taking com-
puter aid.
Designers, manufacturers and users of modern sophisticated machine tools need thorough knowledge of
the basic constructional features, functional characteristics and advantageous applications of such modern
machining systems to prepare suitable process plans and part programs for the various machining tasks. This
chapter addresses all these aspects.

25.2 Basic Principles and Applications

25.2.1 Historical Background
There have been several breakthroughs in numerical control (NC), especially computerized numerical
control (CNC) since the mid-1960s in the field of machine tools and computer aided manufacturing
(CAM).[1–7]
Conventional automation, called hard or fixed automation, of machine tools or machining systems like
transfer machines made them extremely suitable for mass production,[2,8,9] which not only enables meeting
the growing demand of any product in huge quantity, but also reduces the cost of manufacture per piece.
However, present and future trends are changing rapidly from mass production to batch production due
to fast progress in science and technology, quick changes in taste and solvency of people, and competition
amongst the industries, especially due to globalization and cost competitiveness. These trends require fre-
quent changes in the product and the product’s configuration. The amount of effort, time and additional cost
to be incurred for such frequent changeovers become huge due to the requirement of replacement, redesign
and resetting of several parts of hard automation machine tools to suit the new product. As a result, machine
tools with hard or fixed automation are not economically justified for batch production. This critical problem
has been elegantly solved by the development and incorporation of flexible automation, which has enabled
product changeover to be easy, quick and inexpensive. Figure 25.1(a) schematically shows the relative role of
fixed automation and flexible automation of machine tools on machining cost per piece. Numerical control
and computerization are the heart of this flexible automation.
Numerical control refers to the digital control of the functional operations of the machine tools related
to the tool–work motions for accomplishing the desired machining work. Numerical control is character-
ized by a preplanned set of instructions, called a program, presented in the form of alphanumeric codes and
used to control the tool–work motions and other related auxiliary functions like tool-change, cutting fluid
application, etc. The NC system is the basis of flexible automation and is also known as programmable
automation.[1,2,4,7,9]
In NC machine tools, each travelling motion of the tool or the workpiece is controlled by an input com-
mand given in the form of a definite number of pulses. Each pulse corresponds to a very small angular rota-
tion, like one-hundredth of a rotation of a stepper motor or servomotor, which leads to a very small linear
movement of the tool or workpiece. This small length of motion, called basic length unit (BLU), may be as
low as 2–10 μm.

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 Computer Numerical Controlled Machine Tools 733

Conventionally automatic
Manufacturing cost per piece

Manufacturing cost per piece

machine tool

Conventionally
automatic machine tool

Non-automatic

NC machine tool
NC machine
tool
Volume of production Product complexity
(a) (b)

Figure 25.1 Advantage of NC machine tool over conventional machine tools w.r.t. (a) volume of
production and (b) complexity of the product.

The major advantages of the NC system, that is, of flexible automation[7, 9] over conventional fixed or hard
automation with respect to machine tools are:

1. High flexibility, enabling easy, quick and inexpensive changeover from one product to another.
2. High positioning accuracy.
3. Repeatability, consistency and reliability ensuring close tolerance and interchangeability.
4. Ability to produce complex shaped products with marginal increase in cost as indicated in
Fig. 25.1(b).
5. Little or no need for jigs and fixtures.
6. Easier and faster tool–work setting and tool-change.
7. Less frequent and less severe failure due to lesser number of mechanical parts unlike in machine tools
with hard automation.
8. Increased productivity due to lesser down time and idle time, quick tool change and less rejections.
9. High and consistent accuracy, reducing the time and cost of inspection and assembly.
10. Enhancement of comfort and morale of the workers involved.

However, the use of NC and CNC machine tools also has some limitations[10]:

1. The initial investment and hourly rate of NC machine tools are much higher due to its higher cost
compared to its equivalent conventional machine tool.
2. The operators of NC machine tools need to be more knowledgeable, skilled and well trained for
process planning, part programming and tool–work setting.
3. NC machines are not economically viable for mass production and for products of simple configura-
tion as indicated in Fig. 25.1.
4. NC machines need to be housed in a well-conditioned environment.

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 734 Machining and Machine Tools

25.2.2 Basic Working Principle of Numerical Control (NC)

The NC system is used in machine tools mainly for automatic control[1,2,7,9] of the following functions:
1. Start, stop, speed and direction of rotation of the spindle(s).
2. Start, end, direction, speed and length of travel of the workpiece or tool.
3. On and off of cutting fluid application.
4. Tool change.
Machine tools need control of speed and length of travel of one or more slides in desired directions for tool-
feed (e.g., in lathes) or work-feed (e.g., in milling machines) or positioning the workpiece against the tool
(e.g., in drilling and boring machines). These movements are controlled by a number of rigid and strong
mechanical, hydraulic or electro-mechanical devices or systems in conventionally automatic machine tools.
However, in NC systems, these motions are controlled digitally by special motors, lead screws and part pro-
grams, that is , by input commands in the form of a number of pulses. An NC system can govern tool–work
motions[2,7,9] by open loop or closed loop control as schematically shown in Fig. 25.2 for a single axis of
motion.
The number of pulses is determined by dividing the desired length of travel by BLU of the system as
Lt
Number of pulses = (25.1)
BLU
where BLU = yUi p. Here y is the angle resolution of the stepper motor or the encoder which monitors the
amount of rotation of the lead screw in a closed loop control system, Ui is the transmission ratio of the gear
box (if any) and p is the pitch or lead of the lead screw.

Input pulses
Workpiece
Slide
Guide
Ui p

Stepper motor Gear box Leadscrew

(a)
Comparator

Servo motor Gear box

Signal
Encoder
Input + = DAC
pulses −
Ui p

Feedback
(b)

Figure 25.2 Open and closed loop control of work–tool travel by NC system. (a) Open loop control of
feed motion and (b) closed loop control of feed motion.

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 Computer Numerical Controlled Machine Tools 735

Example 25.1 If y = 1/100th division of one rotation, Ui = 1/4, p = 4 mm and Lt (length of

travel) = 24.50 mm, then evaluate BLU and number of pulses required for travel-
ling 25.4 mm.

Solution: We have
1
BLU = 1100
/ × × 4 = 0.01 mm or 10 μm
4
The required number of pulses for travelling 25.4 mm would be
24.5 mm
Number of pulses = = 2450 (this must be an integer)
0.01 mm

In open loop control [shown in Fig. 25.2(a)], the stepper motor is entrusted to rotate by 2450 incremental
steps (pulses) without confirmation of the effect by feedback. Whereas, in closed loop control, the actual rota-
tion of the lead screw is on-line-monitored by an encoder fitted at its end and is sent as feedback in the form
of pulses to the comparator as shown in Fig. 25.2(b). The moment the signal, that is, the difference between
the number of input and feedback pulses becomes zero, the motor stops to assure travel of the slide exactly
by the desired or stipulated length.
Figure 25.3 schematically visualizes the construction and working principle of an NC system in a machine
tool typically for controlling the movement of the worktable in a particular direction.
Each of the work–tool feed motions is controlled by separate NC circuits. An NC system, as shown in
Fig. 25.3, consists mainly of
1. A tape reader (if the input is given through tape).
2. A machine control unit (MCU).
3. A servomechanism.
4. Kinematic chains (for tool or work motions in different axes, see Chapter 21).
5. A feedback unit.

25.2.2.1 Tape Reader

In NC machine tools, the machining instructions are properly coded in sequence to prepare the part program
and then stored or recorded in a tape by means of punched holes in proper array. The punched tape in the

Feedback
End mill
Tape reader Servo mechanism (encoder)
cutter Workpiece
and power drive

Signal
MCU

Machine control
unit Gear box Leadscrew

Feedback signal

Figure 25.3 NC system for single-axis travel of a machine tool table.

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 736 Machining and Machine Tools

form of a reel is inserted in a tape reader which may be electromechanical, optical or electronic. The tape
reader may be located within the MCU.

25.2.2.2 Machine Control Unit (MCU)

The machine control unit basically comprises two functional units, namely the data processing unit (DPU)
and the control loop unit (CLU). The DPU receives the coded instructions from the tape reader, decodes
and processes those instructions and finally transfers them block by block to the CLU for execution with the
help of the servomotor, lead screw and feedback unit. Each block of information provides the location of the
next position of the tool or workpiece along the X-Y-Z axes of the machine tool, the direction and speed of
travel, the spindle speed and the relevant auxiliary control signals to relays. The DPU generally contains the
tape reading unit, decoding circuits for distribution of data among the controlled axes and the interpolator
for velocity commands, whereas the CLU contains the position control loops, velocity control loops, and the
auxiliary function controls for on or off, gear change, cutting fluid on and off and spindle on and off. DPU
is basically software-based and CLU is mostly hardware-based.

25.2.2.3 Servomechanism
This is essentially used for application of the command signals received from the MCU and for controlled
running of the driving motor to attain desirable movements of the worktable against the cutting tool.

25.2.2.4 Feedback Unit

In NC machine tools having closed loop control, the actual length of travel of the tool or worktable along
any axis is on-line recorded by an electronic device called encoder which continuously monitors the amount
of rotation of the lead screw in terms of number of pulses. The feedback unit sends that information in real
time to the MCU for comparison with the number of input command pulses.

25.2.3 Coordinate Systems in NC (and CNC) Machine Tools

Based on the basic configuration and the major tool–work motions, each class of NC and CNC machine
tool is marked with a specific coordinate system,[7,11] mostly the right-hand Cartesian coordinate system as
indicated in Fig. 25.4.
The Z-axis is preferably taken along the axis of the spindle used to rotate the job (in a lathe) or tool (in a
milling machine, drilling machine, boring machine, etc.) as indicated in Figs. 25.5(a)–(c), respectively.
The feed travels of the tool or workpiece for machining remain mostly in the XY-plane of the machine
tools requiring 2-D control (turning, drilling, boring, planing, and plain and face milling). Occasionally, 3-D
control of tool–work travel along x, y and z is required for machining complex-shaped products as indicated
in Fig. 25.6. An NC machine tool can be four-axis and even five-axis type if some additional features like
swiveling of bed and tilting of spindle exist.

25.2.4 Dimensioning of Products and Programming Tool–Work Movements

The dimensions of a geometrically shaped object can be described in two modes, namely absolute mode and
incremental mode[2,7] as typically shown in Fig. 25.7.

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 Computer Numerical Controlled Machine Tools 737

Z+
C+

Y+

B+

X+
A+

Figure 25.4 Right hand coordinate system used in NC machine tools.

Z+

Y+ X+

X+ Z+

(a) (b)

Z+
X+
Y+

(c)

Figure 25.5 Coordinates of NC (a) lathes, (b) vertical drilling (and boring) and (c) milling machines.

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 738 Machining and Machine Tools

Z (+)
End mill
Workpiece

Worktable

X(+)

Y(−)

Figure 25.6 Machining a complex-shaped job by end milling cutter using NC in 3-D.

30
50 50 10
60 10
90
100
(a) (b)

Figure 25.7 Systems of dimensioning: (a) Absolute and (b) incremental systems.

The feed travels or positions of the tool or worktable in NC machine tools are programmed according to
the dimensions of the features to be machined. This can be done in both absolute and incremental modes as
indicated in Fig. 25.8, where (say) four holes of same diameter are to be drilled in a hollow plate.
If, for instance, the centre of the pre-machined large central hole in the plate is taken as the origin or
machine zero point in XY-plane as shown schematically in Fig. 25.8(a), the desired table movements along

Z+ Y+
Y+
4 1

X+ X+

3 2

(a) (b)

Figure 25.8 Programming for worktable movement in 2D: (a) Actual shape and (b) plan view.

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 Computer Numerical Controlled Machine Tools 739

X and Y axes for drilling the four holes, 1, 2, 3 and 4 can be programmed in both absolute or incremental
modes. For that, the statements (part of the program) will look like

For hole − 1: X + 11, Y + 6 X + 11, Y + 6

hole − 2: X + 11, Y − 6 X 0, Y − 12
hole − 3: X − 11, Y − 6 X − 22, Y 0
hole − 4: X − 11, Y + 6 X 0, Y + 12
backhome: X 0, Y 0 X + 11, Y − 6
position absolute program incremental program

In absolute mode, the coordinates of all the locations are given in reference to the origin and in incremental
mode, the coordinates of any location are referred to the coordinates of the latest location or position. The
origin or starting point (X0, Y0) can be taken at any convenient point.

25.2.5 Point-to-Point and Continuous Path Control[2,7,9,11]

Numerical control systems of NC machine tools can be broadly classified according to:
1. Control loop, as open loop or closed loop.
2. Controller’s structure, as hardware-based NC or software-based CNC, etc.
3. Programming, as absolute or incremental.
4. Type of machine tool functioning, as point-to-point or continuous path (i.e., contouring).

25.2.5.1 Point-to-Point (PTP) Systems

In point-to-point NC systems, only the positioning of the worktable (or tool in some cases) requires NC
irrespective of the path of travel. The desired work (such as machining) is done only after reaching the stipu-
lated location(s). The worktable remains stationary until machining is stopped and the tool and the work
are separated. There will be no machining or any work during shifting of the table for positioning. Drilling
machine is a good example of a PTP-type NC machine tool. Referring to Fig. 25.8, after drilling hole-1 and
withdrawing the drill, the worktable with the plate clamped on it is moved by NC along the X and Y axes
so as to position the axis of the hole-2, to be drilled next, exactly under the drill-axis. Similarly after drilling
hole-2 the worktable is moved for positioning the axis of hole-3 and so on. During table positioning by NC,
the feed motors and the lead screws are not loaded with any cutting forces. So in PTP-type NC machines like
NC and CNC drilling machines, stepper motors may be used for moving the worktable.

25.2.5.2 Contouring System and Interpolation

An NC milling machine is a good example of a kind of machine where machining work goes on along the
travelling path while moving the worktable from location to location as desired and programmed. The cut-
ting forces keep the feed motors and the lead screws loaded with torque and power transmission while the
worktable is moved by NC. So, in contouring-type NC machine tools, servomotors instead of weak stepper
motors are used for driving the lead screws. Stepper motors become unstable under high speed and torque.

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 740 Machining and Machine Tools

In contouring-type NC machine tools, the trajectory of the paths must be well defined and suitably
programmed. The feed rate of machining, that is, the speed of work or tool travel is also mentioned in the
program. Contouring may be of three types:
1. Straight cuts along any orthogonal axis (X, Y, Z ) like turning, grooving, slotting, slitting, etc. along
or parallel to the X, Y or Z axis of the machine tool.
2. Straight but inclined or slant cuts in 2-D requiring simultaneous movements along any two axes or
along all the three axes for 3-D.
3. Continuous cuts along curved paths in 2-D or 3-D.
Straight cuts along the X, Y or Z axis can be accomplished by PTP-type NC. But inclined straight cuts and cuts
along circular paths need linear and circular interpolation[2, 10–13] to be accomplished by the DPU for determin-
ing the speeds of simultaneous travels along more than one axis.

Linear Interpolation
This is essentially required in an NC machine tool while contouring or continuous cut along a straight
path which is not along or parallel to any of the axes X, Y or Z. This can be easily understood from a simple
example given in Fig. 25.9.
For a straight cut in the XY plane (Fig. 25.9), say an end milling cutter has to move from point A to B at
a speed (feed velocity) Vf . Actually, the position of the cutter remains fixed, say at A(0, 0), and the worktable
has to move from B(a, b) to A(0, 0). But feed motions are available along the axes X and Y only, where each
axis of motion is provided and controlled by a separate motor and position control loop. Therefore, the cut
along AB is to be obtained as a resultant of moving simultaneously, by a length a along the X-axis and a length
b along the Y-axis. Now the speeds of travel Vx along the X-axis and Vy along the Y-axis are to be determined
and commanded to the individual axis drive. This is done by means of an interpolator (here it is a linear inter-
polator) contained in the DPU. By means of this interpolator, the DPU processes the received programmed
feed rate Vf to determine the velocity commands Vx and Vy for the X- and Y-axes of motion.
From Fig. 25.9, the time (Δt) required to move from A to B is evaluated from

AB a2 + b2
Δt = = (25.2)
Vf Vf
So,
a aVf
Vx = =
Δt a2 + b2

Y
a B(a,b)

Cut path

Vf
Vy b

A(0,0)
X
Vx

Figure 25.9 Continuous cut along a straight but inclined path in an NC machine tool.

