Chapter TME 213

1 Thermodynamics
Fundamental
Concepts Dr. S.K. Fasogbon & Dr. Temilola Olugasa
 University of Ibadan

Course Content
• Chapter 1: Fundamental Concepts- Introduction,
systems, boundaries, Processes, Forms of Energy.
• Chapter 2: Properties of Pure Substances-
Definition, phase change, property diagrams and
Tables, Gas Law.
• Chapter 3: First Law of Thermodynamics Energy
Analysis of closed and Open Systems
• Chapter 4: Second Law of Thermodynamics-
Heat Engines, Heat pumps and Refrigerators,
Entropy
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What is Thermodynamics?

The science of energy, that

concerned with the ways in
which energy is stored within a
body.
Energy transformations – mostly
involve heat and work movements.

The Fundamental law is the

conservation of energy principle:
energy cannot be created or
destroyed, but can only be
transformed from one form to
another.

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Importance of Thermodynamics
Energy forms the backbone of all
technological and engineering developments.
It powers all aspects of the economy
especially manufacturing, transportation and
communication sectors.
Without energy, most productive activities will
cease and the economy will come to a
standstill.

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Importance of Thermodynamics
• Hence, it has always been the primary concern
of engineers and technologists to identify and
harness all existing sources of energy and find
means of transforming or converting these
energy sources into usable forms.
• It is therefore important for all engineering
students to study and understand the
scientific principles involved in energy
transformation, that is, thermodynamics
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System, surroundings and boundary

System: A quantity of matter or a

region in space chosen for study.

Surroundings: The mass or region

outside the system

Boundary: The real or imaginary

surface that separates the system
from its surroundings.

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Type of system
(isolated system)

Isolated system – neither

mass nor energy can cross
the selected boundary

Example (approximate): coffee in

a closed, well-insulated thermos
bottle

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Type of system
(Closed system)

Closed system – only energy

can cross the selected
boundary

Examples: a tightly capped cup of

coffee

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Type of system
(Open system)

Open system – both mass and

energy can cross the selected
boundary

Example: an open cup of coffee

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Properties of a system
Properties of a system is a measurable characteristic of a system that is
in equilibrium.
Properties may be intensive or extensive.

Intensive – Are independent of the amount of mass:

e.g: Temperature, Pressure, and Density,

Extensive – varies directly with the mass

e.g: mass, volume, energy, enthalpy

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Properties of a system
Specific properties – The ratio of any extensive property of a system to that
of the mass of the system is called an average specific value of that property
(also known as intensives property)

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State, Equilibrium and Process

State – a set of properties that describes the conditions of a

system. Eg. Mass m, Temperature T, volume V

Thermodynamic equilibrium -
system that maintains thermal,
mechanical, phase and chemical
equilibriums.

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THERMODYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM

• Equilibrium of a system refers to the situation

in which it’s “state” does not undergo any
change in itself with passage of time without
the aid of any external agent.
• If no change in state of system occurs then the
system can be said in equilibrium.
• Thermodynamic equilibrium is a situation in
which thermodynamic system does not
undergo any change in its state.

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State, Equilibrium and Process

Process – change from one
equilibrium state to another.

Process Property held

constant
isobaric pressure
isothermal temperature
isochoric volume
isentropic entropy

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State, Equilibrium and Process

The prefix iso- is often used to designate a process for which a particular property
remains constant.

Isobaric process: A process during which the pressure P remains constant.

Pressure is Constant (∆P = 0)

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State, Equilibrium and Process

Isochoric (or isometric) process: A process during which the specific volume v
remains constant

Process Property held

constant
Isothermal process: A process during
which the temperature T remains isobaric pressure
constant. isothermal temperature
.
isochoric volume
isentropic entropy
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Types of Thermodynamics Processes

Cyclic process - when a system in a given initial
state goes through various processes and finally
return to its initial state, the system has undergone
a cyclic process or cycle.

Reversible process - it is defined as a process

that, once having take place it can be reversed. In
doing so, it leaves no change in the system or
boundary.

