Biodiversity

is a term used to describe the immense variety of life on Earth. It can also be used to refer to all
the species in a certain location or environment. Biodiversity refers to all living things, including plants,
microbes, animals, and humans. Scientists believe that there are approximately 8.7 million plant and
animal species in existence. However, only about 1.2 million species have been recognized and
described thus far, the majority of which are insects. This means that millions of additional organisms
remain a complete mystery. All the species that are still living today have evolved distinctive
characteristics that set them apart from other species over generations. These distinctions are what
scientists use to distinguish one species from another.

What is Terrestrial Biodiversity?

A terrestrial ecosystem is a species population on land that involves both biotic and abiotic
interactions. Across the world, there are diverse ecosystems on land and in the waters; terrestrial
ecosystems are those that live predominantly on land. In Terrestrial Ecosystems, the temperature range,
average quantity of precipitation, soil type and amount of light received are those that determined a type
of terrestrial ecosystem. A terrestrial Ecosystem is made up of a community of organisms and their
surroundings that can be found on continents and islands.
The organism can be classified as Major plant Taxonomy and Major Animal Taxonomy. In major
plant taxonomy, the division Magnoliophyta (flowering plants) have 275,000 species, and the
division Pinophyta (conifers), have about 500 species. Members of the division Bryophyta (mosses and
liverworts), there are 24,000 species, which are important in some terrestrial ecosystems. Major animal
taxonomy in terrestrial ecosystems include the classes Insecta (insects) with about 900,000
species, Aves (birds) with 8,500 species, and Mammalia (mammals) with approximately 4,100 species. In
terrestrial communities, there are differences in composition as well as spatial variance.
The terrestrial ecosystem covers 144,150,000 km2, or 28.26% of the Earth's surface. Around 425
million years ago, the first terrestrial ecosystem was developed. In recent years, terrestrial ecosystems
have seen a dramatic evolutionary process of plant and animal adaptive radiation. The evolution of a
group of animals or plants into a diverse variety of species that are suited to varied patterns of life is
known as adaptive radiation. There are 4 types of Terrestrial ecosystem that are found in the earth’s
geographical zone. It consists of the Desert, Forest, Grassland, and Tundra.
Factors That Link the Terrestrial and Aquatic Ecosystems
The land-sea interface, also known as the coastal ecotone, is a large ecosystem that exists
between the sea and the shoreline. It demonstrates how variables in two ecosystems interact and
influence one another. A food web is formed across the ecotone boundary. This demonstrates that there is
a connection between many creatures in terrestrial and aquatic habitats. A Human, living in a terrestrial
environment, for example, can acquire their food from a lake that is home to fish and arthropods. Other
examples that may include are, by coastal drifting, marine subsidies such as decomposing animal meat,
detritus (dead organic material), food scraps, and waste products from animals (sea turtles and seagulls)
infiltrate the terrestrial ecosystem. Some mammals worldwide, such as racoons and black bears,
intentionally feed on exposed marine organisms such as crabs, mollusks, and fish. Nitrogen, organic
carbon, and phosphorus from the land reach aquatic ecosystems via rivers.
GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM

A grassland ecosystem is one where grasses and other herbaceous (non-woody) plants
dominate the vegetation. It is also known as a transitional landscape because grassland ecosystems are
dominated by grass and have few or no trees in areas where there is insufficient for a forest but too much
for a forest.

These are known by different names in different parts of the world, such as steppes in Europe and Asia,
pampas in South America, Veldt in South Africa, and Downs in Australia. Grassland is found where
rainfall is 15-75 cm per year, not enough to support a forest but more than a complete desert.
Grassland ecosystem contains five types of grasslands that are:
 Tropical Grasslands
 Temperate Grasslands
 Flooded Grasslands
 Montane Grasslands
 Desert Grassland

Tropical Grassland Rainfall

In tropical grasslands ranges from 50 cm to 130 cm. They also experience both rainy and sunny days.
They remain warm all year round as a result. Dry bushes and small trees can be found in these areas.