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 Computer Numerical Controlled Machine Tools 741

b bVf
and Vy = = (25.3)
Δt a2 + b2

The commands Vx and Vy are provided by the interpolator in the form of number of pulses per second.

Circular Interpolation
The generation of a curved path and even a well-defined circular path in an NC machine tool needs
segmentation of the desired curved path as indicated in Fig. 25.10. Movement along each straight line
segment can be done by linear interpolation. In this case, the end points of all the segments are to be
specified. If the programmer has to specify all those end points with minute segmentation for desirably
high accuracy and surface finish, the work would be very tedious and time consuming. This problem is
solved by evolving the scheme of circular interpolation which breaks the curved path suitably into a large
number of small straight line segments and evaluates the locations of their end points to be followed
sequentially. The programmer has only to state the coordinates of the two extreme end points of the
circular path and its centre of curvature and the direction of the path of travel as typically illustrated in
Fig. 25.11.

Deviation or tolerance

End or nodal
Desired curved path
points

Line segments

Figure 25.10 Segmentation for cutting curved surfaces in NC machine tools.

10

C D

5
(i, j)
B 5
G 10

A E X
15
(0,0)

Figure 25.11 Use of circular interpolation in an NC machine tool for machining a circular path.

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 742 Machining and Machine Tools

Here the coordinates (in XY plane) of the starting, centre and end points are

Starting point B : ( −15, 5) ⎫

⎪
End point C : ( −10, 10)⎬ in mm (say)
Centre G : ( −10, 5) ⎪
⎭
Then, for BLU = 10 microns, the line statement or dimension words portion in the block for cutter move-
ment from the starting point B to the end point C would be
1. In case of absolute dimensioning:
X −10000 Y 10000 i −10000 j 05000
2. In case of incremental dimensioning:
X 05000 Y 05000 i 05000 j 00000
The block number, path direction and feed rate are provided along the corresponding dimension words. In
such an NC system, the arc portion has to be in a major plane, that is, XY, YZ or ZX plane. The arc portion
in each quadrant is specified separately in different blocks. Other interpolations like helical interpolation and
parabolic interpolation are used for more complex configurations.

25.2.6 Operation and Control of NC Machine Tools

25.2.6.1 Basic NC System
Most engineering components requiring dimensional accuracy and surface finish are produced by machin-
ing and/or grinding preformed blanks in suitable machine tools. This requires proper planning and action
depending upon the production requirements including configuration, dimensions and material of the blanks,
as well as volume, rate and economy of production and availability of resources. Figure 25.12 illustrates the
procedural steps that are generally followed for machining any job in a conventional machine tool.

Experience

Design Component

Part Process Instruction

Control
drawing plan sheet
Monitor
Resources Objective m/c tool
opn.

Product Chip
disposal
Inspection

Figure 25.12 General procedure of manufacturing by machining in any conventional machine tool.

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 Computer Numerical Controlled Machine Tools 743

The sequential steps are:

1. First, design the product using knowledge and experience and considering its functional requirements.
2. Thoroughly study the machining requirements from the part drawings and make a suitable process
planning using knowledge and experience in machining and machine tools.
3. Prepare an instruction sheet or operation chart showing, in sequence, the elementary machining
operations to be carried out and the corresponding machining parameters (speed, feed and depth),
tools, cutting fluid application, etc.
4. Operate and control the machine tool following the operation chart.
5. Monitor, off-line or on-line, the condition of the products, cutting tools and the machine tool and
take action accordingly at the levels of operator or process plan, etc.
Conventional (without NC) machine tools are operated and controlled either manually (by the operator) or
semi-automatically or automatically by fixed or hard automation systems. Production by machining in NC
machine tools also follows almost the same procedural steps at least upto scheduling and preparation of the
operation chart or instruction sheet. Figure 25.13 schematically shows the general principle of use of an NC
machine tool.
The major differences between an NC machine tool and a similar conventional machine tool are:
1. NC machine tools have flexible automation.
2. Manual control by the operator is eliminated.
3. All the instructions, both dimensional and management, are digitally coded and stored in a tape
which is fed in the reader unit of the main controller (MCU).
4. Spindle drives are mostly stepless type.
5. Each tool–work feed-motion is controlled individually by an open loop or closed loop NC drive.
6. The kinematic structure of NC machine tools is elementary type of Eii.
7. Table feed motions are accomplished by servo motors (occasionally by stepper motors) and precision
lead screws having re-circulating balls.
In an NC system, the instructions are re-written in coded form as a part program and stored digitally by
punching holes along rows and columns according to some standard code in a paper or plastic tape. There are
generally ‘8’ tracks enabling a maximum of 8 holes in a row. Each row of holes represents a character which
may be a digit, a letter or an algebraic sign. A set of characters comprises a complete word. A set of words

Punched tape
Part
drawing m/c control unit, MCU
Opn. Reader Store Control
sheet

Machine
tool

Feed-
back

Figure 25.13 Machining principle in NC machine tools.

MAMT_Chapter 25.indd 743 7/21/2011 12:15:52 PM

 744 Machining and Machine Tools

constitute a statement or instruction or a piece of information related to a positioning or a machining cut.

The sets of words or lines of statement are stored block by block in the tape, and a set of blocks provides the
part program to complete a machining task.
There are different standard codes for storing characters by punched holes. Figure 25.14 shows how
characters are stored by punching holes as per the popular EIA (Electronic Industries Association) code. In
between the third and fourth tracks exists the sprocket track. A single hole is punched only in the 8th (last)
track to indicate end of a block.
Instead of detailing NC machine tools further, it is worth mentioning that even such unique NC machine
tools, which became popular around 1960, became obsolete within almost 10 years mainly because of
1. Inability of editing, that is, addition, alteration, modification, etc. after storing a part program in the
punched tape.
2. Unusability of the tape if distorted by tearing, greasing, etc.
3. Storage problem – for wide ranges of products a large number of tapes (reels) needed to be prepared
and preserved.
4. Very slow action due to word-by-word reading and execution, caused by use of mostly hardware base
and very short memory.
5. Need of additional device, space and time for punching.

25.2.6.2 Computerized Numerical Control

The advent of computerized numerical control (CNC) in around 1970 was another breakthrough in the field
of machine tools in particular and manufacturing in general. The dedicated microcomputer replaced the hard-
ware by software enabling very fast and precision control, storage of huge information and user-friendliness.
The remarkable and major advantages of CNC machine tools over NC machine tools are[1,2,7,9]:
1. No need of preparation and preservation of tape for any part program or product.
2. Very user-friendly, enabling downloading of part programs easily, quickly and in-situ through the
keyboard.
3. Ability of editing, that is, addition, alteration or modification of any program easily and quickly.
4. A large number of programs can be stored in the computer memory and any one of those programs
can be called any time and run and as many times as required.
5. The CNC software enables control of many other operations such as tool change, turret indexing,
spindle speed, etc.
6. Computer software enables quick change of unit, dimension mode, scale, tool offsets, etc.
7. Part programs can be prepared by playback.
8. High speed and large memory of the computer enables production of circular and other contoured
paths very speedily and precisely by more efficient interpolation.
9. Advantageous use of canned turning, do loop, subroutines, etc. which makes part programming easy.
10. CNC enables combining CAD-CAM data and also remote control by PC.
11. CNC can also provide a dry run (visible on the screen) before downloading the program for actual
machining.
CNC machine tools are so versatile, flexible, productive and cost effective that, unlike NC machine tools,
CNC machine tools are surviving and being used increasingly over several decades for piece production,
batch production and even lot production.

MAMT_Chapter 25.indd 744 7/21/2011 12:15:52 PM

 Computer Numerical Controlled Machine Tools 745

EIA 244A
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
EL X O CH 8 4 2 1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
j
k
l
m
n
o
p
q
r
s
t
u
v
w
x
y
z
. (period)
, (comma)
/
+ (plus)
– (minus)
space
delete
carr, ret, or end of block
backspace
tab
end of record

Figure 25.14 Storage of characters in punched tapes under EIA code.

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 746 Machining and Machine Tools

25.3 Construction and Operation of CNC Machine Tools and

Machining Centres
25.3.1 Basic Construction and Working Principle of CNC Machine
Tools[1–3,7,10,11]
Though CNC machine tools and NC machine tools look alike, the main difference is that the NC system
is mostly hardware-based and CNC is mostly software-based. Such replacement of hardware by software
through replacing the MCU by a computer integrated controller has enhanced the capabilities of CNC
machine tools very spectacularly. The remaining hardware part comprising the servo amplifiers, transducing
circuits, feed drives, etc. is also simplified in CNC machine tools. Figure 25.15 schematically shows the basic
elements of CNC machine tools. The CNC software contains three major programs:
1. Part program, which contains the description of the geometry and dimensions of the features of the
part to be machined, the required tool–work motions in sequence and the desired values of spindle
speeds and table feeds.

Micro computer
Input
Part program Service program Machine tool
device
hardware
Control program

Z-axis drive

Y-axis drive

X- axis drive

Encoder
Table feed

GB

Tacho generator

Positional feedback

Velocity feedback

Figure 25.15 Basic working principle of CNC machine tool.

MAMT_Chapter 25.indd 746 7/21/2011 12:15:52 PM

 Computer Numerical Controlled Machine Tools 747

2. Service program which is used to check and edit the part program.
3. Control program which, based on the part program, generates the signals in the form of the number
and frequency of pulses to drive the different axes of motion. The control program accomplishes
interpolation, control of feeds with acceleration and retardation and also receives the position feed-
back and velocity feedback from the encoders and the axes-drives (lead screws) respectively for com-
paring with the input commands and creating signals for driving the power sources.
The encoder is an electronic device[13] that generates signals corresponding to each step of rotation of the
lead screw (or any shaft) on which the encoder is coaxially mounted. One step may be one-hundredth of a
full rotation. The number of steps is monitored and converted into pulses. Each pulse corresponds to 1 BLU.
The continuously changing numbers of pulses are fed back into the controller for comparison with the input
commanded (number of pulses). A tachogenerator is a device which converts the speed of rotation into pro-
portional voltage. It monitors speed and the table feed rates which are conveyed in real time to the controller
to control the table feed rate(s), etc.

25.3.2 Machining Centres[1,2,10,11,13]

Most conventional machine tools are made available in the form of corresponding stand-alone CNC machine
tools such as CNC lathe, CNC drilling machine, CNC milling machine, CNC boring machine, CNC grind-
ing machine, etc. to derive the benefits of the CNC system and to cater to the present and future trend of
piece and batch production.
Since around 1980, with the desire for greater utilization of the unique flexibility and high capability of
the CNC systems and further economization, a few similar CNC stand-alone machine tools were combined
into versatile systems namely machining centres, turning centres, etc. A turning centre is a centre (machine) of
machining work usually done by lathes, drilling machines and boring machines. Similarly a machining centre
is a combination mainly of a CNC milling machine, drilling machine and boring machine. A typical turning
centre and a typical machining centre are shown in Figs. 25.16 and 25.17, respectively. Such CNC centres of
machining are becoming more and more popular and are being increasingly used in industries.

Figure 25.16 Turning centre (courtesy: LMW, India).

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 748 Machining and Machine Tools

Figure 25.17 Machining centre (courtesy: BFW, India).

Machining centres, for example, are characterized (distinguished from stand-alone CNC milling machines)
mainly by their
1. Greater versatility.
2. Large bank or storage of various types of cutting tools (20−250).
3. Automatic and quick tool change by automatic tool changer (ATC).
4. Saving in total space requirement, number of operators and in overall production time and mainte-
nance cost.
The capability and versatility of these CNC centres of various machining work could be further enhanced
by incorporating on-line condition monitoring of the machine–tool–workpiece system, adaptive control and
more axes of motions or degrees of freedom like tilting of the spindle axes and swivelling of the table.

25.3.3 Manual Part Programming for Machining Jobs in CNC Machine Tools
Part programming for machining products in CNC machine tools including turning centres, machining
centres, etc. are usually done[1,2,6,7,9,10–13] in two ways:
1. Manually for relatively simple jobs.
2. With the aid of computers, when the task is quite complex requiring a lot of calculations for opti-
mum tool-path generation, complex interpolation, repetitive cycles, etc.
However, programming has to be effective, efficient and economic as far as possible to get the machining
work done involving lesser time, effort and expenses but without sacrificing productivity and product quality.
Part programming for any component is carried out following some sequential steps, [10] which are:
1. A thorough study of the machining requirements and capability of the CNC machine tool.
2. Proper selection and preparation of the blank, cutting tools and clamping of the blank.
3. Suitable process planning to decide the machining operations, their sequence and the corresponding
tools and cutting fluid application.

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 Computer Numerical Controlled Machine Tools 749

4. Appropriate selection of machining parameters, that is, spindle speed, table feeds, etc.
5. Proper planning of the tool-path.
6. Writing the program following the rules and languages of programming.
7. Checking the part program before it is downloaded in the machine tool for actual machining.
The programmer should be well aware of the axes system of the CNC machine tool and the dimensioning
methods. A suitable starting point or datum is chosen depending upon the configuration of the blank and its
machining requirements. An attempt is generally made to keep the entire job in the first quadrant of the coor-
dinate system and take the Z-axis datum on the job surface to have the coordinates of the end points mostly
positive for avoiding errors. Generally, a floating datum is taken to facilitate programming. Simple standard
and commercially available tools unlike form tools, compound tools, etc. are preferably selected.

25.3.3.1 Post Program Checking

The part program, after writing, is checked for any error, possibility of further improvement and safety of the
machine–fixture–tool–work system. Any error or mistake, if not corrected before downloading the program
for actual machining in the CNC machine tool, may lead not only to inaccuracy of the product but also to
severe damages by fouling, over riding, over shooting, etc. The written part programs are usually checked or
verified in the following ways:
1. By a dry run in the computer screen to animate the tool–work motions with the programmed pro-
cess parameters.
2. By an idle run of the program in the actual machine tool but without machining action that is,
without blanks or tools or by keeping the tool at a distance from the actual work surface.
3. By plotting the tool-path in 2-D on the screen or on a plotter.
Part program actually means a series of lines of coded statements providing all the dimensional and manage-
ment instructions necessary for sequentially machining a product according to the part drawing in any NC
or CNC machine tool. Each line contains the information necessary to accomplish an elementary machining
by a tool in same setting. This set of commands given in a line is called a block. So a part program is written
and executed block by block. Each block or line statement contains a number of words in proper sequence
and notations. A word is the minimum unit for specifying any function and consists of an address expressed
by an alphabet followed by data, which is expressed by numerals including sign and decimals. A typical block
of work address format related to forming a circular fillet by turning in a CNC lathe or turning centre, as
indicated in Fig. 25.18, usually appears as

X+
X = 500 B R1
0
40

Z+ 10.5

Figure 25.18 Form turning in a CNC lathe or turning centre.

MAMT_Chapter 25.indd 749 7/21/2011 12:15:53 PM

 750 Machining and Machine Tools

N105 G03 X40.0 Z − 12.5 R10.0 S500 F0.10 T0707 M08

where the word(s)
N105 means that the line or block number is 105.
G03 means a preparatory function, such as a CCW rotation.
X40.0 and Z-12.5 indicate the coordinates of the end point B.
R10.0 indicates that the radius of curvature is 10 mm.
S500 stands for a spindle speed of 500 rev/min.
F0.10 means that the tool feed rate is 0.10 mm/rev.
T0707 stands for a standard tool and
M08 indicates the function ‘coolant pump on’.
All the words may not appear in all the line-statements and the words need not be written in any particular
sequence.

25.3.3.2 Manual Part Programming for Machining in CNC Lathes and Turning
Centres
Three lists of codes for different functions have been prepared for such part programming[1,2,7,10,14]:
1. Word address codes for different types of functions (Table 25.1).
2. G-codes for preparatory functions (Table 25.2).
3. M-codes for miscellaneous functions (Table 25.3).
Another list of codes for tool function is also used.

