Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue

The Climber’s Guide to Accessing Alpine Terrain

E-Book Edition

© VDiff Climbing 2020. All rights reserved. This publication is the property of VDiff
Climbing and Mountain Focus.

Writers:
Mike Thomas
Neil Chelton

Illustrator:
Neil Chelton

Photographers:
- Alex Ratson
- Mike Thomas
- Maria Parkes
- Ronnie Legg
- Petrouchka Steiner-Grierson

Front Cover: Ryan Larkin on Serratus Mountain, Tantalus Range, Canada.

Photographer: Alex Ratson

Warning: Mountains are Dangerous!

This book is intended for people who are competent at basic mountaineering skills
such as:
- Wearing a harness
- Tying into a rope
- Belaying
- Understanding mountain hazards and weather
- Having a good knowledge of first aid

This book is designed to be supplemented with practical instruction from qualified

professionals. Do not rely on it as your primary source of glacier travel information.
If you are unsure about any of the information given in this book, it is strongly
recommended that you seek qualified instruction. Failure to do this may result in
serious injury or death. The writers and employees of VDiff disclaim all
responsibility and liability for any injuries or losses incurred by any person
participating in the activities described in this book.
 Glacier Travel and
Crevasse Rescue
The Climber’s Guide to Accessing Alpine Terrain
Contents

6 Glacier Travel
Fundamentals

16 Glacier Gear

22 Using the Rope

32 Moving on Snow

40 Crevasse Rescue
Anchors

52 Crevasse Rescue
Systems

66 Essential Knots

VDiff > Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue 5

Ryan Larkin at Joffre Lakes Provincial Park, BC, Canada. Alex Ratson. 6
Glacier Travel Fundamentals

7
Introduction
Travelling on a glacier is an exciting may be the best route to an alluring
element of exploring the high summit. Before stepping onto a
mountains. Many alpine rock climbs glacier, it is important to learn how to
can only be accessed by travelling safely negotiate their hazards.
across glaciers, or the glacier itself
………...

What is a Glacier?
A glacier is a mass of consolidated Glacial flow fractures the surface of
snow and ice which flows very slowly the ice, creating large cracks
down a mountain. (crevasses) which can be up to 45
meters deep, 20 meters wide and
Different parts of a glacier move at hundreds of meters long.
different speeds, similar to the flow
rate of water in a river – faster at the Crevasses are the main hazard to
center and surface, slower at the people wishing to cross a glacier.
sides and bottom where bedrock
creates friction.

VDiff > Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue > Fundamentals 8

Surface of snow

Surface of ice

Crevasse Snow bridge

Dry Glaciers
You will encounter dry glaciers in Because dry glaciers are completely
summer, particularly at lower altitudes, free of snow, it is possible to see all
when the winter snow has melted and the crevasses and therefore much
bare ice is exposed. easier to pick a route to avoid them.

A dry glacier in Svalbard. Ronnie Legg. 9

Wet Glaciers
Wet glaciers are snow-covered and Or it could be thin, unfrozen and
much more dangerous. The snow weak, allowing an unsuspecting
does not fill the crevasses, but climber to fall through into the
instead forms a layer on the surface crevasse beneath. Because of this, it
which hides them. is very important to be roped up as
part of a team to help reduce the
The layer of snow covering a consequences of falling into a
crevasse is known as a snow bridge. crevasse.

Snow bridges are at their strongest

Snow Bridges early in the morning when the snow is
A snow bridge can be thick, well well frozen. Remember this when
frozen and strong enough to support you’re following your footprints back
the weight of a person. later in the afternoon.

A wet glacier in Greenland. Maria Parkes. 10

 Crevasses
Although crevasses could be almost glacier where they are more
anywhere and orientated in any commonly found. Crevasses often
direction, there are certain parts of a form:
………..

At the top edge of the On undulations where

glacier, known as a the angle of the slope
bergschrund increases significantly

Around bedrock
features, such
as a nunatak
(rock tower)

On the
outside
edge of a
turn

When the distance

between valley
walls narrows or
expands

Where two
glaciers meet

VDiff > Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue > Fundamentals 11

Points of Stress and Compression Finding Crevasses
As the ice moves over undulations The first step in choosing a route
and around corners, points of stress across a glacier is to figure out where
are created on the outside edge, the crevasses are. Here are some
causing the ice to rip apart and form tips:
crevasses.
- Study photographs of the glacier
These cracks in the ice typically (but before the trip, as some crevasse
not always) run perpendicular to the patterns remain the same year after
flow of the glacier. year.
- On the approach, try to get a good
Points of compression are created on look at the glacier before you reach it.
the inside edges where ice is being A maze is much easier to negotiate
pushed together. These areas have when viewed from outside than from
the least number of crevasses and within.
usually present the safest route to - Look out for sagging trenches on
travel. the surface of the snow. Snow
covering a large crevasse gradually
This is easier to understand if you deforms and sags under its own
imagine bending a Mars Bar. Cracks weight.
form on the outside of the bend, and - Probe suspect areas using an axe
chocolate is pushed together on the or ski pole (with the basket removed).
inside edge. Push the shaft of the axe into the
snow with a smooth motion. If there is
suddenly less resistance, you have
most likely found a hole.
- If you find a crevasse, there are
probably more nearby.

Other Glacier Hazards

Seracs Rockfall
A serac is a block or column of glacial Rockfall is a hazard if travelling on
ice often formed: glaciers bordered by steep
- Where two crevasses intersect mountains, or when climbing on rock
- At the lower end of a glacier faces. Rockfall is reduced overnight
- Where a glacier steepens dramatically when the cold temperatures freeze
rock in place.
Seracs are dangerous because they
can collapse with no warning. If you are The most dangerous times to be
below them, you could be hit by ice exposed to this risk are late morning
blocks. when direct sunlight melts the bonds
between ice and rock, and also in the
evenings when meltwater freezes and
expands.

VDiff > Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue > Fundamentals 12

Exposure to Seracs and Rockfall Whiteouts
The only way to increase safety when When fog or cloud descend on a
travelling beneath seracs or potential glacier, snow and sky become one
rockfall is to reduce the amount of indistinguishable blur of white, with no
time you are exposed to the risk. apparent up or down.
Either alter your route or move
efficiently without stopping to Travelling on complicated glaciated
minimize the exposure. Factor this in terrain in poor visibility can be very
when planning your climb. serious, as making the correct route
choice can be nearly impossible.

Avalanches Even if the weather is clear on the

Reaching an alpine climbing objective approach, it is worth tracking your
can involve travelling on snow slopes route via GPS, so if clouds close in
which are prone to avalanches. during the day, you will be able to
Avalanche hazard is a complex follow your path back.
subject and is not covered in this
manual. An excellent resource is
Staying Alive in Avalanche Terrain by
Bruce Tremper.

Assessing Hazards
With all of these dangers, you may be - Prior planning (bring the right gear
wondering how anyone has ever and study maps of your intended
survived a glacier crossing! route beforehand).
- Waiting for the correct weather and
While there are many hazards, there conditions.
are also many ways of reducing your - Practising skills (see next page).
exposure to them. This mostly boils - Making decisions based on facts,
down to: rather than emotions (don’t be afraid
of turning back if it’s too dangerous,
even if you want to continue).

Training
Training for glacier travel means You should aim to reach a level of
practising the techniques described in competence where your snow
this book. Plenty of practise is anchors are always bomber and you
essential. can set up any crevasse rescue
system quickly and efficiently.
Skills such as prusiking out of a
crevasse or hauling someone out are Always practise in a group and tell
strenuous, slow and clunky at first, but someone at home where you are
with practise you’ll develop a slick going.
and fast technique.