Temperate Grassland
Receive rainfall of the range 25 cm and 75 cm. Furthermore, the climate in the temperate grasslands
makes it both dormant and growing. In the cold season, the temperature can reach up Flooded
Grasslands to 0 degrees Fahrenheit while in the summer season it reaches up to 90 degrees in some
areas.

Flooded Grasslands
Water is always present in the flooded grasslands. These grasslands also include a lot of vegetation that
thrives in water.

Montane Grasslands
Montane refers to "high altitude," hence these grasslands are high altitude shrublands because they are
above the tree line level of the ground.

Desert Grassland
These are the hottest and the driest grasslands because of very low precipitaion.

Components of Grassland Ecosystem

1. Abiotic
Components These are non-living thing components consisting of carbon, hydrogen, sulphur,
nitrogen and phosphorous etc.

2. Biotic Components Non-living components.

I. Producers: Grass species such as Aristida, Cynodon, Digitaria, Desmodium, Setaria, and others
are the principal producers of food. Herbs and shrubs, if present, can contribute to primary food
production.
II. Consumers: The consumers in a grassland ecosystem are of three levels.
a. Primary consumers
b. Secondary consumers
c. Tertiary consumers
III. Decomposers: Microbes such as actinomycetes, fungus (Mucor, Aspergillus, Rhizopus,
Penicillium, and Cladosporium), aerobic and anaerobic soil bacteria, and others decompose
grassland organic waste. They release the minerals back into the soil thus making the soil fertile.

Function of the Grassland Ecosystem

a. Food Chain in an ecosystem: A series called the Food Chain is developed when one level of an
organism serves as food for another level of the organism.
b. Nutrient cycle in an ecosystem: It is critical for the success of any ecosystem that the constituent
materials circulate in a pattern that is cyclical.
Tundra Ecosystem

The tundra habitat is one that is devoid of trees and blanketed in snow for most of the year.
These ecosystems are most common in cold climates and areas with minimal or insufficient rainfall.
Tundra ecosystems can be found in polar locations. Tundra ecosystems are divided into two types: Arctic
and Alpine. The arctic tundra is colder than the alpine tundra. This ecosystem is found at lower elevations
and is characterized by harsh cold climatic conditions akin to deserts.

The soil in these areas is frozen all year, and during the summer, the snow-covered ground melts,
forming shallow ponds. Small plants with flowers and various forms of lichens are uncommon in these
areas, which are often treeless and always covered in snow. Tundra is the coldest biome, and the species
that live there include herbivores, carnivores, and omnivores.

Examples of notable creatures in the tundra ecosystem include wolves, foxes, hares, collembolas,
muskox, reindeer, marmots, mountain goats, sheep, elk, and various varieties of worms, flies, butterflies,
and wild insects. Herbs, mosses, and lichens are examples of little vegetation present in these areas.

Dessert Ecosystem

Dessert Ecosystem is the community of living and non-living organisms living together and
interacting in an environment which seems to be abandoned. A Desert ecosystem is the interaction
between both the Biotic and Abiotic components of the environment.Desert ecosystem is the driest
ecosystem of the earth, and this is the reason it has less vegetation and less diversity of life. It is one of
the parts of the terrestrial ecosystem. The plants and animals of the desert ecosystem have mastered the
art of survival in harsh conditions. A desert ecosystem is basically devoid of any rainfall or precipitation.

The primary vegetation in a terrestrial desert habitat is typically low-growing shrubs, cacti, and
succulents. These plants have adapted to conserve water by lowering the surface area of their leaves,
storing water in their tissues, and developing deep root systems that allow them to reach subsurface
water sources. Some desert species, like the Joshua tree, are found only in arid habitats.