Table 25.1 Address characters (codes)

Alphabet Meaning/Used in
A Angular dimension (used in direct drawing dimension programming)
C Chamfering amount (automatic insertion of chamfers)
Incremental tool-nose radius value in G10
F Feed function
Lead of thread in G32, G76
G Preparatory function
H Macro function
I Thread taper height for taper threads in G92
M Miscellaneous function
N Sequence number/block number
O Program number

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 Computer Numerical Controlled Machine Tools 751

Table 25.1 (Continued)

Alphabet Meaning/Used in
P Designation of subprogram number with M98
Unconditional branching to block number with M99
Dwell time with G04 in milliseconds
Starting block number in G70, G71, G72, G73
Movement amount along X-axis in G74, G75
Thread height and cutting method in G76
Referring to wear offset or geometry offset in G10
Referring the variable name to which macro results are loaded
Q Ending block number in G70, G71, G72, G73
Movement amount along Z-axis in G74, G75
First depth of cut and minimum depth of cut in G76
Referring to the imaginary tool-nose number in G10
First variable name or value to be used in macros
R Radius of arc in G02, G03
Filled amount (automatic insertion of radius)
Retraction amount in G71, G72, G74, G75
Number of cuts in G73
Final depth of cut and thread taper height for taper threads in G76
Second variable name or value to be used in macros
S Speed function
T Tool function
U Incremental dimension in X-axis, distance for previous X value
Dwell time with G04
Finishing allowance along X-axis, diametrical value
Raw stock present and finishing allowance along X-axis in G73
Incremental offset modification along X-axis in G 10
W Incremental dimension in Z-axis. Distance from previous Z value
Finishing allowance along Z-axis, incremental value in G71, G72
Raw stock present and finishing allowance along X-axis in G73
X Absolute dimension in X-axis (diametrical value)
Y Absolute dimension in Y-axis (not for turning)
Z Absolute dimension in Z-axis (distances from job zero)

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 752 Machining and Machine Tools

Table 25.2 G-codes for preparatory functions

G00 Rapid positioning
G01 Linear interpolation
G02 Circular interpolation CW
G03 Circular interpolation CCW
G04 Dwell
G09 Exact stop
G10 Data setting
G20 Inch input
G21 Metric input
G28 Zero return
G32 Thread cutting
G40 Tool-nose radius compensation cancel
G41 Tool-nose radius compensation left
G42 Tool-nose radius compensation right
G50 Spindle maximum speed setting
G70 Finishing cycle
G71 Stock removal in turning
G72 Stock removal in facing
G73 Pattern repeating
G74 Peck drilling on Z-axis
G75 Grooving on X-axis
G76 Multiple threading cycle
G90 O.D./I.D. cutting cycle
G92 Thread cutting cycle
G94 Face cutting cycle
G96 Constant surface speed command
G97 Spindle speed command
G98 Feed per minute
G99 Feed per revolution

Table 25.3 M-codes for miscellaneous functions

M00 Temporary program stop
M01 Optional stop
M02, M300R Program end
M03 CW spindle rotation
M04 CCW spindle rotation
M05 Spindle stop
M08 Coolant pump ON
M09 Coolant pump OFF

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 Computer Numerical Controlled Machine Tools 753

Table 25.3 (Continued)

M10 Chuck clamp
M11 Chuck unclamp
M12 Tailstock quill OUT/(M25)
M13 Tailstock quill IN/(M26)
M17 Normal turret rotation
M19 Spindle orientation on
M20 Spindle orientation off
M30 Program end and rewind
M41 Spindle speed low
M42 Spindle speed high
M82 Chuck pressure 1
M83 Chuck pressure 2
M85 Auto door open
M86 Auto door close
M98 Sub-program call
M99 Sub-program end

A CNC machine tool programmer must be conversant with the speed function, feed function and tool function.

Speed Function [S∗∗∗∗]

Speed is generally designated by a positive number having a maximum of four digits following the address
letter ‘S’. The speed function is preceded by some G-functions like (see Table 25.2)
1. G50 for maximum speed (rpm).
2. G96 for speed in m/min.
3. G97 for speed in rpm.
The speed function may be followed by an M-function (see Table 25.3) like
1. M03 for CW spindle rotation.
2. M04 for CCW spindle rotation.
For example,
G50 S3000 − maximum spindle speed, 3000 rpm
G96 S150 M03 − spindle speed, 150 m/min, CW
G97 S600 M04 − spindle speed, 600 rpm, CCW

Feed Function [F∗∗∗∗∗]

Feed is designated by a number with decimal following the address letter ‘F’. Feed in CNC machines usually
ranges from 0.0001–500.000 mm/rev. The feed function may be preceded by some G-functions like
1. G01 for linear interpolation.
2. G02 for circular interpolation, CW.
3. G03 for circular interpolation, CCW.
4. G98 for feed in mm/min.

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 754 Machining and Machine Tools

For example,
G01 F0.25 − linear travel along a slant path at feed of 0.25 mm/rev.
G02 F0.10 − travel along a circular arc (CW) at feed of 0.10 mm/rev.
G03 G98 F100 − travel along a circular arc (CCW) at feed of 100 mm/min.
G99 F0.15 − feed, back to in mm/rev, and 0.15 mm/rev.

Tool Function [T∗∗∗∗]

Tool function is generally designated by a four digit number following ‘T’. The first two digits stand for tool-
station number and the later two digits for wear offset.

25.3.3.3 Examples of Part Programming for Machining in CNC Lathes and

Turning Centres

Example 25.2 A mild steel rod has to be machined to the shape and dimensions shown in Fig.
25.19. The diameter and length of the features are taken, as usual, in the X- and
Z-directions. The X-coordinates, however, are taken in terms of diameter, instead
of radial distance, as rods are generally specified by diameter and not by radius
(which cannot be directly measured). The part program suitable for machining the
job (Fig. 25.19) would be as follows:

80
70
50

R20
30
20
f 120
f 160
f 180
f 80

x+
Work diameter Tool position point

180 Start point

160

R20 X120
Z50 Z30
Z0
Z70 X80
Z80 Z20 X0
Z+
Z0

Figure 25.19 Features and dimension of a product to be finished in a CNC lathe.

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 Computer Numerical Controlled Machine Tools 755

Program Number (say 2456)

N1 G50 S0800 [max. spindle speed = 800 rpm]
G00 T0202 M41 [tool selected, low spindle speed]
G96 S150 M03 [surface speed = 150 m/min. CW job rotation]
G00 X182. Z2. [rapid positioning of the tool tip at outer corner of the
blank], Fig. 25.19
Z0.2 [tool 0.2 mm away from job face]
G01 X182. Z2 [slow tool-return to starting point]
Z0.2
G01 X-2. F0.2 [facing operation]
G00 X182. Z1. [tool return to start turning operations]
G71 U2.5 [depth of cut for turning cycle in number of passes]
G71 P777 Q888 U1 W0.25 F0.24
where G71 – stock removal by turning in steps
P777 – starting block number
Q888 – ending block number
U1 – finishing allowance in X
W0.25 – finishing allowance in Z
F0.24 – roughing feed = 0.24 mm/rev
N777 G00 X77. [rapid tool positioning]
G01 X80. Z-0.5 [chamfering at diameter 80 mm]
Z – 20. [straight turning at f = 80 mm]
X120. Z – 30. [tapering upto f = 120 mm]
Z – 50. [straight turning at f = 120 mm]
G02 X160. Z-70. R20. [radiusing (circular interpolation CW) upto f = 160 mm
with R = 20 mm]
G01 X180. Z-80. [tapering upto f = 180 mm]
N 888 G01 X182. [tool return by finishing the steps]
G00 X200. Z100. [back after cycle]
M01 [optional stop]

Example 25.3 Figure 25.20 shows the finished dimensions to be produced in a CNC lathe or
turning centre.

The part program may be as follows:

N1 (TURNING)
G50 S2000 [fixed max. spindle speed = 2000 rpm]
G00 T0505 M42 [tool selected and spindle speed is high]
G96 S100 M04 [surf. speed = 100 m/min, job rotation – CCW]
G42 G00 X40. Z1. [tool-nose radius compensation right, rapid tool positioning]
G71 U1.0 [stock removed cycle depth of cut = 1.0 mm]
G71 P1000 Q1100 U0.75 W0.2 F0.1 [stock removal with allowances 0.75 mm on diameter (X ) and
0.2 mm on length (Z), with feed = 0.1 mm/rev]

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 756 Machining and Machine Tools

3
R

M16X1.5

∅22
∅32
∅38
3 2X45°
10 6 15 4 15
All the dimensions are in mm
Not to scale

Figure 25.20 Feature and dimensions of the job (second example) to be finished in CNC lathe.

N1000 G00 X14. [tool position for starting the cycle]

G01 X16. Z-2. [taper turning at the front end]
G01 Z-21. [straight turning at f = 16 mm]
G01 X22. [facing (outward) upto f = 22 mm]
G01 X32. Z-36. [tapering upto f = 32 mm]
G01 Z-42. [straight turning at f = 32 mm]
G02 X38. Z-45. R3 [radiusing CW with radius = 3 mm]
G01 Z-55. [straight turning to f = 38 mm]
N 1100 G 01 X 41. [tool radially shifted to f = 41 mm]
G 40 G00 X200. Z100. [tool-nose radius compensation cancel, rapid tool back]
G00 G42 X200. Z1. [tool-nose radius compensation right, tool back along Z-axis]
G70 P1000 Q1100 F0.05 [finishing cycle ready]
G00 G40 X200. Z100. [tool-nose radius cancel, tool back home]
M05 [spindle stop]
M01 [optional stop]

N2 (GROOVING)
G28 U0 [zero return without depth of cut]
G28 W0 [zero return without shift in Z-axis]
G50 T0707 M42 [set to max. speed, select tool, high speed]
G96 S70 M04 [spindle speed = 70 m/min, spindle rotation CCW]
G00 X23. Z-21. [bring tool in position for grooving]
G01 X13.0 F0.008 [grooving to f = 13 mm at feed 0.008 mm/rev]
G01 X23. F5 [slow tool back at feed = 5.0 mm/rev]
M05 [spindle stop]
M01 [optional stop]

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 Computer Numerical Controlled Machine Tools 757

N3 (THREADING)
G28 U0 [zero return along X]
G28 W0 [zero return along Z]
G00 T0202 M41 [bring threading tool, job speed low]
G97 S300 M03 [speed 300 rpm, spindle rotation CW]
G00 X17. Z1.0 [position tool to start threading]
G76 P021060 Q75 R0.1 [multiple threading cycle]
G76 X13.872 Z-19. P1065 Q200 F1.5 [threading to p = 1.5 mm]
G00 X200. Z100. [tool back home]
M05 [spindle stop]
M30 [program end]

25.3.3.4 Manual Part Programming for Drilling and Milling

It is already mentioned that the word addresses as well as the coding of preparatory (G) functions and miscel-
laneous (M) functions have been standardized by the concerned international organizations. Some manufac-
turers also prepare the code lists for their machine tools. However, the methods of coding for turning, milling,
etc. by different organizations marginally differ.
Table 25.4 shows the ISO standard word addresses. The ISO standard G codes and M codes are presented
in Tables 25.5 and 25.6, respectively. They are conveniently used to make part programs for machining in
CNC milling, drilling and boring machines as well as in machining centres.

Table 25.4 ISO standard work addresses

Character Address for

A Angular dimension around X-axis
B Angular dimension around Y-axis
C Angular dimension around Z-axis
D Angular dimension around special axis or third feed function
E Angular dimension around special axis or second feed function
F Feed function
G Preparatory function
H Unassigned
I Distance to arc centre or thread lead parallel to X
J Distance to arc centre or thread lead parallel to Y
K Distance to arc centre or thread lead parallel to Z
L Do not use
M Miscellaneous function
N Sequence number
O Reference rewind stop
P Third rapid traverse dimension or tertiary motion dimension parallel to X ∗

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 758 Machining and Machine Tools

Table 25.4 (Continued)

Character Address for

Q Second rapid traverse dimension or tertiary motion dimension parallel to Y ∗
R First rapid traverse dimension or tertiary motion dimension parallel to Z ∗
S Spindle speed function
T Tool function
U Secondary motion dimension parallel to X ∗
V Secondary motion dimension parallel to Y ∗
W Secondary motion dimension parallel to Z ∗
X Primary X motion dimension
Y Primary Y motion dimension
Z Primary Z motion dimension
∗
Where D, E, P, Q, R, U, V and W are not used as indicated, they may be used elsewhere.

Table 25.5 ISO standard coding of preparatory functions

Code Function
G00 Point-to-point positioning, rapid traverse
G01 Line interpolation
G02 Circular interpolation, clockwise (CW)
G03 Circular interpolation, anti-clockwise (CCW)
G04 Dwell
G05 Hold/delay
G06 Parabolic interpolation
G07 Unassigned
G08 Acceleration of feed rate
G09 Deceleration of feed rate
G10 Linear interpolation for ‘long dimensions’ (10−100 inches)
G11 Linear interpolation for ‘short dimensions’ (up to 10 inches)
G12 Unassigned
G13–G16 Axis designation
G17 XY plane designation
G18 ZX plane designation
G19 YZ plane designation
G20 Circular interpolation, CW for ‘long dimensions’
G21 Circular interpolation, CW for ‘short dimensions’
G22–G29 Unassigned

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 Computer Numerical Controlled Machine Tools 759

Table 25.5 ISO standard c oding of preparatory functions

Code Function
G30 Circular interpolation, CCW for ‘long dimensions’
G31 Circular interpolation, CCW for ‘short dimensions’
G32 Unassigned
G33 Thread cutting, constant lead
G34 Thread cutting, linearly increasing lead
G35 Thread cutting, linearly decreasing lead
G36–G39 Unassigned
G40 Cutter compensation – cancels to zero
G41 Cutter radius compensation – offset left
G42 Cutter radius compensation – offset right
G43 Cutter compensation – positive
G44 Cutter compensation – negative
G45–G52 Unassigned
G53 Deletion of zero offset
G54–G59 Datum point/zero shift
G60 Target value, positioning tolerance 1
G61 Target value, positioning tolerance 2, or loop cycle
G62 Rapid traverse positioning
G63 Tapping cycle
G64 Change in feed rate or speed
G65–G69 Unassigned
G70 Dimensioning in inch units
G71 Dimensioning in metric units
G72–G79 Unassigned
G80 Canned cycle cancelled
G81–G89 Canned drilling and boring cycles
G90 Specifies absolute input dimensions
G91 Specifies incremental input dimensions
G92 Programmed reference point shift
G93 Unassigned
G94 Feed rate/min (inch units when combined with G70)
G95 Feed rate/rev (metric units when combined with G710)
G96 Spindle feed rate for constant surface feed
G97 Spindle speed in revolutions per minute
G98–G99 Unassigned

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 760 Machining and Machine Tools

Table 25.6 ISO standard coding of miscellaneous functions

Code Function
M00 Program stop, spindle and coolant off
M01 Optional programmable stop
M02 End of program – often interchangeable with M30
M03 Spindle on, CW
M04 Spindle on, CCW
M05 Spindle stop
M06 Tool change
M07 Coolant supply No. 1 on
M08 Coolant supply No. 2 on
M09 Coolant off
M10 Clamp
M11 Unclamp
M12 Unassigned
M13 Spindle on, CW + coolant on
M14 Spindle on, CCW + coolant on
M15 Rapid traverse in + direction
M16 Rapid traverse in – direction
M17–M18 Unassigned
M19 Spindle stop at specified angular position
M20–M29 Unassigned
M30 Program stop at end tape + tape rewind
M31 Interlock by-pass
M32–M35 Constant cutting velocity
M36–M39 Unassigned
M40–M45 Gear change; otherwise unassigned
M46–M49 Unassigned
M50 Coolant supply No. 3 on
M51 Coolant supply No. 4 on
M52–M54 Unassigned
M55 Linear cutter offset No.1 shift
M56 Linear cutter offset No.2 shift
M57–M59 Unassigned
M60 Piece part change
M61 Linear piece part shift, location 1
M62 Linear piece part shift, location 2

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 Computer Numerical Controlled Machine Tools 761

Table 25.6 ISO standard coding of miscellaneous functions

Code Function
M63–M67 Unassigned
M68 Clamp piece part
M69 Unclamp piece part
M70 Unassigned
M71 Angular piece part shift, location 1
M72 Angular piece part shift, location 2
M73–M77 Unassigned
M78 Clamp non-activated machine bed-ways
M79 Unclamp non-activated machine bed-ways
M80–M99 Unassigned

Manual Part Program for CNC Drilling and CNC Milling Machines

Example 25.4 (Drilling only)

Y
C

D
B
50
25

20 10
A(X0,Y0,Z0) 40
60

Figure 25.21 A plate to be drilled in a CNC milling machine or machining centre.