VDiff > Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue > Fundamentals 13

 What To Practise

Practised Practised a
Skill Competent
once few times

Tying into the end of the

rope and taking coils
Tying into the middle of the rope

Measuring the rope

accurately with arm spans
Easier Skills

Tying jamming knots

Moving on snow of different angles

using an ice axe and crampons
Snow probing

Wearing the right clothing in different

temperatures and conditions
Moving together with a taut rope

Various methods of
crossing crevasses
Self-arresting in different positions

Making snow and ice anchors

in different conditions
Harder Skills

Prusiking out of a crevasse

Hauling a victim out

of a crevasse
Navigating in poor weather

Map reading and

planning a safe route

Where To Practise
It’s important to build up your non-glacial snow slope which has a
experience progressively with regards safe runout and zero risk of:
to terrain. - Avalanches
- Crevasses
The ideal venue to have your first - Rockfall
practise sessions is on a low-angled, - Seracs
………….

VDiff > Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue > Fundamentals 14

Find a safe windscoop to simulate a As with anything worthwhile, it will
crevasse, or take some shovels and take time to build up a good level of
dig a hole. competence. Trying to shortcut this
process is extremely dangerous and
Once you have built up some skills, will probably result in disaster.
progress to a simple glacier which has
easy access. Go in a large group for Once you have practised and become
increased safety and fun. competent at the skills listed on the
previous page, you will be ready to do
With the experience gained from your first real glacier crossing.
easier terrain, you can then travel on
more complicated glaciers. Only head It is recommended that at least one
off on remote, gnarly glacial member of the team has plenty of
adventures once you have gained glacier travel experience, because it
enough real experience. takes many glacier crossings to build
up skills such as spotting crevasses
After each session, review what and other hazards, and negotiating a
worked and what didn’t. Focus on route through them.
improving the things you found most
difficult.

Big crevasse on the Coleman Glacier, Mount Baker, Washington. Petrouchka Steiner-Grierson
Dent du Géant, European Alps. Mike Thomas. 16
Glacier Gear

17
Glacier Gear

What gear you take on the glacier will The list below covers equipment that
depend entirely on what you plan to is recommended for the glacier
do once across it. crossing itself. You will obviously need
extra equipment if planning a rock
climb or an overnight camp.

Clothing
Glaciers can present extremes of Upper Body
temperature. On a clear summer’s Wear layers that you can easily adjust
day, it can feel like you’re standing on for different temperatures, as
an inescapable boiling hot mirror, as differences throughout the day can be
the sun reflects off the snow and huge.
burns the underside of your nose.
The layering system starts with a
Conversely, when the clouds roll in long-sleeved base layer (wool is
and the wind picks up, it’s like being ideal). It helps to protect you from the
inside a giant fridge-freezer. sun when worn on its own and wicks
sweat away from your skin.
In a rescue situation, you may be
standing around for hours in these A mid-weight fleece (preferably with a
conditions. It’s important to bring the hood) can be worn over your base
correct clothing so you can withstand layer, with a waterproof jacket on the
this variable climate. top. This will keep the wind, rain or
snow off when necessary.
The clothing system in this chapter is
for typical summer alpinism and will These three layers combined are a
need to be adjusted to be warmer or reasonably warm ‘active’ set up for an
lighter for specific objectives or average summer alpine environment.
different times of year.

VDiff > Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue > Glacier Gear 18
Spare Warm Layer Extremities
This is a layer that you will only wear Good quality wool socks are warm
on windy summits, long lunch breaks and help prevent blisters.
or during rescue situations.
A windproof woollen hat is small and
Down jackets are excellent in dry lightweight for the amount of warmth
climates below freezing and are very it provides. Keep it in your pocket
lightweight for their warmth. Puffy when not in use so you can adjust
synthetic jackets are much better in temperature quickly without going into
warmer weather, especially if rain is your rucksack.
forecast.
Take a pair of thin gloves that you can
Some down jackets will repel a small handle the rope with (close fitting
amount of moisture, but the feathers leather gloves are good) and a thicker
will clump together in a rain storm and pair to wear if these get wet or the
then you’ll freeze. temperature drops.

Legs Boots
Mid-weight soft shell trousers are the You will need stiff mountaineering
best choice. They are breathable, fast boots which are crampon compatible
drying, offer some wind resistance – either B2 or B3 mountain boots.
and can shed a bit of snow. Which type you choose depends on
what else you’ll be using them for.
It's also important to carry a pair of B2’s are lighter, making them the best
lightweight waterproof over-trousers. choice for general alpinism and
These will add warmth if necessary summer rock scrambling. B3’s are
and provide protection from wind, heavier, warmer and more suitable if
snow and rain. you plan to use them for ice climbing
too.
Thermal leggings can be worn under
these layers to add warmth in colder Short gaiters are worn over your
weather. boots to stop snow entering into the
top of them.

Snow Climbing Equipment

Crampons
Any pair of 12-point crampons will be
suitable to cross a low-angled glacier.
Crampons improve traction on hard
snow or ice, but are less useful in
softer snow.

It is standard practice to wear

crampons at all times when roped
together on a glacier. Without them,
you’re unlikely to hold a falling climber.

VDiff > Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue > Glacier Gear 19
Axe
Head
A straight-shafted 50-60cm ice axe is
a good choice for general alpinism. Adze

Shaft

Spike

Pick

Poles Skis
Adjustable ski or trekking poles Skis are only recommended for
provide extra balance when travelling glacier travel if each member of the
on low-angled glaciers where an axe team is a competent skier.
is too short to reach the ground. They
are also useful for probing crevasses. Techniques such as self arresting and
keeping the rope taut when moving
Poles can be compressed and stored downhill are difficult for most skiers,
on the outside of your rucksack when and will be impossible for newbies.
not in use.

Crevasse Rescue Rack

Each climber should keep the
following gear clipped to their
harness:
- 4x screwgate carabiners
- 2x snapgate carabiners
- 2x prusik cords
- 2x ice screws (medium to long size)
- 1x 120cm sling
- 1x 30cm sling
- 1x locking pulley (optional)

Prusik Length
Prusiks are commonly made from
120cm of 5mm cord tied into a loop
using a double fisherman’s bend
(see page 73). This creates a finished
loop of around 45cm.

VDiff > Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue > Glacier Gear 20
Other Personal Equipment
Each climber should also bring:

- 40-litre rucksack - Emergency blizzard bag

- Harness - Food
- Helmet - Water bottle (1 litre is generally fine
- Headlamp with spare batteries if there are streams to resupply,
- Sun protection (sunscreen, category otherwise bring more)
3 or 4 sunglasses, lip balm, hat)

Group Equipment
Each group should carry:

- Rope (a 50 meter single rope, 9mm - Communication (mobile or sat

in diameter with dry treatment is a phone with relevant rescue numbers)
good choice for summer alpine use, - Group shelter
though this may change depending - Spare headlamp
on your specific objective) - V-thread tool
- 1st aid kit - Small repair kit (duck tape, short
- Navigation (map, compass and pieces of wire, knife, thin cord)
GPS)

The Darwin Icefall, Haupapa Tasman Glacier, New Zealand. Petrouchka Steiner-Grierson
Approaching the summit of an unknown peak, Liverpool Land, Greenland. Neil Chelton.
Using the Rope

23
Using the Rope

It can be tempting to cross a glacier The process of roping up is:

without bothering to get the rope out, 1) Two climbers tie into the ends of
especially if it looks easy or if other the rope.
climbers have crossed without 2) The appropriate length of rope is
problems before. measured between climbers.
3) The middle climbers tie in (for a
This attitude is extremely dangerous. team of three or four) or jamming
Not being roped up will greatly reduce knots are tied (for a team of two).
the chance of being rescued from a 4) Chest coils are taken with the extra
glacier’s main hazard – falling into a rope.
crevasse.
Each of these steps are described in
detail in this chapter.