A desert ecosystem's animal life has also adapted to the harsh environment. Many desert
creatures, such as snakes, lizards, and rodents, are nocturnal and prefer to burrow underground during
the day to avoid the heat. Some animals, such as the kangaroo rat, can go their entire lives without
drinking water, obtaining all their moisture from the food they consume. Despite the apparent lifelessness
of deserts, they are full of biodiversity. Many species are endemic to desert ecosystems, meaning they
are found nowhere else in the world. Desert ecosystems also provide important ecosystem services, such
as carbon sequestration, soil stabilization, and nutrient cycling.

However, desert ecosystems are under threat from climate change, habitat destruction, and human
activities such as mining and oil drilling. As a result, conservation efforts are necessary to protect these
unique and important ecosystems.

Desert ecosystems can be found in many parts of the world, including North and South America, Africa,
Australia, and Asia. Despite the harsh conditions, desert ecosystems are home to a variety of plants and
animals that have adapted to survive in this challenging environment.

DESERT ECOSYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS

 Aridity
 Less rainfall/ precipitation
 Extreme temperature
 Velocity of wind
 Scarcity of water
 Humidity
 The quality of the soil
  Biodiversity in a desert ecosystem
 The population density
 Plants grow very slowly
TYPES OF DESERT ECOSYSTEM
1. Hot and dry These desert ecosystems have hot and dry climatic conditions in the air, as well
as very low yearly rainfall.
2. Semi-arid desert ecosystem This desert environment closely resembles the Hot and Dry
desert ecology. This environment has strong rocks, stable ground, and less sand dunes. The
temperature is not as harsh as it would be in a hot and dry desert setting.
3. Coastal desert ecosystem They are more hospitable than other desert ecosystems and
therefore they have a more flora and fauna than others. Winter fogs are common here.
4. Cold desert ecosystem This desert ecosystem comprises of abundant rainfall throughout the
winters and less in summers and generally has chilling winters with snowfall.
Forest Ecosystem
Forest ecosystems are areas of the terrain where trees predominate. These ecosystems are
made up of biologically incorporated species of plants, animals, and microbes, as well as the nearby soils
(substrates) and atmospheres (climates) with which they interact. There are a lot more forests than there
are now trees in. A third of the surface of the Earth is covered by forests. The predominant kind of plant in
this ecosystem is the tree.
Based on the kind of trees present and the amount of precipitation received, forest habitats can be
classified. The ecology of the forest is important for the environment. It contributes to maintaining a stable
global climate. The ability to breathe oxygen is one of the primary functions of forests. The equilibrium of
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is maintained in part by trees. In addition to this, trees aid in the
prevention of soil erosion, rainfall, air purification, etc.
Forest ecosystem has been classified into three major types – tropical forest ecosystem, temperate
forest ecosystem and boreal ecosystem.
Tropical Forest Ecosystem

 Tropical rainforests, sometimes referred to as tropical forests, get about 100 inches of rain
annually. Among all other types of forest ecosystems, the tropical forest contains a diverse range
of species.
 The latitude between 23.5 degrees North and 23.5 degrees South is often where tropical forests
may be found. In tropical forests, temperatures have ranged from 68 to 77 degrees Fahrenheit.
 The lack of nutrients in the soil caused by heavy rainfall in tropical forests results in poor soil
quality. Leaching of soil nutrients occurs because of heavy rainfall throughout the year.
 The broad-leaved trees of the tropical rainforest, which range in height from 82 to 115 feet, make
up most of the flora. The sun finds it difficult to penetrate the canopy and reach the forest floor.
 Millions of organisms, including an enormous diversity of birds, mammals, amphibians, reptiles,
etc., consider the tropical forest habitat. Nearly half of the species of animals on Earth are found
here.
The tropical forest ecosystem is again divided into different categories and types. These are –
Evergreen forest

 The fact that there is never a dry season, and there is constant, intense rainfall in the evergreen
forest.
Seasonal forest