Three through holes of 16 mm diameter are to be drilled in a 10 mm thick steel plate as shown in Fig. 25.21.
The left bottom corner (point A) of the pre-machined plate or any other suitable point may be taken as the
reference point in XY plane. The program can be written in both absolute and incremental dimensioning and
both in inch or mm dimensioning.

A suitable part program for such a drilling requirement can be written as follows:
N001 G92 X0 Y0 Z0 [presetting at A]
N002 G90 [absolute dimensioning]
N003 G00 X20 Y25 Z2 [rapid locating at B and 2 mm above the surface]
N004 G00 T001 S2000 M03 [select tool and speed]
N005 G01 Z-12 [drill hole at B]
N006 G00 Z2 [rapidly lift the drill]

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 762 Machining and Machine Tools

N007 G00 X40 Y50 [rapidly shift, 2 mm above point C]

N008 G01 Z-12 [drilling at location C]
N009 G00 Z2 [rapidly lift the drill]
N010 G00 X60 Y25 [rapidly shift 2 mm above point D]
N011 G01 Z-12 [drill hole at D]
N012 G00 Z2 [lift the drill]
N013 G00 X0 Y0 Z0 [rapidly return to point A]
N014 M30 [program and work stop]

Example 25.5 A 12 mm thick MS plate has to be machined to produce a drilled hole and to finish
the outer periphery as indicated in Fig. 25.22.

0
10 Ø20
R

C D

80
40

B E

12
Y
50
100 100
A(X0,Y0)
Figure 25.22 A preformed MS plate to be machined to produce a hole and finish
the outer periphery.

The part program in absolute dimensioning for finishing the job (Fig. 25.22) in a CNC milling machine or
machining centre using ISO coding may be as follows:
End milling part
N001 G92 X0. Y0. Z2. [presetting at A as reference]
N002 G90 [absolute dimensioning]
N003 M06 T1 [change tool to T1]
N004 G00 Z-15. S800 M03 [spindle (end mill) speed = 800 CW]
N005 G41 G01 X50. Y40. F300 [cutter radius compensation, left∗ and move to point B]
N006 G01 Y120. F100 [move to point C with feed = 100 mm/rev]
N007 G02 X250. R100. [move along the arc upto point D]
N008 G01 Y40. [move straight to point E]
N009 X50. [move straight to point B]
N010 G00 Z2. M05 [lift the cutter and spindle stop]

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 Computer Numerical Controlled Machine Tools 763

Drilling part
N011 M06 T2 S600 M03 [bring T2 (drill) and fix speed = 600 rpm – CW]
N012 G40 G01 X150. Y120. F300 [cancel cutter compensation and move to centre, L]
N013 G01 Z-15. F100 [carry out drilling]
N014 G01 Z2. F300 [lift drill 2 mm above surface]
N015 G00 X0. Y0. [rapidly return to point A]
N016 M05 [spindle stop]
N017 M30 [program end]
∗ Here, G41 is the cutter radius compensation when the cutter is on the left side of the cutter path and G42 is the compensation for
cutter on right side of the cutter path.

25.3.4 Computer Aided Part Programming

A part program for any product can be prepared manually. However, increase in complexity of configura-
tion, features and tolerancing of the product make manual part programming very tedious, requiring a lot
of calculations, repetitions and a large number of lines of statements or blocks of words. Computerized part
programming enables:
1. Easy and quick calculations.
2. Easy handling of large and complex products.
3. Reduction in errors, size of the programs and overall time (by up to 75%).
4. Reduced need of remembering so many codes.
5. Display of the tool-paths in CRT screen.
6. Linking of CAM with CAD and CAPP.
7. Expression in English-like language.
A number of NC programming languages[2,5,7,10,12,13] have come up for computer aided part programming.
Each language has its own merits and demerits within specific ranges. But a few of those programming languages
are very effective, popular and widely used, such as APT, ADAPT, UNIAPT, SPLIT, EXAPT and COMPACT
II. Actually most of these languages originated from the pioneering language APT (automatically programmed
tools) which again has been strengthened and modernized in the last few decades. APT is a versatile language
which deals with 3-D and can control up to five axes. APT is based on the following four statements:
1. Geometry (workpiece) statements.
2. Motion (tool/work) statements.
3. Set-up statements.
4. Post processor statements.
5. Auxiliary statements.

25.3.4.1 Geometry Statements

These define points, lines and surfaces in the format
Symbol – geometry type/descriptive data
Figure 25.23 visualizes that a point (P1, P2, P3, etc.) can be defined as:
1. P1 = POINT/4.0, 5.0, 6.0, where 4.0, 5.0 and 6.0 are the coordinates of the point P1 in the X, Y, Z
system.

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 764 Machining and Machine Tools

P3(X)
Z
Y L2 CIR
6 L3

P1 L1

P2
5
Y
P3(x)
4 X
X
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 25.23 Defining points in the APT language.

2. P2 = POINT/INTOF, L1, L2, where P2 is the point of intersection of the pre-defined straight lines
L1 and L2.
3. P3 = POINT/XSMALL (or XLARGE), INTOF L3, CR1.
Figure 25.24 visualizes that a straight line can be defined as:
1. L1 = LINE/P1, P2, where L1 is a line passing through the two predefined points P1 and P2.
2. L2 = LINE/P4, PARLEL, L10, where L2 is a line passing through a predefined point P4 and parallel
to the predefined line L10.
3. L3 = LINE/P5, PERPTO, L11.
4. L4 = LINE/P6, LEFT, TANTO, CIR1.
5. L5 = LINE/P6, RIGHT, TANTO, CIR1.
6. L6 = LINE/LEFT, TANTO, CIR1, LEFT, TANTO, CIR2.
7. L7 = LINE/RIGHT, TANTO, CIR1, RIGHT, TANTO, CIR2.
Planes are defined as
1. PL1 = PLANE/P1, P2, P3, where PL1 is the plane passing through three given points P1, P2, P3.
2. PL2 = PLANE/P4, PARLEL, PL1, where PL2 is the plane passing through point P4 and parallel to
the pre-defined plane PL1.
Figure 25.25 visualizes that circles can be defined as:
1. C1 = CIRCLE/40, 60, 30, where C1 is a circle having its centre at (40, 60) and a radius of 50.
P2

P1 C|R1
L6
P4
L1 L4
L2 L10

P6 L5
L11
P5 L7 C|R2
L3

Figure 25.24 Defining straight lines in APT language.

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 Computer Numerical Controlled Machine Tools 765

C2
L3
P1 P3

C1
C3

R30 P2 L2

(40,60) P4

L1

Figure 25.25 Defining circles in APT language.

2. C2 = CIRCLE/P1, P2, P3, where C2 is a circle passing through three points P1, P2, P3.
3. C3 = CIRCLE/CENTRE, P4, TANTO, L1.
4. C4 = CIRCLE/XLARGE (or SMALL), L2, YSMALL (or LARGE), L3, RADIUS, 20.

25.3.4.2 Motion Statements

The format for motion statements in APT is
motion command/descriptive data
For example, G0T0/P5, the first part states what to do and the second part states where to go, etc.
The other very common motion statements are
1. FROM/P1, which instructs: go from the present location to point P1.
2. GODLTA/1.0(dx), 0(dy), −2.0(dz), which states: move from the present position 1 mm along X-
axis, 0 mm along Y-axis and −2 mm along Z-axis.
3. GO/TO, PL1, TO, PL2, TO, PL3. This instructs the tool to move to a position touching the follow-
ing three intersecting surfaces (shown in Fig. 25.26):

Drive surface, PL1

Check surface, PL3

Part surface, PL2

Figure 25.26 Three surfaces that guide the tool motions in APT Contour programming.

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 766 Machining and Machine Tools

(a) Drive surface, PL1 (machining surface).

(b) Part surface, PL2 (parallel to work surface).
(c) Check surface, PL3 (end surface).
This APT statement actually commands the tool to move along the drive surface and part surface and
upto the check surface.
4. GO LFT GO RGT
GO FWD GO BACK
GO UP GO DOWN
These commands are used to move the cutter from its present position towards left, right, forward,
backward, up and down, respectively, as illustrated in Fig. 25.27.
5. GORGT/PL1, PAST (or TO or ON), PL2
This statement commands the cutter to move from its present position towards the right along the plane
(or line) PL1 and PAST (or TO or ON) the check surface (or a line) PL2 as indicated in Fig. 25.28.
6. GO LFT/L1, TANTO, C1
This is illustrated in Fig. 25.29.

GO UP

GO LFT

GO FWD
GO BACK
Starting position
of the cutter
GO DOW
GO RGT

Figure 25.27 APT motion commands for directions.

PL2 PL2 PL2

PL1 PL1 PL1

GO ; TO GO ; ON GO ; PAST

Figure 25.28 Cutter travel upto a check surface.

Cutter
L1

C1 (Circle)

Figure 25.29 APT motion statement involving circle or arc.

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 Computer Numerical Controlled Machine Tools 767

25.3.4.3 Set-Up Statements

Some frequently used setup statements are
1. FROM/P1 (any point)
2. CUTTER/40; (any diameter or radius in mm)
3. INTOL/0.005; (internal tolerance)
4. OUTTOL/0.004; (outer tolerance)
5. TOLER/… ; (tolerance w.r.t. drive surface, ds; part surface, ps and/or check surface, cs)

25.3.4.4 Post Processor Statements/Commands

These commands specify some functions while machining in a machine tools. Some examples are:
1. COOLANT/ON; application of coolant
OFF
FLOOD
MIST
2. FEDRAT/MMPM, some value like 200; feed, mm/min
MMPR, some value like 0.2; feed, mm/rev.
3. LOADTL/(tool no)
4. SPINDL/RPM.n (some value). CLW (or CCL)
SFM.m (some value).CCL (or CLW)

Example 25.6 A typical APT program for finishing the outer periphery of a 10 mm thick steel
plate and drilling a hole as shown in Fig. 25.30.

P4 L3 C1
L4 5
R2
P3
45°

P5
120

6
R1 Cutter path
L5 L2
80

P6
30

C2
P1 L1 P2 Cutter
25

50
100
P0 Material – mild steel
20 Thickness – 10 mm

Figure 25.30 Configuration and dimensions of a plate to be machined using an APT program.

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 768 Machining and Machine Tools

EXAMPLE PART part number

MACHIN/MILL1 machine selected
CLPRNT provide print of outer locations
REMARK/FINISHING PERIPHERY
INTOL/0.10
OUTTOL/0.010
CUTTER/15. end mill cutter of diameter 15 mm
REMARK/GEOMETRICAL DEFINITIONS
P0 = POINT/-20, -25, 0
P1 = POINT/0, 0, 0
P2 = POINT/100, 0, 0
P3 = POINT/75, 95, 0 centre of circle C1
P4 = POINT/40, 120, 0
P5 = POINT/0, 80, 0
L1 = LINE/P1, P2
C1 = CIRCLE/CENTER, P3, RADIUS, 25
L2 = LINE/P2, RGT, TANTO, C1
L3 = LINE/P4, LFT, TANTO, C1
L4 = LINE/P4, P5
L5 = LINE/P5, P1
P6 = POINT/50, 30, 0
C2 = CIRCLE/CENTER, P6, RADIUS, 16
PL1 = PLANE/P1, P2, P4
REMARK/MACHINING CONTIDION
SPINDL/RPM, 600, CW
FEDRAT/MMPM, 120
COOLNT/FLOOD
REMRK/MOTIONS
FROM/P0
GO/TO, L1, TO, PL1, TO, L5
GORGT/L1, PAST, L2
GOLFT/L2, TANTO, C1
GOFWD/C1, PAST, L3
GOLFT/L3, PAST, L4
GOFWD/L4, PAST, L5
GO LFT/L5, PAST, L1
REMARK/END OF FINISHING PERIPHERY
COOLNT/OFF
SPINDL/STOP
REMARK/DRILLING CIRCLE C2
INTOL/0.10
CUTTER/16; mount drill, f = 32 mm
SPINDL/RPM, 400, CW
COOLNT/ON
RAPID
GOTO/P6
FEDRAT/MMPR, .2

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 Computer Numerical Controlled Machine Tools 769

GODLT/0, 0, -15; drilling operation

GODLT/0, 0, 15; drill return
RAPID
GOTO/PO
COOLNT/OFF
FINI; end and stop

25.3.5 Further Advancement from CNC Machine Tools and Machining

Centers[2,7,8,11]
In last two decades, a lot of remarkable progress has taken place, leading to development and commercial use
of FMS (flexible manufacturing system) and CIM (computer integrated manufacturing) by incorporating
1. CAD-CAM integration.
2. Use of robots for loading, unloading, warehouse handling, inspection and assembly.
3. Group technology.
4. Mechatronics and sensors.

SU M M A R Y
The historical backgrounds of necessity, development The meaning, purpose, contents and use of part
and use of the modern flexibly automatic manufactur- programming have been introduced. The actual
ing systems including machine tools have been high- and industrial methods of preparing part programs,
lighted. The basic differences between conventional that is, a set of instructions, both manually using
machine tools with fixed or hard automation and the available standard codes and with computer aid
the flexibly automatic NC and CNC machine tools using programming languages like APT for carry-
in respect of construction, operation, control, rela- ing out various types of machining tasks in different
tive advantages and applications have been described CNC machine tools have been described with lot of
with illustrations. The systems of coordinates, dimen- illustrations and practical examples.
sioning and path control, both open and closed loop However, for desirably good performance and
types, are also demonstrated. Need and use of linear longer service life, all the machine tools, conven-
and circular interpolation for control of tool/work tional or modern CNC machining systems, need to
travel have been briefly addressed. The chronological be properly grouted on appropriately strong, rigid
development of NC, CNC, MC (machining centre), and stable foundations and installed perfectly. The
FMS and even CIM to meet the growing needs of next chapter deals with the foundation, installation
present and future have been mentioned. and inspection of machine tools.

M U L T I P L E CH O I C E QU E S T I O N S
[Answers are provided in the CD]
1. Numerically controlled machine tools are (d) Flexibly automatic
(a) Non-automatic 2. Use of CNC machine tools is not justified for
(b) Semi-automatic (a) Piece production
(c) Fixed type automatic (b) Batch production

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 770 Machining and Machine Tools

(c) Small lot production 8. The CNC software contains

(d) Mass production (a) Part program only
3. Flexible automation substantially reduces (b) Service program only
(a) Machining cost (c) Control program only
(b) Machine cost (d) All of the above
(c) Change over cost (e) None of the above
(d) Tool cost 9. The preparatory code GOI (used while part
4. Among the modern flexibly automatic ma- programming in NC machine tools) stands
chine tools, the most flexible one is for
(a) CNC machine tool (a) Rapid positioning
(b) Machining centre (b) Linear interpolation
(c) FMS (flexible manufacturing system) (c) Circular interpolation, clockwise (CW)
(d) CIM (computer-integrated manufac- (d) Circular interpolation, counter clockwise
turing) (CCW)
5. Basic length unit (BLU) of NC machine tools 10. ATC (automatic tool changer) is a common
generally ranges within and unique feature of
(a) 0−2 μm (a) NC milling machines
(b) 5−10 μm (b) CNC milling machines
(c) 1−5 mm (c) Machining centers
(d) 5−10 mm (d) Transfer machines
6. The lead screws of the worktable of CNC mill- 11. In computer aided part programming by APT,
ing machines are driven by “COOLANT/ON” is a
(a) Induction motors (a) Geometry statement
(b) Synchronous motors (b) Motion statement
(c) Stepper motors (c) Post-processor statement
(d) Servo motors (d) Set-up statement
7. The NC controller of any machine tool does 12. Compared to stand alone CNC milling
not contain machine, machining centre
(a) MCU (a) Is more versatile
(b) DPU (b) Uses larger number of cutting tools
(c) BLU (c) Provides faster tool change
(d) CLU (d) All of the above

R E V I E W QU E S T I O N S
1. What are the advantages of flexible automa- numerical control of machine tools. State the
tion over fixed or hard automation with regard functions of DPU (data processing unit) and
to machine tools? CLU (control loop unit) of numerical control
2. Why are numerically controlled (NC) ma- system of machine tools.
chine tools so called? How is NC different 4. How is “closed loop control” different from
from mechanical control of conventional ma- “open loop control”? Explain in reference to
chine tools? numerical control of tool–work motions in
3. Describe briefly the basic working principle of machine tools.