Group Size
A roped team of three is a standard Glacier travel is very risky for a team
size for travel on a non-technical of two if no other roped teams are
glacier. It is safer than a team of two nearby. The climber who stops the fall
(with an extra climber to hold a fall) must build an anchor while in the
and easier to manage than a team of arrest position, set up a hauling
four. Never travel on a glacier alone. system and complete the entire
rescue by themselves.
Two or more independent teams is
beneficial (e.g; six climbers split into In this scenario, it is essential that
two teams of three). If a team is both climbers are proficient at
involved in an accident, they will have crevasse rescue.
backup help.

VDiff > Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue > Using the Rope 24
Rope Length
The minimum length of rope required - 40 meters for a team of two
for glacier travel is: - 50 meters for a team of three or four

Tying Into the End of the Rope

The rethreaded figure-8 is widely
recognised as being the safest way to
connect the end of the rope to your
harness (see page 69).

The climbers who tie into the end will

also take chest coils (see page 29).

Measuring the Rope

Climbers should tie into the rope at crevasse, only one person is at risk of
certain distances from each other. falling in at any time. A general guide
This spaces people far enough apart of the minimum distances are given
so that when crossing a typical below.
…………….

12 meters 12 meters 12 meters

15 meters 15 meters

VDiff > Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue > Using the Rope 25
 4 meters

20 meters

Being closer than these Arm Spans

recommended minimums is The distance of rope is easily
dangerous because it puts the whole measured using arm spans. For many
team at risk of falling into the same people, a double arm span of rope is
crevasse. Consider tying in with more about 1.5 meters (check this
distance on glaciers that may have beforehand and adjust your
bigger crevasses. calculation as necessary).

Basically, being further apart is safer. Remember that 1.5 meters of rope (1
The only downsides of being far apart span) is used when tying into the
is that communication can become middle or when tying a jamming knot.
harder and it is more difficult to keep
the rope taut. For example, a team of two climbers
need to be 20 meters apart (approx
13 spans) with 4 jamming knots (4
spans). So a total of 17 spans of rope
must be measured.

1.5 meters

Tying Into the Middle

The remaining climbers in a three or with a middle marker helps). For a
four person team must tie into the team of four, the middle two climbers
middle of the rope. This will be the will be evenly spaced from the rope’s
very middle in a team of three (a rope center.

VDiff > Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue > Using the Rope 26
Step 1
Tie an overhand knot with
a long bight of rope, from
waist height to the floor.

Step 2
Tie a second overhand 6
inches down from the first.

Step 3
Thread the bight through
your harness and back
through the overhand knot
as shown.

Step 4
Tie a stopper knot.

Step 5
Clip the tail back to your
belay loop with a
screwgate carabiner.

VDiff > Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue > Using the Rope 27
Jamming Knots
It will be very challenging to hold the creating a slot which the knot
weight of a falling climber when (hopefully) jams into.
travelling in a team of two. To help
with this, you should tie jamming This knot won’t hold the fall by itself
knots in the rope. – it merely adds some friction which
assists the climber in arresting the
During a fall, the rope cuts through the fall. Knots should be tied at 4 meter
snow on the lip of the crevasse, intervals.
…………..

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3

Tie a figure-8 on a bight, Pull the bight around the Do this again, twice
with a 60cm long loop. back of the knot and more, to create a large
though the figure-8 as jamming knot.
shown.

60cm

Jamming knots add complications Without the knots, both climbers are
during a crevasse rescue. In a team much more likely to end up in the
of two, it is still worth having the knots crevasse, which is a far worse
and then dealing with the extra situation! In a larger group, with more
problem of passing them during a climbers to hold the fall, it is usually
rescue. better to travel without jamming knots.

VDiff > Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue > Using the Rope 28
Chest Coils
When travelling in alpine terrain, it is and also means the length of rope
often preferable for the rope to be can be adjusted quickly if needed.
shorter than its full length.
Taking the Coils Off
A good way to achieve this is for the Reverse this process, taking the coils
climber at each end of the rope to use off one at a time. If you take them all
chest coils. This keeps the rope easily off at once and drop them in the snow,
accessible in the event of a rescue, it will make the most epic tangle!
………...

Step 1 Step 3 Step 4

Tie in with a neat figure- With your left hand held Put your left arm
8 and put your jacket at waist height, coil the through the coils, so
hood up. rope between your neck they hang on your right
and left hand, making shoulder across your
Step 2 sure each coil is of body.
Take the rope straight equal length and
up the right side of your tension. Keep taking
chest and around your coils until the desired
neck, making sure the length of rope remains
rope is snug, not slack. between you and your
partner.

VDiff > Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue > Using the Rope 29
Step 5 Step 6
With your left hand, reach through the Tie this bight of rope in an overhand
coils and behind the initial vertical knot, incorporating the live rope as
strand and grab the live rope. Pull this shown. If the coils are tied correctly,
back out through the coils until you you should be able to pull the live
have a 40cm bight of rope. rope without getting strangled.

Step 7 Step 8
Clip the remaining bight of rope to Tie a clove hitch on the live rope and
your belay loop. clip it to your belay loop. This redirects
the pull from chest height down to
waist height, meaning that if your
partner falls in a crevasse, you stand
a better chance of holding the fall and
not being pulled over head first!

VDiff > Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue > Using the Rope 30
Ropework Tips
Travel Perpendicular
Travelling with the rope at 90 degrees
to crevasses only exposes one
climber at a time to the hazard of
falling into the crevasse. If the rope is
running parallel to a crevasse, the
whole team risks falling in at the same
time!

Roping Up on a Dry Glacier

Moving together while roped up on a
dry glacier (one that is completely free
of snow) can be more dangerous than
going un-roped. Arresting a fall on
hard ice is nearly impossible and will
likely result in broken ankles and
more climbers in the crevasse.

However, when crossing crevasses

on a dry glacier, consider making an
anchor and belaying each other
across.

Experience
Ideally, the most experienced
mountaineer who is the best at
spotting crevasses and choosing a
route through them should be at the
front.

Tight Rope
Keep the rope tight between each
person at all times to reduce shock
loading. Not only would a climber fall
further if the rope is slack, but it will be
much harder for the climber on the
surface to hold the fall.

Weight Differences
If there is a significant weight
difference between climbers, the
lighter climber should be in the down
slope position, so that gravity assists
them when trying to hold the fall of
the heavier climber.

VDiff > Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue > Using the Rope 31
Crossing Nokkedal glacier on skis, Greenland. Neil Chelton
Moving on Snow

33
Moving on Snow

The snow which covers a glacier is

very variable. Sometimes a 20 degree Note
slope is easy to walk up, with the front Travelling on snow slopes steeper
team member kicking in steps as they than 30 degrees requires more
go. On the same slope at other times, advanced mountaineering skills, such
you’ll be wallowing in powder up to as placing lead protection in different
your armpits, or using crampons to snow types and understanding
front-point up snow which is as hard avalanche hazards. These topics are
as ice. Or maybe the snow has not covered in this guide.
transformed and you’ll actually be on
ice.