 Evergreen flora is found in seasonal forests, which have a shorter dry season.
Dry forest

 Just as the name implies, the dry season lasts a very long time in dry forests.
Montane forest

 The majority of the precipitation fell as fog, which is why montane forests are often referred to as
cloud forests.
Sub-tropical forest

 Tropical forests' northern and southern sections are home to sub-tropical forests. The local
vegetation has evolved to withstand the harsh circumstances of summer drought.
Tropical & subtropical coniferous forest

 Conifers in this type of forest are evolved to withstand changing weather, which results in dry and
hot climate conditions.
Temperate Forest Ecosystem

 Regions with temperate climates include North America, Eurasia, Japan, etc. Approximately 30–
60 inches less rain falls in temperate woods each year than on tropical forests.
 The four seasons and temperature fluctuation occur in temperate forest, as opposed to tropical
forests. In the temperate forest, winter temperatures frequently drop below freezing, while
summer temperatures rise to very high levels with considerable humidity.
 The soil of temperate forest is rich in organic matter that allows a huge variety of vegetation to
grow in the temperate forest.
 The temperate forest provides natural habitat to many animals such as squirrels, deer, black
bears, raccoons, coyotes, various birds like warblers, owls, woodpeckers, hawks, etc.
The temperate forest ecosystem is further divided into two parts – Temperate Deciduous Forest and
Temperate Coniferous Forest.
Temperate Deciduous Forest
• The organic matter-rich soil of temperate forests enables a wide range of flora to flourish
there.
• Many species, including squirrels, deer, black bears, raccoons, coyotes, and different
birds like warblers, owls, woodpeckers, hawks, etc., find their natural habitat in the
temperate forest.
Temperate Coniferous Forest

 The environment of the temperate coniferous forest is often found along the shore. The
annual amount of rainfall in coniferous woods ranges from 50 to 200 inches.
 In coniferous forests, a substantial layer of decomposing materials covers the forest floor.
Tall evergreen conifers cover the temperate coniferous forest.
 In coniferous forests, the most frequent plant species include cedar, Douglas fir, spruce,
maple, cypress, pine, redwood, ferns, and mosses.
 Deer, black bears, marbled murrelets, elk, marmots, spotted owls, and other common
animal species may be found in these forests.

Boreal Forest Ecosystem

Taiga forests, commonly referred to as the boreal forest, are typically located in Scandinavia, Canada,
Northern Asia, and Siberia. The fact that the summers are brief, and the winters are exceptionally lengthy
is one of the fundamental features of the boreal forest. Approximately 15 to 40 inches of precipitation
(mainly in the form of snowfall) fall on boreal woods each year.
Boreal woods are home to evergreen trees including pine, fir, spruce, and others. The deep canopy of the
boreal forest makes it difficult for the sun to reach the forest floor. This explains why there isn't much flora
on the forest floor.
The animals in the boreal forest habitat often have thick coats of fur to keep them warm during the long,
harsh winters. Elk, caribou, lynxes, wolverines, deer, snowshoe hares, moose, wolves, and other
creatures are a few examples of the creatures that formerly roamed the boreal woods.
Characteristics of Forest Ecosystem
The characteristics of a forest ecosystem are exceptionally complex. We might find some of these
qualities to be highly intriguing. The following are some of the main traits of a forest ecosystem:
Seasonal variation
The seasonal change of the nation where the forest is located affects the ecosystem of that region's
forests. For instance, temperate woods enjoy four distinct seasons, but tropical rainforests receive
significant annual precipitation.
Deciduous or evergreen in nature
An ecosystem in a forest may be deciduous, evergreen, or a combination of the two. In contrast to
evergreen trees, which are permanently green, deciduous trees lose their leaves in the winter.
Canopy layer structure
One of a forest ecosystem's most distinctive features is the canopy layer. To protect numerous species,
the dense canopy layers serve as a barrier against wind, rain, snow, etc.
The different levels of the canopy, such as the treetops, upper canopy layer, lower canopy layer, and
forest floor, are characteristics of several forest ecosystems, such as rainforests.
Attract bird species to take shelter.
For different bird species, the forest habitat provides the ideal setting. These species are thus drawn to
the forest habitat and seek refuge among trees.
Attract insects & provide habitat.
A wide range of insects live in forest ecosystems. In the environment of the forest, these insects had
several alternatives for shelter. As a result, these insects are drawn to the natural habitats that the forest
environment offers.
Soil fertility
The fertility of the soil differs throughout forest environments. For instance, the soil of tropical and
temperate deciduous forests is rich in nutrients and exceedingly fruitful.
On the other hand, because conifer needles fall to the forest floor, the soil in boreal forests is primarily
acidic. Tropical rainforests have depleted soil fertility because of ongoing nitrogen loss brought on by high
precipitation.
THREATS IN TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS

1. Habitat loss and degradation Expansion of agriculture, conversion to pasture, and logging for
hardwood, paper pulp, fuel, and other purposes are the main causes of habitat loss and
degradation. Urban sprawl and infrastructural expansion are two more factors that are
connected.
 2. Unsustainable harvesting of species Hunting and activities such as the wildlife trade also
poses a major threat to terrestrial biodiversity.
3. Climate change Changes the habitats of species, their interactions, and the timing of
biological processes, which has the potential to drastically alter current ecosystems and food
webs. Ecosystems may be unable to cope with catastrophic occurrences and disturbances
like wildfires, floods, and drought due to climate change.
4. Invasive species Which are species that are either intentionally or unintentionally imported
into a region beyond of their natural range and which can seriously harm native species by
eating them, competing with them for food or habitat, and spreading disease.
5. Pollution Exposure to pollution has been linked to higher incidence of infections, infertility,
and cancer in sensitive wildlife species.

WAYS TO SOLVE THE THREATS IN TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM

1. Habitat loss and degradation:

- Preservation and restoration of natural ecosystems such as forests, marshes, and grasslands.
- Adopting sustainable land management strategies such as low-impact logging, agroforestry, and
sustainable agriculture.
- Enforcing natural habitat protection rules and regulations, such as zoning and protected zones.
- Raising public awareness and education, such as through initiatives to limit deforestation and land
conversion for agriculture or urbanization.
2. Unsustainable harvesting of species:
- Implementing sustainable harvest practices, such as quotas, size limits, and time and area
closures.
- Promoting alternative livelihoods for people who rely on unsustainable harvesting, such as
ecotourism or sustainable agriculture.
- Enforcing laws and regulations that protect endangered species, such as bans on hunting or trade
of endangered species.
- Educating the public on the importance of sustainable harvest practices and the consequences of
unsustainable harvesting.
3. Climate change:
- Reducing greenhouse gas emissions by transitioning to renewable energy sources and improving
energy efficiency.
- Adapting to the impacts of climate change, such as higher temperatures, changes in rainfall
patterns, and more frequent extreme weather events.
- Protecting and restoring natural ecosystems, which can act as carbon sinks and help to mitigate
climate change.
- Promoting public education and awareness, such as campaigns to reduce carbon emissions and
increase awareness of the impacts of climate change.
4. Invasive species:
- Preventing the introduction and spread of invasive species through strict quarantine measures and
early detection and rapid response programs.
- Researching and developing effective control and eradication methods, such as biological control or
physical removal.
- Promoting public education and awareness, such as campaigns to prevent the release of pets or
garden plants into natural areas.
5. Pollution:
- Reducing pollution at the source, such as industrial and agricultural practices.
- Promoting waste reduction and recycling programs.
- Enforcing laws and regulations that limit pollution, such as emissions standards and waste disposal
regulations.
- Promoting public education and awareness, such as campaigns to reduce plastic waste and
improve water quality.
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