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 Computer Numerical Controlled Machine Tools 771

5. How are length and speed of travel of the BLU with the help of a suitable schematic
worktable controlled in CNC milling ma- diagram. State the importance or significant
chines? use of BLU.
6. State the limitations of NC system which made 14. What is meant by part programming in respect
NC machine tools obsolete. How have those of NC machine tool? State the preparatory
limitations been overcome by CNC (compu- work to be done prior to part programming
ter numerical control) of machine tools? for any machining work.
7. State the role of the computer in CNC system 15. What are the different codes being used
of machine tools. How many and of what type for part programming? Give some specific
electric motors are used in a vertical CNC examples.
milling machine? 16. What is meant by “manual part program-
8. In a CNC lathe the cutting tool is required ming” and “block” with regard to NC machine
to travel axially by (say) 12.5 mm. How is tool?
such requirement commanded and imple- 17. What information are generally contained in a
mented? block and how?
9. Describe briefly, with the help of specific 18. What are the major differences between
examples, the method of linear interpolation (a) CNC lathe and turning centre.
and circular interpolation accomplished by (b) CNC milling machine and machining
the interpolator in the CNC system. centre with regard to configuration,
10. With the help of a specific example, explain productivity, flexibility, versatility and
the difference between “absolute dimension- application.
ing” and “incremental dimensioning”. Show 19. What type of motors and lead screws are used
by block diagrams the procedure of manu- to move the worktable of (a) CNC drilling
facturing by machining (a) in a conventional machine? (b) CNC milling machine? Give
machine tool and (b) in a similar but NC reasons for your selection.
machine tool. 20. State the advantages of computer aided part
11. State the advantages of CNC machine tools programming over manual part programming.
over NC machine tools. Name few languages of computer aided part
12. Briefly describe with the help of a simple dia- programming. Also state the characteristics of
gram the general functional principle of CNC APT language.
machine tool. 21. How are points, lines and circles defined in
13. What is meant by BLU (basic length unit) various ways in APT language?
w.r.t NC or CNC machine tool? Describe

PR O B L E M S
1. The feed motions of an NC machine tool (or value) of BLU (basic length unit) of that
are provided by re-circulating balls type NC system.
screw–nuts of pitch 2.0 mm which are driv- 2. Write the location (coordinate) of the centres
en by stepper motors having 200 steps or of the three holes in the plate, as shown in Fig.
divisions in each single rotation or revolu- 25.31, in absolute dimensioning and incre-
tion of its shaft. Determine the magnitude mental dimensioning.

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 772 Machining and Machine Tools

Y+ 5. Write a manual part program for machining a

mild steel workpiece to the shape and dimen-
sion shown in Fig. 25.34 in a CNC lathe.

50mm
0
R2

30
X+

10
( 0,0 )

100
60
∅ ∅ ∅

40
20
30
50
80mm
10
Figure 25.31 Problem 2. 60
3. A slot has to be cut as shown in Fig. 25.32 by Figure 25.34 Problem 5.
end milling in a CNC milling machine at feed
rate of 0.5 mm/s. Determine the rate of travel 6. Two holes have to be drilled in a cast iron plate
of the worktable in X and Y directions (to be as shown in Fig. 25.35. Write a suitable part
evaluated by the linear interpolator). program for drilling those holes in a CNC
drilling machine.
Y+
80
20 30

B Hole, ∅25

20
60

Hole, ∅15

75
( 0,0 ) A X+

15
Figure 25.32 Problem 3. 10

4. While part programming a line statement or Figure 25.35 Problem 6.

block is written as follows:
7. Write a part program for drilling a hole of di-
N100 G02 X50 Z-10 R20
ameter 16 mm and finishing the outer periph-
S600 F0.2 M08
ery of the plate as shown in Fig. 25.36 in a
related to forming the curved end of the rod as CNC milling machine or a machining centre.
shown in Fig. 25.33 in a CNC lathe. State the
meaning or significance of each segment (or 60 ∅16, Hole
part) of that block.
20

0
R2
100

∅
20

R2 Z
0
A
X 10
80
B
Figure 25.36 Problem 7.
Figure 25.33 Problem 4.

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 Computer Numerical Controlled Machine Tools 773

8. With the help of diagrams show and state how Hole, ∅25
points and lines can be expressed in APT lan-
guage.

30
9. A movement of a cutter is expressed or com- R5
manded in APT system by 0

GO/TO, PL1, TO, PL2, TO, PL3

120
Explain the meaning of this instruction.
10. Write an APT program for finishing the outer

40
periphery of a 12 mm thick brass plate and
drilling hole in that plate as indicated in Fig.
25.37 in a CNC milling machine or machin- 40 12
ing centre. 100

Figure 25.37 Problem 10.

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MAMT_Chapter 25.indd 774 7/21/2011 12:15:58 PM
 26 Foundation, Inspection and
Testing of Machine Tools
Learning Objectives
The contents of this chapter would enable the readers to:
• Realize and emphasize the purposes of • Know why, where, by whom and how machine
mounting and grouting of machine tools on tools are tested.
proper foundations. • Carry out actual testing of machine tools fol-
• Learn and practice the basic principles lowing the procedural steps.
and procedure of designing machine tool • Be conversant with and implement inspection
foundation. of machine tool beds and guides by selection
• Design and construct the foundation for dif- and use of proper equipments and tools.
ferent machine tools.
• Be conversant and demonstrate the need of
inspection and testing of machine tools.

26.1 Introduction
All machine tools need to be mounted on strong, rigid and heavy foundations, depending upon the size,
shape and the weight of the machine tool concerned. Design and construction of the foundation of any
machine tool are also governed by the pattern and extent of cutting and other forces acting in that machine
tool, motions and speed of the tool–work, and the stipulated productivity and precision. There are basic
principles and procedural steps for designing any machine tool foundation. The material and methods of
construction of the foundation should be reasonably taken care of.
Machine tools are essentially inspected and tested at different levels like during procurement, before
and after installation on the foundation, and for repair and overhauling. Inspection and testing of ma-
chine tools are carried out systematically according to some procedure and using proper equipments and
tools. Inspection of machine tool structure such as bed and guides of lathes are systematically and care-
fully done and the accuracy levels are properly assessed. All such aspects have been dealt briefly in this
chapter.

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 776 Machining and Machine Tools

26.2 Purpose of Machine Tool Foundation: Its Design Principle

and Construction
26.2.1 Purpose of Machine Tool Foundation
Machine tools are essentially mounted on strong, rigid and stable foundation for
1. Accurate leveling and its retention all along.
2. Uniform distribution of the weight of the machine–fixture–tool–work (M-F-T-W) system and other
working forces over wider area of floor.
3. Protection from external disturbances like vibrations.
4. Increased stability, especially for large machine tools like horizontal boring machine, planing
machine, plano-milling or plano-grinding machines, etc. where the separate units are rigidly inte-
grated through the foundation.
5. Increased rigidity, damping and stability required for high process capability of the machine tools.

26.2.2 Basic Principle of Design of Machine Tool Foundation[1]

The procedural steps usually followed in design of machine tool foundation are:
1. Selection of configuration for the foundation.
2. Selection of material of the foundation.
3. Estimation of magnitude, location and direction of action and pattern of the forces that are expected
to act on the foundation through the machine tool.
4. Determination of shape and dimensions of the foundation.
5. Checking and assuring factor of safety.

26.2.2.1 Configuration of Machine Tool Foundations

Machine tool foundations are generally designed and built in some typical configurations as follows (Fig. 26.1):
1. Solid block on concrete floor – most common.
2. Solid block on concrete slab – where the floor is not adequately strong.
3. Long strip type – where a large number of almost similar machine tools are laid in a row.
4. Erected type – where the machine tool is small and needs positional adjustment time to time.
5. Thick concrete block – for high speed and precision type machine tools like grinding machines.

26.2.2.2 Materials of Machine Tool Foundation

Machine tool foundations are generally built of
1. Concrete of grade (compressive strength) 75−100 kg/cm2 within 28 days of casting.
2. Concrete with one or multiple layers of steel reinforcements.
3. Stone (of grade ≥ 100) backed by brick work.
The material for construction of the foundation is selected depending upon the size, shape, weight and type of
the machine tool, nature of the floor or soil, and nature and extent of the forces that will act on the founda-
tion through the machine tool during its operation.

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 Foundation, Inspection and Testing of Machine Tools 777

Machine tool
Concrete Concrete slab
Machine
block
tool

150–250 mm 200–300 mm
Hard floor Soft floor
(a) (b)
2–3 m
Machine tool

(c) (d) (e)

Figure 26.1 Typical configuration of machine tool foundation.

26.2.2.3 Forces Acting on the Foundation

The magnitude and pattern of the forces and their location and direction of action on the foundation block
play major role in the design and construction of the machine tool foundation. The major forces that are
considered to be acting on the foundation are as follows:
1. In the case of static and almost static loading,
Vertical force = WM + Wwp + Wacc (26.1)
where WM is the weight of the machine tool, Wwp is the weight of the workpiece or block, Wacc is the
weight of the accessories, jigs, fixtures, etc.
2. In the case of dynamic loading
Vertical force = WM + Wwp + Wacc + ∑Fvd
Transverse force = ∑ FHd (26.2)
where Fvd and FHd are the vertical and horizontal dynamic forces. Also for rotary systems
Fvd = FHd = We/g (w )2e × fd (26.3)
where We is the eccentric mass, w is the angular frequency and fd is the dynamic factor = 1.25 to 2.5.
3. In the case of shock initiated loading: For reciprocating type machine tools, that is, shaping machine,
planing machine, slotting machine, etc., the horizontal and vertical forces are augmented by a shock
factor fs, where fs = 4.0 to 5.0.

26.2.2.4 Shape and Dimensions of the Foundation

Usually machine tool foundations are built in the form of a solid rectangular block. The two main features to
be determined and decided are:

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 778 Machining and Machine Tools

1. Form and area of the foundation-base: The form and base area (AF) of the foundation are generally
determined considering:
(a) Form and area of the base or foot print of the machine tool.
(b) The lateral gap between the centres of gravity (CGs) of the machine tool and the foundation to
be as small as possible (within 4−5% of the width of the machine base).
(c) Ease and economy of construction of the foundation.
2. Thickness of the foundation block: Height or thickness of the foundation block is very important.
It is estimated basically from the weight of the foundation block (WF) which is related to the weight
of the machine tool (WM) as
WF = WM × fl (26.4)
where fl is the loading factor depending upon the pattern of forces acting in the machine tool. It is
0.5 to 1.5 for static loading and 2.0 to 3.0 for dynamic loading. Then the height HF of the founda-
tion can be evaluated from

WF
HF = (26.5)
γ F AF

where gF is the specific weight of the foundation.

26.2.2.5 Checking of HF for Safe Design

The adequacy of the value of HF needs further checking for safety of the foundation from several other
aspects:
1. To prevent squeezing out of the soil from the sides of the foundation block HF should be

σz 4 ⎡1 − kφ 4 ⎤
HF ≥ kφ − Bf ⎢ ⎥ (26.6)
γs ⎢⎣ 2kφ ⎥⎦

where gs is specific weight of the soil; BF is the width of the foundation; kf = tan (p /4 − f ), is a
factor depending upon the angle of repose (f ) of the soil; sz is the average vertical pressure on the
soil beneath the foundation given by
WF + W M
σz ≅
AF

This indicates that for loose soil (low f ), HF needs to be higher.

2. To prevent adverse effect from any neighbouring machine tool foundation, HF is to be such that the
elevation angle y, as indicated in Fig. 26.2, does not exceed 40°.
3. To accommodate the foundation bolts, HF should be sufficiently greater than the length Lb of those
bolts as indicated in Fig. 26.3. The bolts of given diameter (d ) should be sufficiently long to pre-
vent uprooting of their anchor with the concrete above it due to tightening the nut or any working
force:

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 Foundation, Inspection and Testing of Machine Tools 779

Figure 26.2 Safe size and location of two neighboring machine tool foundation.

Base of machine tool

Lb Foundation block
d
HF

Da

Figure 26.3 Foundation block and bolts.

p DaLbtcon > (p /4) (d )2 st (26.7)

where Da is the diameter of the anchor plate, d is the diameter of the anchor bolt, t con is the
shear strength of the concrete, st is the tensile strength of the bolt material. Usually, Lb = 16d and
Hf ≥ 1.25 Lb.
4. To keep pressure (sz) on the soil under the foundation less than its bearing capacity (sB),

σz =
WF + W M + ∑F Z
< ασ B
AF (26.8)

where WF = HF × AF × gF and FZ is the force acting vertically on the foundation. Also a is the soil
condition factor = 0.8 to 1.0. Therefore, the foundation should not be unnecessarily very thick.
5. To prevent overturning of the foundation, the foundation thickness HF should be properly decided.
Figure 26.4 typically shows a foundation and the forces acting on it. Prevention of overturn of this
foundation needs the following two conditions:

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 780 Machining and Machine Tools

∑F
a
(WF + WM ) > X (H F + h) + MX (26.9)
2

∑ F (H
b
and (WF + WM ) > Y F + h) + MY (26.10)
2

From these equations, the safe value of HF is evaluated.

6. To avoid instability of the foundation and resonance, its thickness (HF) is to be such that the
frequency of any dynamic working force is far away from the natural frequency of the foundation,
fnx, fny and fnT , where

1 kx 1 ky 1 kT
f nx = ; f ny = ; f nT = (26.11)
2π MF 2π MF 2π IT

and kx, ky are the stiffness of the foundation in the transverse directions (X and Y ), kT is the torsional
stiffness, MF is the equivalent mass of the foundation, IT is the moment of inertia.

26.2.3 Typical Construction of Machine Tool Foundation

The material, shape and size of foundation block for different machine tools may vary depending upon the
type, configuration, size and method of installation of the machine tool. Generally rectangular-shaped solid
concrete block type foundation is preferred and used for machine tools. The concrete foundation blocks are
reinforced by single or multiple layer nets of steel rods in the case of heavy duty machine tools especially
where dynamic forces are involved. Figure 26.5 shows a typical construction of machine tool foundation
made of concrete (without steel reinforcement).

My

Fx
Mx
h
Fy
Fz

Hf
b

Figure 26.4 A typical machine tool foundation and the forces acting on it.

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 Foundation, Inspection and Testing of Machine Tools 781

First a pit is made according to the design of the foundation. A thick layer of sand is laid and rammed in
the pit. On this a layer of gravel of suitable size and shape is paved and rammed. Then two or more layers of
bricks are paved with morter on the gravels. Over that the concrete block is cast and while casting a number of
taper wooden mandrils are placed in the casting at suitable locations. After solidification of the casting, those
mandrils are removed retaining a desired number of cavities of suitable size and at desired locations where the
foundation bolts are to be placed as indicated in Fig. 26.5. Then the machine tool is carefully placed on the
concrete block leaving some gap with a number of spacers (concrete cubes). Meanwhile the foundation bolts
are placed in the respective cavities through the holes provided in the machine tool base as shown in Fig. 26.5.
Now through the gap, the concrete mix is pushed carefully to fill up the cavities. After complete solidifica-
tion and hardening of the entire concrete block the foundation bolts are tightened with little adjustments, if
required, for final leveling of the machine tool.
Presently, instead of rigidly clamping the machine tool base on the heavy foundation by bolts, the machine
tools are made to freely rest on the adequately hard floor through a number of elastic vibration isolators in
the form of shock mounts. Figure 26.6 typically shows such a shock mount. The elastic ring or cup may be
made of rubber, rubber-metal composite, cork, felt or plastic. This may be also pneumatic type. The main
advantages of using such shock mounts include:
1. It enables easy and quick installation and levelling.
2. It reduces noise and vibration.
3. It enables having machine shop in upper floors.
4. It is easy to adjust and shift.