It’s important to learn how to move on Moving on Low-Angled Snow

all snow types and how to regain Travelling across a fairly flat glacier is
control if you start sliding down a simple – just walk and try not to trip
slope. over your crampons. But as the slope
increases, you will need to adapt your
walking technique from what you
Kicking Steps normally use on city streets.
If the snow is hard, the front climber
will need to kick steps to create an Hold the axe in your uphill hand and
easy path for the rest of the team. place the shaft into the snow above
Steps that are slightly incut will be you. Then move your feet up, one at a
more secure. time, and repeat. The axe provides
balance while you walk uphill – a bit
When following, kick into the steps to like holding onto a railing when
improve them. Simply standing in walking up stairs.
them is not as stable.

VDiff > Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue > Moving on Snow 34
Carrying an Ice Axe
In Your Hand
Hold the axe in your hand with your
thumb under the adze and the pick
pointing back as shown. This means
you are always ready for self-arrest if
you slip.

On Your Rucksack
If the axe is not needed for a while,
attach it securely to the axe-loop on
the outside of your bag, as shown
below.

Inside Your Rucksack

For extended sections of
scrambling/rock climbing, it’s useful to
put your axe inside your rucksack, if it
will fit. This means it is much less
likely to get snagged on something.

On a Shoulder Strap
If you need both hands free, you can
quickly store your axe down the back
of your rucksack so the pick rests on
a shoulder strap.

Simply poke the shaft a few inches

under your shoulder strap by your
collar bone and raise the head of the
axe so the shaft levers off your
shoulder.

VDiff > Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue > Moving on Snow 35
Then allow the axe to slot down
between your back and rucksack.

Tips:
- If this feels uncomfortable, try
loosening your shoulder straps a little.
- If you have chest coils on, use the
shoulder strap on the same side as
the coils.
- If the shaft of the axe is curved, try
putting the axe in with the pick facing
the other way so the end of the shaft
doesn’t stick out as much.
- If you take your bag off, remember
that the axe isn’t attached!

Self-Arrest
The self-arrest technique is used to - Elbows tightly tucked in by your
stop yourself sliding on snow. The sides (stronger position).
simplest scenario is when sliding on
your stomach, feet pointing downhill. - Legs apart and bent at the knees
The correct body position is: with feet up in the air (this provides
stability and having your crampons in
- Axe held diagonally across your the air prevents them from catching
body. and sending you into a cartwheel).

- Adze pressed into the hollow below Once in this position, focus all of your
your collar bone (if you don’t keep the weight over your shoulder and down
adze at your shoulder, the pick will be through the adze to push the pick into
unlikely to bite. It would also be the snow. If you don't stop, just keep
difficult to hold onto the axe if the pick trying and try harder. At least it will
did bite). slow you down.

- One hand over the head of the axe,

the other covering the spike on the
end of the shaft (to prevent it from
accidentally catching in the snow and
being ripped out of your hands or
spinning you).

- Face turned away from the axe (in

case the pick hits something and the
adze kicks back and cuts your nose
off, like Joe Simpson).

VDiff > Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue > Moving on Snow 36
Sliding on Your Back Sliding Head First
If you are sliding on your back then If you are sliding head first you must
you must roll over. hold the axe far out to one side, push
it into the snow and allow your legs to
It is best to roll over in the direction of swing around below you.
the pick, as this reduces the chance
of the spike on the shaft jabbing into Then remove the pick from the snow,
the snow by accident. bring the axe down to your shoulder
and get into the correct position
described on the previous page.

Practise
The self-arrest technique needs to be conditions, making sure there is a
practised to a point where it becomes safe runout below you. When you
an instinctive reaction. Try it out on need to arrest for real, it must be
slopes of different angles and snow executed instantly to be most
………. effective.

VDiff > Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue > Moving on Snow 37
Crossing Crevasses
There are a few different ways of Jumping Over
getting past a crevasse. Jumping over a deep void in the
ground is exhilarating and makes you
In order of preference, these are: look like a hero on photos. But it can
- Go around the end also be very dangerous.
- Cross on a snow bridge
- Jump over With a solid belay, probe around to
- Climb inside / abseil over find the true edge of the crevasse.
Pack down the snow to create a
runway for your leap of faith. Make
Going Around sure to have enough slack rope to
This is the preferred method, since complete the jump and keep your axe
you are much less likely to fall in. in the self-arrest position so you can
Crevasses generally narrow towards climb up if you land on the lip. The
their ends, but the visible end may not leader then belays the other team
be the actual end. members across.

Probe carefully and give the end a lot

of space. Look for other nearby Climbing Inside
crevasses and consider if one of them Sometimes it may be possible to
is actually an extension of this climb inside a crevasse, walk across
crevasse – you might be crossing a the bottom and climb up the adjacent
snow bridge. wall. This really only works in shallow
crevasses which have easy exits.

Crossing a Snow Bridge Before going in, make sure the bottom
The strength of a snow bridge varies of the crevasse really is the bottom
considerably with temperature – and not just a half-sunk snow bridge.
stronger when frozen overnight and As with jumping across, this can be
weaker in the midday sun. Just dangerous and requires a solid belay.
because there are footprints on it
doesn’t mean it won’t collapse under
your weight. Abseiling Over
It is fairly common to abseil over the
If you’re unsure of the bridge’s bergschrund when descending onto
stability, make a snow anchor and the top of a glacier. This is best done
belay across. Once the leader is from rock anchors (if available), but
across, the rest of the team should an anchor could also be made on ice
follow their footprints exactly. (using a v-thread) or on snow (using a
snow bollard) if necessary.

Remember to abseil with a prusik and

keep your ice axes handy as you may
need to climb up and out of the other
side of the crevasse.

VDiff > Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue > Moving on Snow 38
Dynamic Risk Assessment
It is important to understand the risks who slips on a small snow slope
involved in all types of climbing and which has a safe runout. Whereas the
mountaineering. The process of same incident on a similar slope but
evaluating these risks during the with a rocky runout, or a cliff or
activity is often referred to as a crevasse below, may lead to serious
dynamic risk assessment. injury.

When looking at a situation, think It is the relationship between

about the likelihood of a negative likelihood and consequence that is
incident occurring (e.g: a slip or fall, a crucial to evaluating the risks. To stay
hold snapping off, a storm coming in, safe in the mountains we need to
a rock falling from above), then think continually make these dynamic risk
about the consequences of this assessments and adjust our plan, or
happening. How does the terrain, the technique and tactics we use.
situation or weather affect the This will mitigate either the likelihood
consequences of the negative or consequence to bring risk to an
incident? acceptable level for each given
situation. Keep asking yourself, “what
For example, there might be no will happen if…?”
serious consequence for a climber
………...