Irreversible process - a process that cannot

return both the system and surrounding to their
original conditions
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Types of Thermodynamics Processes

Adiabatic process - a process that has no heat transfer
into or out of the system. It can be considered to be
perfectly insulated.
Isentropic process - a process where the entropy of the
fluid remains constant.

Polytropic process - when a gas undergoes a reversible

process in which there is heat transfer, it is represented
with a straight line, PVn = constant.
Throttling process - a process in which there is no
change in enthalpy, no work is done and the process is
adiabatic.

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Steady Flow Process

• Steady-flow process can be defined as a process
during which a fluid flows through a control
volume steadily. That is, the fluid properties can
change from point to point within the control
volume, but at any fixed point they remain the
same during the entire
process. Therefore, the volume V, the mass m,
and the total energy content E of the control
volume remain constant during a steady flow
process
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Steady flow processes

• A large number of engineering devices

operate for long periods of time under the
same conditions, and they are classified as
steady-flow devices. Examples are pumps,
turbines, nozzles e.t.c.

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Reversibility
• Reversibility occurs when a fluid undergoes a
reversible process, both the fluid and the
surrounding can always be restored to their
original states.
• A reversible process between two states can
be drawn as a line on any diagram of
properties

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Criteria for Reversibility

• a) The process must be frictionless. The fluid itself must
have no internal friction and there must be no
mechanical friction.
• b) The difference in pressure between the fluid and its
surroundings during the process must be very small
(infinitesimally small) i.e the process must take place
infinitesimally slowly since the force to accelerate the
boundaries of the system is infinitesimally small.
• c) The difference in temperature between the fluid and
its surrounding during the process must be infinitesimally
small. This means that the heat supplied or rejected to or
fro the fluid must be transferred very slowly.
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Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

“ If two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third

body, there are also in thermal equilibrium with each
other.”

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Forms of Energy
• Energy can exist in numerous forms: Thermal,
Mechanical, kinetic, potential, electric,
magnetic, chemical and Nuclear.
• Energy can be transferred to or from a closed
system (a fixed mass) in two distinct forms:
heat and work.
• For control volumes, energy can also be
transferred by mass flow in addition to Heat
and Work

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Macroscopic & Microscopic Forms of

Energy
• The macroscopic forms of energy are those a
system possesses as a whole with respect to some
outside reference frame, such as kinetic and potential
energies
• The microscopic forms of energy are those related to
the molecular structure of a system and the degree of
the molecular activity, and they are independent of
outside reference frames. The sum of all the
microscopic forms of energy is called the internal
energy of a system and is denoted by U.

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HEAT
• Heat is the form of energy transferred
between two systems (or a system and its
surroundings) by virtue of a temperature
difference. The surrounding could be a heat
source (reservoir) or a sink (that which
extracts heat).
• Heat is transferred by three mechanisms:
conduction, convection, and radiation.

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Specific Heat

• Cx is a generalized specific heat with the unit

KJ/Kg/K whose value depends on the
substance and the path followed, which is a
function of temperature and pressure.
• In the constant volume process, all the energy
added to a closed system in the form of heat is
• devoted to increasing the internal energy of
the system.
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Importance of Thermodynamics
• It can be described mathematically as the
• ..It is given the symbol Cv
• In the constant pressure process, some of the
heat added to a closed system may be used to
do work, as well as to increase the internal
energy. It can be described mathematically as
the partial derivative of enthalpy with respect
to temperature . It is given the symbol
Cp
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WORK
• Work is defined as the product of force F and
the distance l through which it moves in the
direction of the force. Work is something
which appears at the boundary when a system
changes its state due to the movement of a
part of the boundary under the action of a
force. It is the particular form of energy
transfer associated with closed systems

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WORK
• work is the energy transfer associated with a
force acting through a distance. A rising
piston, a rotating shaft, and an electric wire
crossing the system boundaries are all
associated with work interactions.

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WORK

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Work
• Electrical Work
• Mechanical Work- Spring Work
-Shaft work
- Surface Tension Work

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Sign Convention
• The generally accepted formal sign convention for
heat and work interactions is as follows:
• heat transfer to a system and work done by a system
are positive;
• heat transfer from a system and work done on a
system are negative.

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Application Areas of Thermodynamics

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