Machine tool column

Foundation bolt

Spacer

Floor
Concrete

Brick

Gravel

Sand

Pit Concrete

Figure 26.5 Typical construction of machine tool foundation.

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 782 Machining and Machine Tools

Resting bolt
Adjusting nuts
Machine tool base
Machine tool

Elastic ring
Retainer (steel disc)

Foundation or hard floor Resting plate

Figure 26.6 Shock mounts for free machine tool installation on floor.

26.3 Inspection and Testing of Machine Tools

26.3.1 Purposes of Inspection and Testing
The primary features that are essentially looked for while manufacturing any product are productivity, prod-
uct quality and overall economy. Achieving these in manufacturing by machining needs:
1. Proper preforming or selection of the blanks and their treatments, if necessary and feasible, prior to
machining.
2. Appropriate selection of machine tool of suitable type and capacity.
3. Desirably good health and performance of the selected machine tool.
4. Proper selection of cutting tools: type, material and geometry.
5. Appropriate selection of levels of the machining parameters.
6. Proper selection and applications of cutting fluids and any special attachment or technique if required
and feasible.
The exact condition and performance of all the machine tools are essentially checked at different stages, espe-
cially before their use for any specified machining task, just like for recruitment, all the potential candidates
undergo medical check-up for their basic health and written test and/or interview for assessing their ability
to perform.
In inspection and testing of machine tools, inspection generally refers to examination of the health condi-
tion in terms of errors (defects or limitations) in the machine tool, whereas testing refers to performance giv-
ing consistent accuracy (quality) of the machined products. Figure 26.7 schematically shows a simple example
to depict the relation between “error” and “accuracy” in respect of turning in a lathe.
The error Δ occurred as elastic deflection at the tool tip under the cutting force Pz due to lack of rigidity
of the machining system, which caused inaccuracy (d ) in the product in the form of undesirable increase

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 Foundation, Inspection and Testing of Machine Tools 783

Acting force
Error Turning tool
Pz

Inaccuracy (d )
Figure 26.7 Error–inaccuracy relation in a turning operation.

in radius (i.e. diameter) of the machined job. Generally, “error” is the cause and inaccuracy (or accuracy) is
the effect. But in practice, the overall inaccuracy and the various errors present or induced cannot be always
so simply correlated. The main purposes of inspection and testing of machine tools briefly are to study and
evaluate
1. Geometrical and operating conditions of the machine tool components in isolation and relative to
their mating and other parts.
2. Functional condition of the mechanisms and the kinematic chains.
3. Trouble-free running at various loading conditions.
4. Rigidity and stability of the machine tool structure.
5. Thermal conditions and their effects.
6. Overall performance w.r.t. productivity and process capability.
When a machine tool attains the minimum stipulated level (or above) of health and performance after its
inspection and testing, the machine tool is considered acceptable and ready for sale, purchase or use.

26.3.2 Planning and Procedure of Machine Tool Inspection and Testing[1−5]

Effective inspection and testing of any machine tool requires knowledge about the possible types and causes
of errors and the criteria of judging the health and performance of the M-F-T-W system. The usual major
sources of errors, which may creep in during design and manufacture and also develop during long use
and thus lead to malfunctioning, unreliability, premature failure and deficiency in process capability of the
machine tool, are
1. Geometrical errors in the structural members and their sub-assemblies.
2. Kinematic errors in the mechanisms and kinematic chains.
3. Thermal deformations.
4. Lack of rigidity and stability.
5. Improper sub-assembly and assembly.
6. Wear and tear.
The major aspects of machine tool inspection and testing (or simply testing) also include, when, where and
by whom a machine tool is to be tested. Table 26.1 typically indicates when, where and by whom a machine
tool is generally tested.

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 784 Machining and Machine Tools

Table 26.1 When, where and by whom machine tool is tested

S. No. When (instant) Where (location) By whom

1. At prototype stage even when the
machine tool has not attained its com- Manufacturer’s shop Manufacturer
plete configuration
2. After complete assembly --do-- --do--
3. After purchase and installation on the User without or with help of
User’s shop
foundation supplier or external experts
4. Before and after repair in the event of --do--
--do--
break down of the machine tool (in-situ or a separate bay)
5. Before and after emergency or sched-
--do-- User
uled overhauling
6. During disposal and auction User’s shop (in-situ or in store) Auction bidder

The following procedural steps are generally followed in sequence during inspection and testing for accep-
tance test of any machine tool:
1. Geometrical test for checking
(a) Configuration: horizontal and vertical, straight, flat, square; roundness, etc. of base, bed, table,
column, rails, leadscrews; different slides, guides, etc. of the machine tools.
(b) Alignments: parallelism, squareness, angles, concentricity and co-axially of different structural
parts including slides and guides.
2. Kinematic tests for checking
(a) Proper and free movements of the kinematic elements related to the tool–work motions.
(b) Accuracy of rotation and translation of the parts related to speed, feed and depth of cut as per
specification or the accuracy standards.
(c) Synchronization of motions as required in threading in lathes, gear teeth cutting in hobbing
machine and gear shaping machine, etc.
3. Rigidity test for checking: Static rigidity of the machine tool components, which significantly affect
the process capability of the machine tool through elastic deformation and deflection.
4. Idle run (without material removal) test for checking
(a) Trouble-free functioning of the power drives and the kinematic system including clutch, brake,
etc.; electro-hydro-mechanical automation; and control systems, monitoring and safety devices.
(b) Availability and consistent retention of accuracy of spindle speeds and feeds of tool or job as per
specification.
(c) Jamming, abnormal noise or excessive vibration.
(d) Heat generation and rise of temperature of bearings, gear boxes, etc.
(e) Condition of the hydraulic, pneumatic and electrical systems.
5. Performance test under machining condition
(a) Full load test with maximum cutting velocity and forces to check
• Power consumption.
• Thermal condition.
• Vibration and noise.
• Accuracy and finish of the product.

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 Foundation, Inspection and Testing of Machine Tools 785

(b) Accelerated test to explore the potential capacity of the machine tool even beyond the stipu-
lated speeds, feeds and cutting forces
(c) Dynamic test with external vibrations to assess dynamic rigidity and stability of the machine tool.

26.3.3 Methods of Testing Machine Tools

The machine tool world is deeply indebted to G. Schlesinger[2] who, in 1927, first systematically established
the principles, rules and the methods of conducting machine tool tests for determining the accuracy and
performance and assess acceptance of machine tools. The main features and characteristics to be tested, the
procedure of testing and the accuracy standards have been standardized by ISO; these are more or less fol-
lowed in most of the countries.
Inspection and testing of any machine tool at any stage essentially need some preparatory work in
sequence[1,2]:
1. Thorough cleaning of the machine tool.
2. Erection of the machine tool on test bed.
3. Properly levelling and rigidly clamping of the machine tool on the test bed or foundation.
4. Selection and procurement of the tools and equipments required for testing the machine tool
concerned.
5. Procurement or design and preparation of standard charts for recording the test data and results.
The accuracy and reliability of the results of testing of any machine tool depend much upon the tools and
equipments being used for the purpose. These have to be properly selected, handled and read and the equip-
ments themselves need to be reasonably accurate and reliable.
The tools and equipments that are used for machine tool testing are of three categories:
1. Instruments for quantitative assessment
(a) Metrological instruments: for example, spirit levels (graduated type), scales, calipers, microm-
eters, dial gauges, different gauges, microscopes, proving rings, etc.
(b) Measuring (time-based) equipments : for example
• Thermocouple system, etc. for measuring temperature of machine tool body at different
locations.
• Magnetic pick up, capacitive pick up, LVDT, pneumatic gauge, accelerometer, etc. for
monitoring deflection, deformation, velocity and dynamic characteristics of the salient
elements or structures of the machine tool.
• Load cells or dynamometers for monitoring static and dynamic forces.
2. Tools and accessories to facilitate inspection and measurement: These generally include spirit
levels, straight edges, surface plate, angles, brackets, engineers block, step bearings, posts with mirror,
shakers (for dynamic test), loading (force) device, etc. and standard test mandrels especially designed
for specific purposes and machine tools.
3. Combination type with both measuring and aiding facilities: Such appliances include universal
bridge (UB), multipurpose unitized appliance (MUA), etc.[1] Figure 26.8 schematically shows a typi-
cal use of a MUA for inspection of a lathe bed.
Spirit levels and dial gauges are very widely and commonly used for geometrical and alignment tests of machine
tools. The spirit levels are precisely graduated for measurement of angular deviation and used directly or along
with a surface plate, bracket or straight edge for checking horizontalness, verticalness, slopes or angles and
flatness of base, column, frame and bed as well as slides and guides and movement of the slides. Dial gauges

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 786 Machining and Machine Tools

Lathe bed

MUA Mirror Dial indicators

Spirit
level

Step bearing Step bearing Bracket

Rack

Load screw
Section of lathe bed

Figure 26.8 Appliance (MUA) for checking accuracy of lathe bed.

are also inevitably used for checking concentricity or eccentricity, co-axiality and alignment of shafts, spindle,
centres, etc.; axial and radial run out of arbour and spindle; and also for mapping wear on flat and cylindrical
surfaces. Clinometers, collimeters, travelling microscope, telescope, etc. are also used for checking flatness of
beds, tables, etc. of machine tools. The actual and standard methods of inspection and testing of different
machine tools have been presented in detail in several books[1−3] on machine tools. However, as a typical
example, the principle and method of inspection of accuracy of lathe bed have been described next.

26.3.3.1 Inspection of Lathe Bed for Its Accuracy and Acceptance[1]

Figure 26.9 shows the cross-sectional view of a typical lathe bed. Lathe beds are provided with a number of
long and parallel surfaces in different planes for different functional purposes, as indicated in Fig. 26.9:
1. Surfaces 3, 4 and 6 are used for supporting and guiding the tailstock (movement).
2. Surfaces 1, 2, 7, 8 and 10 are used for supporting and guiding (axial travel) the saddle or carriage.

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 Foundation, Inspection and Testing of Machine Tools 787

3 4 7 8
2 6 13
5 9
1 11 10
12

Figure 26.9 Cross-sectional view of a lathe bed and its salient features.

3. Surfaces 11 and 12 are provided for fitting the rack for rolling of the pinion of the moving carriage.
4. Surface 13 is preserved for referencing.
The different surfaces undergo wear with time, though in different degree, usually as follows:
1. Surfaces 7, 8 and 2 – maximum wear.
2. Surfaces 1 and 10 – next to 7, 8 and 2.
3. Surface 3, 4 and 6 – still lower.
4. Surfaces 5, 9, 11 and 12 – no wear.
The desired geometrical characteristics and accuracy levels of the different surfaces of the bed of a lathe are:
1. All the surfaces should be straight (and flat) – maximum permissible deviation is around 20 microns
over 1 m length.
2. Surfaces 2, 3, 4, 6, 7 and 8 (Fig. 26.9) should be parallel in horizontal plane (i.e., should not have
spiral twist) – maximum permissible error ≤ 20 microns over 1 m.
3. Surfaces 7 and 8 should be parallel with surfaces 11 and 12 – permissible limit ≤ 0.10 mm over the
entire length of the bed.
4. Surfaces 3 and 4 should be parallel with surfaces 7 and 8 in vertical plane – permissible error ≤ 30
microns over the bed length.
5. Surfaces 1 and 10 should be parallel (w.r.t. horizontal plane) to surfaces 2, 7 and 8 – permissible error
≤ 30 microns over the entire bed length.
6. Wear on the sliding surfaces should be ≤ 50 microns.
Procedural steps for checking errors in a lathe bed surfaces
1. Surfaces 11 and 12 (Fig. 26.9), which are grind-finished precisely and remain covered by the rack
and hence are free from any wear and tear, are taken as reference or datum.
2. Transfer datum from surface 12 to 9 and from 11 to either surface 13 or the tip in between
surfaces 7 and 8 for convenience in the succeeding steps. For such transfer, place the UB or a
MUA on lathe bed (at its mid-length) as shown in Fig. 26.10. While longitudinally travelling
the UB or MUA along the lathe bed, readings of the dial gauges D12 and D9 are noted. If the
deviation between two readings is insignificant or lesser than the permissible limit, then surface
12 is considered to have been transferred to surface 9. Otherwise, surface 9 is adequately scraped
until the deviation is reduced enough. Similarly, surface 11 is transferred to surface 13 (or the tip
in between surfaces 7 and 8). Often surfaces 5 and 13, where no sliding occurs, are finished very
accurately and used as reference surfaces instead of surfaces 11 and 12 to avoid dismantling and
refitting of the rack.

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 788 Machining and Machine Tools

UB/MUA Sprit level

3 4 7 8 D9
2 6 13
5 9
1 11 10
12
D12

Figure 26.10 Transfer of datum surfaces before checking errors in lathe bed.

3. Major information and inspection – data are obtained by following several sequential steps using the
setting shown in Fig. 26.11.
(a) The UB/MUA is made to rest on the bed by three step bearings. One is placed on the reference
surface 13 and the other two on the Vee-guide of the tailstock. The reading of the spirit level Li
recorded, while travelling the UB along the lathe bed, will indicate the straightness or flatness
and inclination of the Vee-guide (surfaces 3 and 4) in vertical plane.
(b) By travelling the UB under the same setting, the readings of the dial indicator D9 and the spirit
level Li together will characterize the V(3,4) guide in H-plane as
Hi (3,4) = D9i − LiK1 (26.12)
where Hi (3,4) is the waviness and inclination of the Vee-guide in horizontal plane, D9i is the reading of
the dial gauge D9 at any location i along the lathe bed, K1 is the multiplication factor. So, if Li = 0 then
Hi (3,4) = D9i.

Sprit level, Li

D2 D6
3 4 7 8
2 6 13
5 9
1 11 10
D9
12

D1
Lathe bed

Figure 26.11 A typical setting for inspecting accuracy of lathe bed surface.

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 Foundation, Inspection and Testing of Machine Tools 789

(c) Under the same setting the flatness and inclination of surface 2 in vertical plane can be evalu-
ated from
Vi (2) = D2i − LiK2 (26.13)

where D2i is the reading of the dial gauge D2 at any location i, Li is the reading of the spirit level
at i, and K2 is another multiplication factor.
(d) The amount of non-parallelism of the surfaces 1 and 2 in vertical plane along the lathe bed
length [i.e., di(1,2)] will be obtained directly from

di (1,2) = D1i ∼ D2i (26.14)

where D1i and D2i are the readings of the dial gauges D1 and D2 taken along the lathe bed
length.
(e) The flatness and inclination of the surface 6 in Vee-plane [i.e., Vi(6)] will be obtained from
Vi (6) = D6i − K3 Li (26.15)

where D6i is the reading of the dial gauge D6 at any location i and K3 is another multiplication
factor. The values of the multiplication factors K1, K2 and K3 depend upon the relative locations
of the step bearings, spirit level and the concerned dial gauges in the transverse plane.
4. The remaining desired information and test data will be available by following few more steps using
the setting shown in Fig. 26.12.
(a) The accuracy of the large Vee-guide (7, 8) in respect of its straightness or flatness and inclina-
tion in Vee-plane along the bed length will be attained from the reading of the spirit level Li
and the previously recorded characteristics of the surface.
(b) The accuracy of the Vee-guide (7, 8) in respect of its straightness and inclination in horizontal
plane [i.e., Hi(7, 8)] can be evaluated from the readings, in the present setting (Fig. 26.12), Li,
D9i and previously recorded Vi(2).
(c) The accuracy of parallelism between the Vee-guide (7, 8) and surface 10 in vertical plane can be
determined from the readings Li, D10i and Vi(2).