Likelihood
Unlikely Very likely

Bruised
ego Slope with
safe runout
Consequences

Mild
injury

Slope with
dangerous
Certain runout
death

Low Risk

Medium Risk

High Risk

VDiff > Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue > Moving on Snow 39
Heavily crevassed glacier near Squamish, BC, Canada. Alex Ratson. 40
Crevasse Rescue Anchors

41
Crevasse Rescue Anchors

You will need to make an anchor on the

glacier when: Note
- Performing a crevasse rescue The anchors described in this chapter
- Belaying/ abseiling across a crevasse are made using equipment that you
or other tricky ground already have with you – ice axe,
rucksack or ice screws.
Snow Quality
The strength of a snow anchor varies Anchors can also be made from gear
dramatically depending on the snow which is designed as lead protection
type. For example; an ice axe buried in in snow, such as pickets or flukes.
powder snow will be useless, whereas However, it is assumed that you do
the same axe buried in hard snow will not have these more specialized
be bomber. With good judgement of the items with you.
snowpack, the anchors described in
this chapter will be sufficient for their
intended use. However, this judgement Be Precise
is only developed with plenty of Precision is everything with snow
practice and experimentation in a safe anchors. A precise and well
environment. constructed anchor can be quite
strong, with a sloppy one in the same
Surface Area snow being weak.
Generally, anchors with a bigger
surface area are stronger. An ice axe It’s better to take a little longer making
can work well in hard snow, but will not a good anchor that works, rather than
provide sufficient surface area for a rush one which fails halfway through a
secure anchor in soft, unconsolidated rescue.
snow. A better alternative in this case is
to bury a rucksack or a ski
(see page 45).

VDiff > Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue > Crevasse Rescue Anchors 42
Ice Axe Anchor
Step 1
Use your pick to score a horizontal
line in the snow exactly perpendicular
to the direction of pull and slightly
longer than the length of your ice axe.
Direction
It is important not to disturb the snow
of pull
in the area immediately in front of
your anchor as this is where its
strength comes from.
Front View

Step 2
Cut out a slot in the snow, using the
initial scored line as a guide. 30cm is
the minimum depth in firm,
30cm
consolidated snow. If the snow is soft,
you may need to dig deeper to find
more consolidated snow.

Make the front face of the slot uniform

and slightly incut in relation to the
direction of pull. This helps the axe to Side View
pull into the snow when weighted,
rather than up and out.

Angle less
Step 3 Direction than 90°
Find the centre of mass on the ice of pull
axe. Not the middle of the axe, but the
middle of the surface area. This is
typically about ⅔ of the way along the
shaft, towards the head. Mark where
this point would be on the slot you
have cut in the snow. Cut a narrow
slot at this point using the pick and
spike of the axe.

This slot only needs to be wide

enough for a fabric sling, but deep
enough so that it reaches to the very
base of the horizontal slot. It must
also be long enough so that when the
sling is attached, the angle created
pulls the axe into the snow, not
upwards.

VDiff > Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue > Crevasse Rescue Anchors 43
Step 4
Clovehitch a 120cm sling around the
shaft of the axe at the previously
identified point.

Then flip one strand of the sling over

the shaft as shown. This causes the
clovehitch to tighten up around the
shaft when weighted.

Step 5
Place the axe in the slot horizontally,
with the pick facing down and the
shaft securely up against the front
face at the very base of the slot.
Make sure the sling runs through the
narrow slot.

Step 6
Backfill the slot with snow and
compact it down. Be careful not to
disturb the snow in front of the anchor.
In some snow types this adds
considerable strength to the anchor.

Step 7
Use the anchor with caution and
avoid shock loading.

Reinforced Buried Axe

If you have a second axe available,
you can slide it in front of the other
axe, between the sling’s strands to
reinforce it. This adds more surface
area and improves the anchor’s
strength.

VDiff > Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue > Crevasse Rescue Anchors 44
Anchors in Softer Snow

Anchors which are more suitable in If you are using a ski, be careful to
softer snow include a buried rucksack protect the sling from the ski’s sharp
or horizontal ski, with a sling girth- edges – these could cut the sling.
hitched around it.
Position the base of the ski against
The principles of these anchors are the front face of the horizontal slot as
the same as for burying an ice axe, shown below, and pad the sling with
but the item must be buried deeper. something if possible.

VDiff > Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue > Crevasse Rescue Anchors 45
Ice Screw Anchor
You can make an ice screw anchor on
a dry glacier, or you might be able to
dig through snow on a wet glacier to
reach ice.

Step 1 – Clear
Clear away any surface snow and
aerated surface ice and get down to
good solid glacial ice.

Step 2 – Position
Position the screw perpendicular to
the surface of the ice, or slightly 85° - 90°
towards the direction of loading. Push
the screw against the surface while
turning it a few times with your wrist
until it bites.
Direction of
Loading
Step 3 – Insert
Using the handle, wind the screw all
the way into the ice.

Placement Quality
You will get feedback about the
quality of the placement as the screw
is winding into the ice. Here are some
things to consider:

- Feel the resistance of the screw

cutting through the ice. Has it gone
into an air pocket?
- Look at the core of ice coming out of
the back of the screw. In good glacier
ice this should come out looking like a
crumpled ice cigar! Poorer quality
placements will have snow, slush or
nothing at all coming out of the hole.
- Look at the surface of the ice around
the screw. Is it cracking? Some small
surface cracks are okay but large
sections of the ice cracking are not
good.

VDiff > Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue > Crevasse Rescue Anchors 46
Step 4 – Loading Direction
You need to finish with the
hanger pointing in the
direction of pull.

Do not force the hanger

around – it is better to
unwind slightly to get the
hanger pointing in the correct
direction. Forcing it would
start to strip the threads of
the ice screw placement.

Step 5 – Double Up
A 16cm screw in good ice will
hold around 10kN – the
same as an average cam in
good rock.

If possible, place two screws

at least 30cm apart and
offset. Equalize them with a
sling to create an anchor.

Abalakov Thread (V-Thread)

A V-thread is an ice anchor that is
often used for abseiling.

You Will Need

- a long ice screw (21cm)
- a length of 7mm cord
- a V-thread tool

VDiff > Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue > Crevasse Rescue Anchors 47
Step 1 Step 3
Clear the surface so you get to solid Make a second hole at a distance
ice. Place the ice screw perpendicular approximately equal to the length of
to the ice, but at a 60 degree angle the screw so that you end up with an
sideways. Pay attention to the quality equilateral triangle. It helps to look
of the ice as the screw is being down the first hole to aim the second
placed. It needs to be good. screw placement.

Step 2
Remove the screw.

60°

Step 4 Step 5
Clean out the holes with your V-thread Tie both ends of the cord together
tool. With the tool at the bottom of the using a double fisherman's bend.
first hole, poke the cord into the Make sure the loop is not too tight –
second hole. the angle when weighting the loop
should be around 45 degrees.
As the cord passes through into the
first hole, hook it with the tool and pull
it out.

45°

VDiff > Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue > Crevasse Rescue Anchors 48
Notes V-Thread Without Cord
- As with all ice anchors, the quality of To make a V-thread anchor without
the ice has a massive impact on the cord, simply poke the climbing rope
strength of the anchor. A well through the holes instead of the cord.
constructed V-thread in good ice will If abseiling on two ropes, it is
hold around 8kN. important that the joining knot is
positioned a good distance away so it
- V-threads can be made in a does not get pulled into the hole. This
horizontal or vertical plain. Some will create an unusual strain on the
evidence shows that vertical V- anchor.
threads are slightly stronger, but many
people find these to be trickier to It is possible for the rope to become
construct accurately. stuck if it freezes in place. The last
person down should check that the
- It’s important to have an accurate rope slides before they abseil.
construction – with the angles at 60
degrees and having the connection of Back-Up Your Anchor
the two holes at the maximum depth. To secure the first person's descent,
the V-thread can be combined with
- If in doubt, make two V-threads another ice screw. Connect this back-
(more than 30cm apart) and link them up screw to the rope with a little slack
together to make an equalised so it isn’t actually weighted when the
anchor. first person abseils. Make sure there
isn’t too much slack, as this would
shock-load the backup screw if the V-
thread failed. The last person then
removes the ice screw before they
descend.

Cord Rope
Anchor Anchor
Backup Backup

VDiff > Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue > Crevasse Rescue Anchors 49
Snow Bollard
A snow bollard is simple a snow
anchor that can be used for abseiling.
It would be the last choice when a
rock or ice anchor is unavailable.

Step 1 2.5 meters

Scribe out a horseshoe shape in the
snow, with the opening pointing in the
direction of loading. It is usually best
to make this about 2.5m at its widest
point, but the size depends on the
strength of the snow. In very hard Direction of Loading
snow, the bollard may only need to be
1.5m wide. Whereas in very soft snow
Top View
it might need to be 3m. It is obviously
better to make it too big rather than
too small.

Be careful to make it a horseshoe

shape, not a teardrop. A lot of the
strength comes from the opening as it
joins the snowpack. You are not
aiming to make an isolated shape.

Step 2
Using the adze of your axe, cut a slot
along the scribed line to form a
horseshoe shaped trench. This trench
should be a minimum of 30cm deep
and should be in the firmest layer of
snow. Be careful if digging deeper into
softer snow because there is the Side View
danger that the rope could cut
through the soft layer under the
bollard.

30cm
Step 3
Put the rope over the bollard, making
sure it sits well at the bottom of the
trench. Check carefully that when the
rope is weighted, it remains at the
bottom of the trench all the way
around and does not lift at all.

VDiff > Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue > Crevasse Rescue Anchors 50
Step 4 Important
Try to test the bollard by committing - Do not disturb the snow in the
your weight to it before the situation is bollard or immediately in front of it.
consequential. - The horseshoe shape should be a
smooth curve – sharp angles are
weak points.
Step 5 - It is important that the bollard is
Be very cautious when abseiling, slightly incut to prevent the rope
particularly at the start. It is important rolling up and off.
to stay very low as the rope must not
accidentally be pulled in a more
upwards direction. Frozen Rope
The rope can occasionally become
It is often best to start the abseil on stuck around the bollard if it freezes
your knees or slither on your side to or becomes buried in spindrift snow.
keep the load angle as low as The last person to abseil must check
possible. this.

Multiple People
If multiple people are weighting the
anchor, it should be reinforced. Slot
one or two axes vertically between
the rope and the bollard.

If only one axe is available, it should

be at the back of the bollard. With two
axes, place them at 10 o’clock and 2
o’clock as shown on the right. This
reinforcement can then be removed
by the last person to use the anchor.

VDiff > Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue > Crevasse Rescue Anchors 51
Crevasse rescue training near Chamonix, France. Mike Thomas. 52
Crevasse Rescue Systems

53
Crevasse Rescue for a Team of Two

Imagine you are travelling on a glacier The best technique is to dig the sides
as a team of two, and your partner in of your feet into the snow (imagine a
front suddenly disappears down into tug of war type action), while plunging
the snow. the shaft of your axe into the snow.

If you end up being dragged along the

Step 1 surface, the self arrest position
The first and most important thing is (see page 36) will hopefully stop you
to hold the fall. This will not be easy! as the rope cuts into the lip of the
crevasse and increases friction.

VDiff > Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue > Crevasse Rescue Systems 54
Step 2 Step 3
After holding the initial fall, kick a If you cannot communicate with your
secure platform for your downhill foot, partner or they are unable to
or cut one with your axe. This will give climb/prusik out by themselves, then
you a bit more security to hold the you will continue.
weight while you are making the
anchor. Make the appropriate anchor
depending on snow condition (see
Shout to your partner and check they chapter 5). This will be difficult
are okay. It might be very difficult for because you are also holding the
you to hear them but it’s worth trying. weight of your partner on the rope.
If your partner is uninjured and
capable of prusiking up the rope or The anchor needs to be very good, so
climbing out of the crevasse then that don't rush it. Be precise and get it
would be the best solution. right.

VDiff > Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue > Crevasse Rescue Systems 55
Step 4
Once the anchor is built, put a French Push the prusik forward along the
prusik on the weighted rope and then rope in front of you. Cautiously allow
clip this to the newly created anchor the weight to pass from you on to the
(using a micro traxion is better if you anchor, watching carefully to see if it
have one – see next page). is working correctly.

Using a Prusik at the Anchor

Step 5
(If Using a Prusik at the Anchor) This now creates an ‘autoblock’ –
Clip the unweighted strand of rope meaning that as the rope is pulled
through the same carabiner that the through, it locks to capture the
prusik is on, ideally this should be a progress. This setup generates a lot
small screwgate orientated so that the more friction (which makes hauling
narrow end is pointing towards the more difficult) than using a micro
crevasse. traxion or other type of pulley, but is
simple and works.

VDiff > Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue > Crevasse Rescue Systems 56
 Using a Micro Traxion at the Anchor

Communication
Communication with the casualty is
critical in all of these systems.

Often this is only possible by creating

an anchor and having one person
move to the lip of the crevasse, or by
having a second independent rope
team acting as a communication
relay.

VDiff > Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue > Crevasse Rescue Systems 57
Step 6 Step 8
Tie an overhand knot in the slack Move down the weighted rope
rope to act as a backup in case the towards the lip of the crevasse,
prusik/pulley slips. sliding the prusik as you go. If there
are jamming knots in the rope, you’ll
need to pass them (see next page).
Step 7
Tie a classic prusik on the weighted Be very cautious as you approach the
rope and connect it to your harness. lip of the crevasse at this point and
This is to protect you in case you fall keep the prusik behind you to protect
into another crevasse but also acts as yourself from falling in. Check if your
a backup in case your snow anchor partner is okay. If they are fine but
starts to fail. cannot prusik out, you will need to
haul them.
You can now remove all of your chest
coils, but remain tied in to the end of If your partner is severely injured or
the rope. unconscious it might be necessary to
prusik or abseil down to them and
administer emergency first aid or call
for rescue services. Never haul an
unconscious casualty!

Rope to
rescuer

Tensioned
rope

VDiff > Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue > Crevasse Rescue Systems 58
If You Need to Walk Past Jamming Knots

To pass a jamming knot while

moving towards the crevasse,
clip into its loop, then move the
prusik over to the next section of
rope. Repeat as necessary.

A much quicker (but more

dangerous) method is to walk
past all the jamming knots first
and then attach your prusik.

This does not offer a backup for

the snow anchor and if you fall
into a crevasse, the anchor
would be shock-loaded.

Step 9 Step 10
Clear the edge of the crevasse. The Move back from the edge of the lip.
rope will have cut a slot through into Clovehitch the slack rope into your
the lip. If it has gone deep, you will harness and unclip from the prusik.
need to clear and cut the lip of the
crevasse, being careful not to knock Take the rope which now runs
anything big onto your partner below. between your harness and the anchor
and clip it to the prusik as shown on
Pad underneath the rope with walking the next page. This is now a 3:1
poles to prevent the rope cutting hauling system.
further into the lip while you are
hauling.

VDiff > Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue > Crevasse Rescue Systems 59
Step 11 Step 12
Using the power in your legs, claw Stop just before you reach the anchor
your way back up to the anchor. As and allow the weight to transfer from
you do this, pull down on the dead your harness back to the autoblock/
rope coming from the back side of the pulley.
pulley to increase efficiency.
Do not continue to move past the
Pull in a straight line with one leg anchor as you may disturb the snow
either side of the ropes. which provides its strength.