Sprit level, Li

3 4 7 8
2 6 13 9
5 11
1 10
D9i
12
D10i

Figure 26.12 Another setting of UB for checking accuracy of some surfaces of lathe bed.

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 790 Machining and Machine Tools

Thus, from the aforesaid readings recorded from the spirit level and the dial gauges under different settings of
the platform (UB/MUA) and using simple equations, the overall geometrical accuracy of a major structural
component like lathe bed are checked and evaluated.
The R&D and industrial methods of actual testing of the different machine tools are available in detail in
several books[1−3] and concerned manuals published by different standardization organizations like ISO, ISI,
etc. which may be consulted and used as and when required.

26.4 Solved Problems

PROBLEM 1
How much should be the diameter of the anchor bolt for grouting a machine tool on its concrete
foundation, if diameter of the anchor plate is 100 mm, shear strength of concrete is 50 MPa, length of
the bolt is 200 mm and shear strength of bold material is 300 MPa?

Solution: Using Eq. (26.7)

π
π Da l bτ con > (δ b )2σ b
4
Given Da = 100 mm, tcon = 50 MPa, lb = 200 mm, sb = 300 MPa. Therefore, diameter of the anchor
bolt db will be
4Da τ con
(δ b )2 ≤
σb

4 × 100 × 50
≤ mm 2
300

≤ 67 mm2
This gives
db = 8 mm

PROBLEM 2
If, in a rigid lathe, the cutting tool holder elastically deflects downward due to the cutting forces by
20 μm (Fig. 26.13), then how much change will occur in the diameter of the turned rod?
Hint: Let job diameter be D. Then the increase in diameter is 2 ΔR, where
R(1 − cosθ )
ΔR =
cosθ
δ
Also sin θ =
R
Given d = 20 μm

MAMT_Chapter 26.indd 790 7/21/2011 1:23:43 PM

 Foundation, Inspection and Testing of Machine Tools 791

D/2

q
d

ΔR

Figure 26.13 Solved problem 2.

SU M M A R Y
The purposes of mounting (i.e., placing, installation illustrations. The description also includes materials
and grouting) of all machine tools on adequately and construction of a typical foundation.
strong, rigid and stable foundations have been The purpose, principles and methodology of in-
pointed out. The principles and procedure of design- spection and testing of machine tools have been high-
ing foundation of machine tools depending upon lighted. The purpose and actual methods of inspecting
their configuration, size, weight, working motion, beds and guides of machine tools like lathe and way
speed and forces, dynamic characteristics and stipu- of assessment using relevant equipments and tools
lated precision of working have been described with have been explained with number of illustrations.

M U L T I P L E CH O I C E QU E S T I O N S
[Answers are provided in the CD]
1. A machine tool needs to be tested 3. Small centre lathes are grouted on the concrete
(a) After completing its manufacture foundation by
(b) Before installation and commissioning (a) One foundation (or anchor) bolt
(c) After major repair work or overhauling (b) Two foundation bolts
(d) All of the above (c) Four foundation bolts
2. Inspection of centre lathe includes (d) Six foundation bolts
(a) Checking whether all centres are coaxial 4. Shock mounts are used to
(b) Evaluation of productivity of the lathe (a) Grout machine tool bed on foundation
(c) Checking quality of the machined (b) Erect machine tool on foundation
products (c) Fix machine base on the foundation
(d) Assessment of process capability of the (d) Permanently mount the machine bed on
lathe the foundation

MAMT_Chapter 26.indd 791 7/21/2011 1:23:44 PM

 792 Machining and Machine Tools

5. In machine tools, errors and inaccuracies are (d) All of the above
(a) Independent (e) None of the above
(b) Same 9. Spirit levels are used, while inspecting any
(c) Interdependent horizontal surface(s) of a lathe bed, for check-
(d) Totally different ing its
6. Synchronization of tool–work motions, if es- (a) Straightness
sential in any machine tool, is checked while (b) Inclination
carrying out (c) Surfacefinish
(a) Geometrical test (d) Squareness
(b) Kinematic test 10. The bearings used, while inspecting lathe bade
(c) Full load test by UB, are
(d) Dynamic test (a) Step bearing
7. In machine tool inspection and testing, load (b) Journal bearing
cells or dynamometers are used during (c) Ball bearing
(a) Kinematic test (d) Taper roller bearing
(b) Idle run test 11. After manufacture, a machine tool is not tested
(c) Full load test for its
(d) Rigidity test (a) Productivity
8. The two Vee-guides of lathe bed should be (b) Process capability
(a) Straight (c) Functionability
(b) Flat (d) Power
(c) Parallel

R E V I E W QU E S T I O N S
1. What are the purposes or benefits of mount- 7. How is the thickness of a concrete foundation
ing machine tools on strong foundation? of a machine tool checked in view of construc-
2. Mention the major steps involved in design of tion and safe functioning of that machine tool
machine tool foundation. foundation? Explain with the help of suitable
3. Show by simple sketches and briefly describe sketches.
the general configurations or constructional 8. How is a reinforced concrete foundation for a
features of commonly used machine tool machine tool constructed and the foundation
foundations. bolts erected in the foundation?
4. What materials are generally used to make or 9. Describe briefly with the help of a suitable dia-
construct machine tool foundations? What gram the construction and working principle
factors are considered while selecting material of shock mounts (or shoes) on which the rest-
of foundation for a machine tool? ing bolts of the machine tool are placed over a
5. How are the magnitude of the forces acting on a foundation.
foundation determined (or evaluated or estimat- 10. State the advantages of using shock mounts (or
ed) while designing machine tool foundations? shoes) for mounting machine tool on its foun-
6. How are the major dimensions of a concrete dation. Also state what materials are generally
foundation determined for a given machine used for making the main elastic member of
tool? such shock mounts.

MAMT_Chapter 26.indd 792 7/21/2011 1:23:44 PM

 Foundation, Inspection and Testing of Machine Tools 793

11. What aspects and features of machine tools 17. Draw a cross-sectional view of a lathe bed and
are generally inspected and tested time to time state which features of that lathe bed need
and why? inspection (or are generally inspected) time to
12. What is the difference between inspection and time and why?
testing in respect of machine tools? Mention 18. Describe briefly with the help of a suitable
the possible sources of errors that may develop sketch how the straightness, flatness and par-
in a machine tool. allelism of the two inverted Vee-guides on the
13. When, where and by whom are machine tools lathe bed are checked.
generally tested? 19. Drawing a cross-sectional view of a lathe bed
14. Write the procedural steps that are sequentially and state the functions of the different surfaces
followed (or carried out) while making a thor- of that lathe bed.
ough inspection and testing of a machine tool. 20. Describe briefly the overall procedure of testing
15. What aspects of any machine tool are checked (a) centre lathes, (b) radial drilling machine,
while idle run test, full load test and dynamic (c) knee type milling machine and (d) vertical
test of that machine tool? boring machine.
16. Make a list of equipments and measuring
instruments that may be required for inspec-
tion and testing of any machine tool.

PR O B L E M S
1. Design and draw a concrete foundation for 3. Determine the magnitudes of the static and dy-
high speed centre lathe of weight, 2.0 tons, namic forces that will act vertically and horizon-
length 2.0 m and width 600 mm. tally on the foundation of a centre lathe, where
2. By suitable diagrams show the method of con- (a) weight of the lathe: 1.5 tons, (b) weight of
struction of a concrete foundation for a col- the workpiece: 200 kg, (c) weight of the acces-
umn drilling machine indicating: (a) materials sories: 100 kg, (d) eccentricity in the rotating
used, (b) relative dimensions and (c) method job: 20 μm and (e) turning speed: 400 rpm.
of grouting the foundation bolts in the con- Assume any other data reasonably, if necessary.
crete foundation. [Hint: Solve it using Eqs. (26.1)−(26.3)]

MAMT_Chapter 26.indd 793 7/21/2011 1:23:44 PM

MAMT_Chapter 26.indd 794 7/21/2011 1:23:44 PM
 Index

A Applications of broaching single revolution clutch, 604

Additional supporting pins, machines, 650 trip dog, 604
704–705 external broaching, 650 turret inducing (mechanism),
Adjustable locating pins, internal broaching, 650–651 605–606
698, 701 Applications of gear teeth generating working principle, 603–606
Advanced technology of grinding, machines, 651 Automation in machine tools,
362–366 bevel gear generators, 651 507–511
Advancements in grinding gear shaping machines, 651
processes, 364–366 hobbing machines, 651 B
Application of attachments in sunderland machines, 651 Back gear system, 502
drilling machines, 658 Applications of milling machines, Batch and mass production, 509
tapping attachments, 658 641 Bond materials, 340–342, 344
Application of attachments in milling cutters; type, 642 Bonds for super-abrasive wheels,
machine tools, 651 milling operations, 642–649 369–370
attachments – definition and end milling, 643–644 Brittle fracture, 84
need, 651–652 face milling, 644–645 Broaching, 440–441
attachments used in centre form milling, 645 Built-up-edge (BUE), 13, 18,
lathes, 652 gang milling, 648 96–108
copying attachment (hydraulic), gear lathe milling, 645–646 Burnishing, 377, 385
653 side and slot milling, 642–643 Bushes for tool guidance in jigs, 709
copying attachment (mechanical slab or plain milling, 642 classification and application, 710
type), 653–654 slitting and parting, 643 design considerations, 709–710
milling and grinding attachments, thread milling, 646 purpose of use (functions), 709
655 turning by milling cutter, 649
relieving attachment, 656 Attachments used in milling C
spherical turning attachment, 655 machines, 662 CBN super-abrasive wheels,
taper turning attachment, 653 indexing head, 662–664 368–369
thread pitch varying attachment, slotting attachment, 664 Centreless grinding, 331, 335–336
656–657 universal milling attachment, 662 Centreless grinding machines,
Application of attachments in Automatic lathe (single 579–581
planning machine, 660–662 spindle)-automate, 603 Cermets, 229, 234, 239–240, 242
Application of attachments in auxiliary shaft, 604 Change of speed (in machine tools),
shaping machine, 658 bar feeding (mechanism), 604 471
attachment for double cut, cam shaft, 604 methods of changing feed,
658–659 geneva mechanism, 603, 473–474
Matterson’s attachment, 660 605–606 meander drive, 475–476
thread rolling attachment, 659 kinematic structure, 604 norton gear, 475–476

MAMT_Index.indd 795 7/23/2011 12:31:51 PM

 796 Index

methods of changing speed, 473 broach-mounting, 561–562 methods, 767–769

change of feed (in machine types of broaching machines, motion statements in ATP,
tools), 475–476 562–564 765–766
cluster gears, 473–474 Characteristic features and use post processor statements, 767
clutch, 473–474 of conventional machine set-up statement, 767
pN drive, 474 tools, 537 Construction of foundation,
shifting key, 473 Chemical vapour deposition 775–778, 780–782
purpose or need of feed change, (CVD), 230, 235–236, 247 concrete foundation block, 780
471–473 Chip breakers, 303 shock mount, 781–782
purpose (of speed change), dynamic chip breaker, 305–306 Control of grinding forces, 356
471–473 in drilling, 304–305 Control of grinding temperature,
selection of cutting velocity, 472 in milling, 305 358–360
selection of feed, 472 in single point tools, 303–304 Control of tool work motions in
factors, 473 Chip breaking, 297 NC, CNC systems, 736
stepless feed change, 476 forced breaking, 297 circular interpolation, 741–742
tumbler, 475–476 methods of chip breaking, continuous path control, 739
Characteristics and use of gear-teeth 297–303 linear interpolation, 740–741
producing (by machining) purpose of chip breaking, 297 point to-point-control, 739
machines, 565 self-breaking, 297 Crack bridging, 241–243
gear teeth finishing, 572 Chip formation, 84–87 Creep feed grinding, 364–365,
grinding, 573–575 Chip reduction coefficient, 15, 369, 373
rolling and burnishing, 573 91–95, 108–110, 114 Cryogenically cooled grinding,
shaving, 572–573 Chips (machining) types, 99 375–376
gear teeth forming machines, 565 Chip thickness, 13, 21 Cryogenic grinding, 407
broaching machine, 567–568 Chip-tool contact length, 96, 100, Cryogenic machining, 405
milling machine, 567 106–108, 115 purposes and benefits, 405–410
parallel shaping machine, 568 Clearance angle, 28 Cubic boron nitride (PCBN), 235,
gear-teeth generating machines, minimum clearance, 55, 58, 68 243–246
568 normal clearance, 34 Cutting angles, 31
bevel gear generator, 571–572 orthogonal clearance, 32 approach angle, 31
gear shaping machine, 569 side clearance and back auxiliary cutting edge angles, 30
hobbing machine, 569–571 clearance, 30 end cutting edge angle, 31
sunderland machine (rack type CNC integrated systems, 521 principal cutting edge angle,
cutter), 568–569 CNC machining centers, 521 30–32
Characteristics and use of grinding CNC stand alone machine tools, Cutting edge angles, 9, 11–13,
machines, 575 515, 521 15–17
cylindrical grinding machines, Coating materials and layers, 237 Cutting fluid application/cooling
576–578 Combined or extended machine and lubrication, 11, 18
internal grinding machines, tools, 521 Cutting fluids, 199
577–578, 582 Complex kinematic structure, essential properties, 201
surface grinding machines, 455–457 functional principle, 201–202
578–579 Compound kinematic structures, methods of application, 200–204
Characteristic features and use of 455, 457–458 purpose of use, 200
broaching machines, 560 Computer aided part programming, selection, 199–200
broaching principle, 560 763 types, 202–203
broaching tools (broaches), geometry statements in APT, Cutting forces, 8, 14–16, 124
560–561 763–765 purposes of study, 128

MAMT_Index.indd 796 7/23/2011 12:31:52 PM

 Index 797

resolution in major components, module, 494 selection of cutting velocity and

124–125 Diamond, 228–229, 235, 237, feed, 273
in drilling, 125–127 243, 246–247 shaping and planning, 264–265
in milling, 127–128 Diamond super-abrasive wheel, tool life, 260
in using single point tools, 367–368 tool-change time, 260
124–125 Differential mechanism, 464, 466 turning, 263
Cutting ratio, 91–94 Drill geometry, 41, 43, 70
Cutting strain, 95–96 Drill sharpening, 70–75 F
Cutting temperature, 8, 11–12, 14, Drilling and boring, 434, 438 Failure of cutting tools, 218
16–17, 20, 183 Drilling chips, 108–109 indications of failure, 218
causes and sources, 184–185 Drop tool devices, 88 modes of failure, 218–219
control, 199–204 Dual axis grinding, 376 Feed, 7–8, 10–14, 17
effects, 185–186 Dynamic grinding, 374 Fixture and jig; basic aspects, 696
estimation, 186–190 design considerations, 698–699
measurement, 190–197 E purposes (or needs) of application,
Cutting tool materials, 228 Economic justification for use of 696–697
chronological development, 229 fixtures, 711–713 viability of use, 697
essential properties, 228–229 Economy of machining, 398 Foot print (of machine tools), 526,
Cutting velocity, 7–12 Effective rake, 105–106 528–532
Cylindrical grinding, 331, Effects of grinding temperature, Form cylindrical grinding, 334
333–334 357–358 Form factor, 13, 15
Ejectors, 716, 718–720, 723, 725 Forming, 6, 432, 435, 440–441,
D Electrochemical grinding, 375 443
Depth of cut, 7–8, 10–15 Electro-hydraulic drive, 447–450 Fracturing and crushing, 348
Design approach for spindle, 497 Electro-mechanical drive, 448 Frozen chips, 87–89
Design of jigs and fixtures – care Electro-polishing, 385–387
study, 711–719 Elementary kinematic structure, G
Design of machine tool foundations, 455 Gear layout of SGB, 487–489
776 Environmental pollution, 401–404 Gear teeth generation, 433
checking foundation thickness Estimation of cutting forces, 128 forming by milling and broaching,
for safety, 778–779 in drilling, 140–142 441
dynamic stability, 785 in machining by single point-tools, gear shaping, 431, 433, 439–443
foundation bolt, 778, 781 128–137 gear hobbing, 433
shape and dimensions, 777–778 in milling, 142–146 Generation, 430–431, 433,
Design of strain gauge type Merchant’s circle diagram, 442–443
dynamometers, 157 129–137 Generatrex and directrix, 431–443
drilling dynamometer, 164–165 Estimation of machining time, Geometrical surfaces, 429–431
grinding dynamometer, 168–169 259 Geometry of milling cutters, 35–37
milling dynamometer, 165–168 approach and over run, 261, Grid deformation, 86–87
turning dynamometers, 159, 263–265, 268–269 Grindability, 329–330, 344,
161–165, 168 drilling and boring, 263–264 350–352, 355–362
Design of the shaft of SGB, gear shaping, 266–269 Grinding, 329
496–497 hobbing, 266–269 Grinding applications, 329,
Determine size of the gears of idle time, 259–260 368–369, 373
SGB, 492–495 machining time, 259–269 Grinding forces, 329, 344,
diameter and width, 496 milling, 265–266 350–352, 354–360, 365
gear teeth calculation, 495 quick return ratio, 263–264 Grinding mechanics, 350–355