Step 13 Step 14
Repeat the hauling process as The final stage is to get your partner
needed. Move back towards the over the lip of the crevasse. They will
crevasse, adjusting the clovehitch on probably be stuck if the rope has cut
your harness as you go. in. Don't just keep pulling, as it is
possible to cause injury. If they can’t
Then adjust the prusik back towards climb out by themselves, you will
the lip to reset the system. have to go to the lip and help them.
Tie yourself in tight and give them a
hand, or throw a loop of rope for them
to pull on.

VDiff > Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue > Crevasse Rescue Systems 60
Hauling Past Jamming Knots
If you have tied jamming knots in the Step 3
rope, it will be necessary to deal with Pull with your harness again to free
them when hauling. the pulley so that the weight can be
transferred onto the prusik.
Step 1
Haul as described on the previous Step 4
pages, but stop when the first With the weight now removed from
jamming knot is 10cm away from the the jamming knot, untie it and pull the
pulley. slack rope through.

Step 2 Step 5
Attach a 30cm sling to the anchor. Put Remove the sling, prusik and
a French prusik on the weighted rope carabiners and continue hauling as
below the jamming knot and connect normal. Repeat this process for each
it to the sling. jamming knot.

VDiff > Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue > Crevasse Rescue Systems 61
Crevasse Rescue as a Team of Three or Four
Holding the initial fall is easier with Step 1
more climbers on the surface to share The middle climber holds the weight,
the weight. The rescue principles are while the back climber moves forward.
the same as described on the As they move forward, they should
previous pages, but the situation is reduce the slack rope by attaching a
easier to deal with. prusik and sliding it along.

Step 2 Step 3
The back climber moves in front of Once the weight is transferred to the
the middle climber and constructs an anchor, the system is the same as for
anchor. a team of two.

VDiff > Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue > Crevasse Rescue Systems 62
Step 4
The climber who built the anchor
should attach to it and sit in a braced
position. This protects them and also
creates a backup for the anchor. They
can then help to haul from their
braced position.

Teams of Four
These steps can be modified for a
team of four, with an extra climber to
assist with hauling or taking some of
the strain from the anchor.

Prusiking Out of a Crevasse

Falling into the dark, icy depths of a
crevasse sounds like a scene from a
bad movie or a worse nightmare.

But this is a real risk when travelling

across a glacier, so you’ll need to
know how to get up to the surface.

Step 1
Imagine you are hanging in free
space in your harness. Start by
attaching both prusiks to the rope
using klemheist knots and clip
carabiners to them.

Step 2
Clip the 120cm sling to the lower
klemheist and girth-hitch the other
end around your foot.

You may wish to shorten this sling a

bit by simply tying an overhand knot
in it, so that your knee is bent.

VDiff > Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue > Crevasse Rescue Systems 63
Step 3
Lift your foot and slide both prusiks up
the rope as far as you can.

Step 4
Stand up in the sling by tucking your
foot underneath and pressing up with
your leg while pulling up with your
arms at the same time.

Step 5
Clip the top prusik to your belay loop
and push it up so there is a gap
between the two prusiks. Sit back in
your harness so that your weight is
hanging from the top prusik.

Step 6
Lift your foot again and slide the lower
prusik up as high as it will go. Keep
repeating this process.

VDiff > Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue > Crevasse Rescue Systems 64
Back it Up
When you have climbed up the rope
enough to generate a loop of slack,
you should attach the rope to your
harness with a clovehitch. This acts
as a backup in case the prusiks fail.

Sliding the Prusik

You may find it awkward to slide a
prusik after it has been weighted. To
loosen it up, flick open the strand that
crosses the knot with your thumb.

Skis
If you are wearing skis, take them off
and attach them to your harness by
girth-hitching a sling around them,
between the bindings.

Prusiking Past Jamming Knots

To pass a jamming knot, clip into it as
a backup and then re-tie your prusiks
one at a time above it.

VDiff > Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue > Crevasse Rescue Systems 65
Ball Glacier, Aoraki Mount Cook National Park, New Zealand. Petrouchka Steiner-Grierson
Essential Knots

67
Essential Knots

This chapter introduces the most Diameter, Flexibility and Surface

commonly used knots for glacier Friction
travel and crevasse rescue. Every The examples given in this manual
climber should be able to recognize, assume that you are tying identical
tie and untie the following knots sections of cord or rope together.
without having to think about it.
Knots work best when every rope
Remember that you may have to tie involved is of the same diameter,
them in situations which are far from flexibility, elasticity and surface
ideal and you will trust your life to friction.
every knot.
Minor differences are fine. For
Each knot has multiple uses and, in example, tying a 9.5mm and a
most cases, there are many knots 10.2mm dynamic rope end-to-end for
you could tie to achieve the same abseiling is safe. But tying a 6mm tag
result. Before choosing a knot, line to a 10.2mm rope with the same
consider the following. In order of knot will probably result in that knot
importance: falling apart.

1) Is it suitable for the intended use? Likewise, a knot joining an old, stiff
2) Could it slip or roll? static rope to a slick, flexible dynamic
3) Is it easy to untie or adjust? rope is likely to slip, even if they are
the same diameter.

VDiff > Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue > Essential Knots 68
Dressing
After tying any knot, it is important Your knots should look exactly like the
that you dress it correctly. This means diagrams in this manual. A knot which
tightening each strand and adjusting isn’t well dressed could slip or fail.
the loops and twists so they are
perfectly aligned.

Figure-8 Tie In
Uses
The figure-8 is widely accepted as
being the safest knot to tie-in with.

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3

Make a loop about a You should end up with Pass the end of the rope
meter from the end of an '8'. Make sure the through both of the two
the rope. Wrap the end knot is around 90cm points on the front
of the rope around the from the end of the centre of your harness
base of the loop, then rope (the exact length – the same ones your
push the end through varies with ropes of belay loop runs through.
as shown. different diameters). It is important that the
rope goes through your
harness in exactly the
same way as your belay
loop does.

~90cm

VDiff > Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue > Essential Knots 69
Step 4 Step 5 Step 6
Use the end of the Continue following the Make sure the end of the
rope to re-trace the twists until you end up rope is around 25cm
figure-8. Follow the back at the start of the long. If it is shorter, you'll
twists of the rope knot. have to untie and start
starting from where it again. After this, you will
joins your harness. Pull the whole thing need to tie a stopper
tight. knot. Loop the short
section of rope around
the main length.

25
cm

Step 7 Step 8 Step 9

Do this twice, with the Push the end of the Pull this tight too (make
second loop closer to rope through these two sure it's pushed right up
you than the first. loops, away from you. to your figure-8 knot).

VDiff > Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue > Essential Knots 70
One-Handed Clovehitch
It’s often more secure to attach to an
anchor while holding onto it with one
hand.

Step 1
Clip a screwgate to the anchor and
spin it so the gate faces outwards.

Step 2
Hold on to the anchor with one hand
so the carabiner is held steady and
clip the rope through the carabiner
with your other hand.

Step 3
If the gate of the carabiner faces
right, use your right hand for this step.
If it faces left, use your left hand.
Reach over the rope at the front and
grab the rope at the back with your
thumb pointing downwards.

Step 4 Step 5
Bring the rope forward and twist it so With an extra little twist, push it
your thumb is upwards. through the gate of the carabiner and
pull it tight.

VDiff > Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue > Essential Knots 71
Girth Hitch (Lark’s Foot)
Uses
- Attaching slings to your belay loop. - Attaching slings together.
- Fastening a sling around a snow - Connecting a sling to a carabiner
anchor, such as a ski. without opening the gate.

Step 1 Step 2
Feed a sling through your belay loop. Put one end of the sling through the
other.

Step 3 Strop Bend

Pull it tight. You can also link two slings together
using these same steps.

Arrange the girth hitch as shown

below to create a strop bend. This is
basically a neater version of the girth
hitch.

VDiff > Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue > Essential Knots 72
Double Fisherman’s Bend
Uses
- Tying two ends of cord together to
make a prusik or cordelette.

Spare
Step 1 Cord
Loop one end of the cord around
twice as shown to create two loops.
Then push the end through these
loops.

Step 2
Pull it tight and do the same with the
other end of the cord.

Step 3
Pull it all tight so that the two knots
jam together. Make sure the tails are
at least 10 times the diameter of the
cord (e.g: 5cm tails for a 5mm prusik
cord).

Triple Fisherman's Bend

Add an extra coil to make a triple
fisherman’s bend.

Some slippery cords (such as

dyneema) require a triple so they
don’t slide apart under load – check
the manufacturer’s recommendations.

VDiff > Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue > Essential Knots 73
Prusik Knots: Different Types Explained
A prusik is a short piece of cord which
can be wrapped around your climbing
rope to add friction. They can slide up
and down easily, but lock around the
rope when weighted.

Prusiks are most commonly used for

abseiling but are also incredibly useful
in a variety of crevasse rescue
situations.

Three types of prusik knot are

described on the following pages:
- Classic
- French
- Klemheist

Prusik Cords: Size and Material

Size Material
The diameter of your cord should be Prusiks are usually made out of nylon
60% to 80% of the rope’s diameter, cord, tied together with a double
whether you are using the prusik on fisherman's bend.
one rope or two.
If the cord is too stiff, it won’t lock
If you use a cord that is too thin, it will properly around the rope. The
cinch tight around the rope when stiffness may also make it difficult to
weighted and be difficult to move create the knot itself. Test your cord
freely. If you use a cord that is too before you take it climbing so you can
thick, it won’t have enough friction to be sure that it works.
lock up when you need it to.
If you are planning to use your prusiks
In general, 6mm cord works well on frequently, you should consider
10mm ropes, whereas 5mm cord is buying some pre-sewn prusik loops.
better for 8mm ropes. These come in a variety of forms,
either without a bulky knot or with the
The cord length should be 1.2m - knot sewn together and covered by a
1.5m. plastic sleeve.

VDiff > Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue > Essential Knots 74
Prusik Types: The Classic Prusik
Advantages Best Uses
- Very secure when loaded. - In situations where you need a
- Locks in both directions. prusik to lock in either direction.

Disadvantages
- Often difficult to release when tightly
loaded.

Step 1 Step 2
Pass the cord around the rope and Pass the cord around the rope and
through itself as shown, making sure through itself again.
the double fisherman’s bend is at the
end.

Step 3 Step 4
Make at least three wraps around the Weight the knot in either direction to
rope, pull the cord tight and clip a lock it. Pinch the knot to loosen it. This
carabiner through the loop. allows you to move it up or down the
rope. If the knot gets stuck, you can
Make sure the knot is neat. push some cord in from the center of
the knot to loosen it.

VDiff > Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue > Essential Knots 75
Prusik Types: The French Prusik
Advantages Best Uses
- Easy to tie and untie. - As a back-up when abseiling.
- Can be released under load.

Disadvantages
- Tends to slip when used to ascend
ropes.

Step 1
Wrap the prusik neatly around the
rope a few times as shown.

Step 2
Clip the ends together with a
carabiner. More wraps will
create more friction around the
ropes, though four wraps are
generally enough.

Make sure the wraps are neat

and the double fisherman's
bend is away from the ropes.

Step 3
Pinch the knot to loosen it. This
allows you to move it down the rope.

Weight the knot to lock it. The French

prusik locks in both directions, but the
double fisherman's bend tends to
wrap itself into the prusik when the
direction is switched, making it much
less effective.

VDiff > Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue > Essential Knots 76
Prusik Types: The Klemheist Knot
Advantages Best Uses
- Easy to release after being loaded. - Ascending a rope.
- Can be tied with webbing.

Disadvantages
- Only works in one direction.

Step 1
Wrap the prusik neatly around the
rope a few times as shown.

Step 2
Pass the end of the cord through the
loop.

Step 3
Attach a carabiner.

Weight the knot downwards to lock it,

or push it upwards to release.

VDiff > Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue > Essential Knots 77
Prusik Cord Tips
* Prusiks are not full-strength * Make sure not to wrap the double
attachment points. Always have a fisherman’s bend into any friction
back-up so you’re attached to the hitch. This will greatly decrease the
rope ‘properly’. knot’s effectiveness.

* The number of wraps should be * If using prusiks in conditions where

increased or decreased depending on they might fail (e.g; prusiking up a wet
the cord stiffness, cord diameter and or icy rope), it’s better to use two
moisture conditions, with three wraps different types of prusik (and a full
as a minimum. Before using any strength back-up, of course). If
prusik knot, test it to see if it grips and conditions exist to cause one to slip
releases well. or fail, the likelihood is that the other
prusik would not fail under the same
* If you don’t have a prusik cord, you conditions.
can use a sling instead. Slings don’t
work quite as well but it’ll help you get * Check your prusik cord for wear and
out of a tricky situation. A narrow tear regularly. Make sure the double
nylon sling is better than Dyneema fisherman’s bend isn’t slipping and
(Spectra). Don’t use a sling for the cord isn’t abraded. When it’s
anything except a prusik after using it looking worn, retire it and get a new
once as a prusik. one – cord is cheap.

VDiff > Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue > Essential Knots 78
Other VDiff Titles

Having the knowledge of safe Available as paperbacks or e-books.

climbing skills is the lightest and most For more information, visit:
useful equipment you can take on any www.vdiffclimbing.com
climb.

Learn before you go. Don’t actually

take these books up there with you!

VDiff > Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue 79

Index
abalakov, 47-50 jamming knots, 28, 59, 61, 65
anchors, 40-51 kicking steps, 34
arm spans, 26 klemheist prusik, 77
avalanche, 13 measuring rope, 25
bergschrund, 11 micro traxion, 57
boots, 19 mountain focus, 4
chest coils, 29-30 moving on snow, 32-39
classic prusik, 75 nunatak, 11
clothing, 18 poles, 20
clovehitch, 71 prusiking, 63-65
communication, 55 prusiks, 74-78
crampons, 19 reinforced buried axe, 44
crevasses, 11-12, 38 rockfall, 12
crevasse rescue, 52-65 rope length, 25
dry glacier, 9 rucksack anchor, 45
dynamic risk assessment, 39 self arrest, 36
figure-8 knot, 69-70 seracs, 12
fisherman’s bend, 73 skis, 20, 45
french prusik, 76 snow bollard, 50-51
fundamentals, 6-15 snow bridge, 9-10, 38
gear, 16-21 snow quality, 42
girth hitch, 72 training, 13-15
glacier, 8 tying into the rope, 25-27, 69-70
group size, 24 using the rope, 22-31
ice axe, 20, 35-36 v-thread, 47-49
ice axe anchor, 43-44 wet glacier, 10
ice screw, 46-47 whiteout, 13

VDiff > Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue 80