MAMT_Index.indd 797 7/23/2011 12:31:52 PM

 798 Index

Grinding ratio, 351, 355, 360–361 advantages, 450 Kinematic systems-its role in
Grinding requirements, 329, 338, limitations, 450 machine tools, 586
343, 350, 356 Kinematic systems of automatic
Grinding temperature, 355–361, I lathes, 600
365, 373 Indexing in jigs and fixtures, 695, bar feeding (mechanism),
Grinding wheel classification, 716–718, 725 601–602
341–343 Innovation of machine tools, 515 capstan lathe (semi automatic),
Grinding wheel conditioning, history, 516 600–601
344–345 purposes and reasons, 516 turret indexing (mechanism),
Grinding wheel constructions, Inspection and assessment of lathes 602–603
339–341 bed, 775 Kinematic systems of conventional
Grinding wheel selection, 343–344 features inspected, 782–783 machine tools, 586
Grouping conventional machine equipments necessary, 785 centre lathe, 586
tools into families, 536 standard accuracy levels, feed gear box-gear layout,
784–785 587–592
H procedure, 783–785 kinematic structure, 586–587
Harmful effects of cutting Inspection and testing of machine special transmission gear (127
temperatures, 401–404 tools, 775 teeth), 592
Health hazards for cutting blimed, error and in accuracy, 782 working principle, 586–587
403–404 procedural (sequential) steps, 788 drilling machine, 594
High efficiency deep grinding purpose of inspection and kinematic structure, 595
(HEDG), 366, 369 testing, 782–783 working principle, 594–595
High performance ceramics Internal grinding, 331, 334–335 milling machine, 599–600
alumina reinforced by sic kinematic structure, 599
whisker, 242 J over running clutch, 599–600
metal toughened alumina, Jigs and fixtures: design principles, telescopic shaft, 599–600
242–243 699–709 universal joints, 599–600
whisker reinforced nitride clamping; requirements and planning machine, 597
ceramics, 241 methods, 706–709 shaping machine, 596–597
zirconium toughened alumina, cam clamping, 708–709 slotting machine, 598
242 clamping by screw and nut, Kinematic systems of gear
High performance grinding, 709 generating machines, 612
364–366 quick acting nut, 707–708 gear shaping machine, 612
History of manufacturing quick clamping, 709 kinematic structure and its
automation, 511 requirements (norms), 13 working, 612–614
Honing, 381–383 locating; norms and methods, transmission ratio of the gear
Hot hardness, 226, 228, 230–234, 699–703 boxes, 615–616
237, 239–242 supporting; norms and methods, hobbing machine, 616
Hot isostatic pressing (HIP), 241 704–705 kinematic structuring and its
Hydraulically driven machine Joining, 6, 420 working, 616–617
tools, 620 transmission ratio of the gear
copying lathe, 621 K boxes, 618
kinematic system and control, 621 Kinematic chains, 453–454, 456,
values and device, 620 466 L
Hydraulic drive (in machine tools), Kinematic structure (of machine Lapping, 377–381
447, 449 tools), 453–464 Lathes, 537

MAMT_Index.indd 798 7/23/2011 12:31:52 PM

 Index 799

automatic lathes, 544 aluminium and its alloys, Machining, 7

automatic cutting off lathe, 544 288–289 Machining applications of drilling
CNC lathe, 546 nickel and its alloys, 291–293 machines, 634–637
single spindle automatic, plastics and FRPs, 295–296 machining operations, 634–635
544–545 stainless steels, 290–291 cutting tools used, 636–637
Swiss type automatic, 545 titanium based alloys, 293–295 Machining applications of lathes,
centre lathe, 537–538 Machined surface quality, 315 634
drilling machines, 546–547 roughness, 315 cutting tools used, 634
column drilling machine, shape, 315 machining operations, 634
547–548 surface topography, 314 Machining applications of
gang drilling machine, waviness, 315 planning machines, 640
550–551 Machine tool automation, 508, Machining applications of shaping
micro-drilling machine, 552 510 machines, 637–640
multiple spindle drilling definition and purpose, 508–509 Machining applications of slotting
machine, 551 degree of automation, 508 machines, 641
pillar drill (drilling machine), transfer machine, 510 Machining centres (MC)
547 Machine tool families, 518 machining centre, 746–754
radial drilling machine, 548 boring machines, 519 turning centre, 747–750,
turret type drilling machine, broaching machines, 520 754–755
550 conventional lathes, 518 Machining constraints, 10–19, 136
milling machines, 555 drilling machines, 517–518 Machining economy, 4, 8, 18, 20
bed type, 556 gear teeth producing machines, Magnetic field assisted polishing,
CNC milling machine, 520 386
558–559 gear teeth forming machines, Magnetic float polishing, 386
copy milling machine, 558 520 Major aspects of machine tools, of
knee type horizontal arbour, 556 gear teeth generating machine tools, 425–426
universal head type, 557 machines, 520 Major components and functions,
planning machine, 553–554 grinding machines, 520 of machine tools
semiatomatic lathes, 538 milling machines, 519 centre lathes, 420–421
capstan and turret lathes, shaping, planning and slotting drilling machine, 423
538–543 machine, 517, 519 milling machine, 423–425
hydraulic copying lathe, 543 Machine tool foundation, 775–776 planning machine, 422–423
relieving lathe, 543 configurations, 776–777 shaping machine, 421–422
shaping machine, 552–553 design steps, 776 Manual part programming for
slotting machine, 554–555 forces acting on foundations, CNC machines, 748–749
Liquid nitrogen jets, 405–406, 410 777, 780 line statements and its
materials of foundation block, 780 interpretation, 750
M need and purpose, 776 part programming for CNC
Machinability, 8–9, 18, 280 Machine tools, 419 milling, 757
definition and assessment, classification, 517–518 methods, 762
280–282 definition, 419–420 part programming for drilling in
governing factors, 282–283 Machine tool specification, 525 CNC milling, 757
improvement methods, 287–288 basic principle of specification, ISO codes, 757–758
machinability rating (MR), 281 526 method, 758–759
Machinability characteristics of purpose (or need) of specification, part programming for machining
critical materials, 288 525–526 in CNC lathes, 750

MAMT_Index.indd 799 7/23/2011 12:31:52 PM

 800 Index

address character codes, drilling machine, 679 during cylindrical grinding,

750–751 mounting blanks, 680 686–687
goods for preparatory mounting tools, 679–681 during surface grinding, 686–688
functions, 752 milling machine, 683 Mounting job and tool in machine
post program checking, 749–750 mounting blanks, 683–684 tools, 696
procedural steps, 748 mounting tools, 684–686 principles of mounting cutting
speed and feed functions-coding, planning machine, 681–689 tools, 696
751, 753–754 semi-automatic and automatic principles of mounting job or
Manufacturing, 3–6, 10, 22 lathes, 676 blank, 696
Master lines, 47–49, 51–53, 55 mounting blanks, 670–676 Mounting of blank and tools in
Materials for men’s welfare mounting tools, 677–678 CNC machine tools,
(MMW), 3 shaping machine, 681 715–717
Measurement of cutting forces, 152 mounting blanks, 683–684
purpose of measurement, mounting tools, 684–686 N
152–153 slotting machine, 681–689 Non-positive and positive drives,
principles of measurement Methods of specifying machine 458–459
153–154 tools, 526 Nose (tool) radius, 30–33, 35
Measuring cutting temperatures by boring machines, 528–529 Numerical controlled machine
thermocouple, 192 vertical type, 527–530 tools, 731
calibration, 196 horizontal type, 527–530 advent of NC machines
compensation for particle emf, broaching machine, 530 historical background,
193 cylindrical grinding machine, 531 732–733
compound rake system, 195–196 drilling machines, 528 advantages of flexible automation
embedded thermocouple, gear teeth generating machines, (NC, CNC), 732–733
194–195 530 coordinate systems, 736–737
infrared camera, 196–197 gear shaping machine, 530–531 dimensioning of products,
moving thermocouple, 194 hobbing machine, 531 736–739
photocell, 196 grinding machines, 531 NC system-components and
tool-work thermocouple, lathes, 526–527 their role, 742, 748
192–193 milling machine, 529–530 encoder, 734–736, 746–747
Mechanics of grinding, 345 shaping, planning and rolling feedback unit, 735–736
Metal removal mechanism in machines, 529 machine control unit (MCU),
grinding, 360 surface grinding machine, 735–736, 743
Methods of inspection and testing, 531–532 tape reader, 735–736
786 Milling, 430 open loop and closed loop
instruments and tools necessary, end milling, 439, 441 control in NC systems,
785 face milling, 439 734–736, 743
preparatory work, 785 form milling, 433–435
Methods of mounting blank and plain or slab milling, 433, 438 O
tool in different machine Milling chips, 111–114 Oblique cutting, 100–101, 106,
tools, 670 Milling cutters, 27–28, 35–38, 75 116
centre lathe, 670 Monolayer configuration, 370–372 Octagonal ring, 167
mounting job or blanks, Mounting blanks and tools (wheel) On-line condition monitoring,
670–676 in grinding machines, 686 364, 366, 376
mounting cutting tools, during centre less grinding, Operation and control of NC and
673–676 688–689 CNC machine tools, 742

MAMT_Index.indd 800 7/23/2011 12:31:52 PM

 Index 801

basic NC system vs. conventional, sign; positive and negative rake, Special techniques in machining,
742–744 28–29 18–19, 260, 263
computerized numerical control Ray diagram (RD), 487–491 edge building, 260
(CNC), 744–745 Reducing grinding problems, of hob cutter, 269
Optimization of cutting velocity, 373–376 plain milling edge, 265–266,
398–401 Reference systems for tool 269
Optimization of tool life, 401 geometry, 29 tool geometrical modifications,
Orientation angles, 27, 55, 68 machine reference or ASA 262
Orthogonal cutting, 100–102, system, 29 zhirov point drill, 310–311
106, 108 maximum rake system (MRS), Specification of grinding wheel,
55, 68–70 344
P normal rake system (NRS), 29, Speed gear box – design, 479
Physical vapour deposition (PVD), 34–35 speed distribution, 482
230, 235–238 orthogonal rake system (ORS), A.P. (arithmetic progression),
Piezoelectric transducer, 160 29, 32–33 482
Piezoelectric type dynamometer, work reference system (WRS), common ratio (φ), 484–487,
161, 168 29, 35 489, 491
drilling dynamometer, 164–165 Regenerative manufacturing, 6 G.P. (geometric progression),
milling and grinding Role (and benefits) of automation, 482
dynamometer, 165–169 507–509 saw tooth diagram, 482, 484
turning dynamometer, 163–164 Rubbing, 347 speed layout, 480
Piispannen model, 85–86 greatest speed, 480–481
Plain cylindrical grinding, 333 S lowest speed (spindle),
Ploughing, 330, 347–348, 352, Selection of power of the sources, 480–481, 490
354–356, 360 449 number of spindle-speeds,
Polishing, 385–387 Servo motors, 448 482, 487
Power requirement, 447, 449, 451 Setting angles (φr and φ∞), 58 speed range, 481–482, 484, 487
Power sources, 447–448, 451 Shearing, 347 standard spindle-speeds,
Process planning and tool layout Shear plane and angle, 95 487–488
(automat), 607–612 Shear zone, 86, 100 standard values of common ratio,
Product quality, 4–5, 8, 13–15, 18 Special machining techniques 485–488
Production engineering, 3, 22 ballistic machining, 314 Speed stroke grinding, 364–365
Productivity mrr, 4–5, 15, 18 dynamic machining, 262 Spherical chip formation, 348
hot machining, 263 Stepless drive, 458–459, 461
Q laser turning, 314 Stepped and stepless drive, 448
Quick stop apparatus, 86, 88–89 rotary turning (tool), 267, 313 Stepped drive, 458–459, 461
stretch machining, 313 Stepper motor, 448
R Special purpose machine tools, Strain gauge, 157–159, 161–162,
Rake angle, 34 515, 517, 521, 621–622 165–169
inclination angle, 28, 30–32, 34, characteristics and requirements, Super-abrasive wheels, 340,
36, 43–45 621–622 344–345, 348, 366–367
maximum rake design, 623–624 Super-finishing, 377, 384
normal rake, 29, 34–35 kinematic structure and Super-finishing processes, 377–387
orthogonal rake, 29, 32–33, operation, 623 Surface grinding, 331–333
48, 67 Special techniques in grinding, Surface finish/roughness, 14,
side rake and back rake, 30 373 17–18

MAMT_Index.indd 801 7/23/2011 12:31:52 PM

 802 Index

Surface grinding, 331–333 working principle, 154 whitworth mechanism, 461

Surface integrity, 315–316 Tool geometry designation, 47 Type of automation
assessment & designation, 329 Tool life, 8–9, 12, 14, 18, 223 flexible automation, 510–511
governing factors, 261 assessment of tool life, 224 applications, 511
measurement, 321 modified Taylor’s tool life definition, 511
microscopy, 321 equation, 226 relative advantages, 511
profilometry, 321–322 roles of machining parameters, hard or fixed automation, 507,
reduction and control, 323 226–227 510
replica method, 321–322 Taylor’s tool life equation,
surface roughness, 282 224–226 U
Surface quality of the ground Tool materials – advanced types, Ultra-High-Speed Grinding,
products, 361–362 234–235 364–365, 373
Swiss type automatic lathe, coated carbides, 235–237 Ultrasonic cleaning of grinding
606–607 coronite, 237–239 wheel, 375
Tool materials – conventional, 229 Uniform and assured locating, 712,
T high speed steels (HSS), 716
Tangent tracing, 432, 443 229–230 Universal bridge (UB), 785,
Technological benefits of plain ceramics, 232–234 787–789
cryo-cooling, 405 sintered carbides, 231–232 multipurpose unitized appliance
on cutting forces, 406 Stellite, 230–234 (MUA), 785
on dimensional accuracy, 407 (Tool) nose radius, 14 step bearing, 785–786
on residual stresses, 409 Tool rake angle, 15–16 Universal cylindrical grinding,
on surface cracking, 410 Tool sharpening and re-sharpening, 334
on surface finish, 408 68–70
on tool life, 405 Tool-work motions, 431 V
Threading, 436–437 auxiliary motions, 431 Value addition, 4
external threading, 435 formative motions, 431 Values used in hydraulic power
internal threading, 436 Tracing, 432, 434, 443 pack, 448–449
Tool and cutter grinding, 331, Transformation of motions, 454,
336–337 458 W
Tool angles conversion, 47 cam and cam follower, 461 Wear of cutting tools, 219
graphical method, 48 crank and connecting rod, 461 measurement of wear, 222–223
vectors method, 48 eccentric mechanism, 461 mechanisms of wear, 219–220
Tool changing time, 9 oscillating lever mechanism, 461 pattern of wear, 220–222
Tool force dynamometers, 154 rack and pinion, 461
design requirements, 160–161 rotation to rotation, 458–459 Z
resources and transducers, 156 rotation to translation, 461 Z-Z Cooling, 373, 375
calibration, 155–157 screw-nut system, 461

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