UNIT 2

Programmable Logic
Controllers
❖ Introduction to Programmable Logic Controllers
▪ Early machines were controlled by mechanical means using cams, gears, levers and other
mechanical devices.
 ❖ Introduction to Programmable Logic Controllers
▪ As the complexity increases that needs more advanced control system. This system contained wired
relay and switch control elements. But this system once designed cannot be modified or changed.
▪ In response to this problem, the first commercial PLC was introduced in the late 1960's, by General
motors company when microprocessors were in the late 1970's, with the advent of microprocessors,
the role of PLCs was greatly enhanced.
▪ Initially, PLC was used to replace relay logic, but its ever increasing range of functions may be found in
many and more complex applications.
▪ Gould Modicon company developed the first Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) in 1970, Thus, the
PLC was first time evolved in 1970 and it was called Process Controller (PLC).
▪ At the same time, Personal Computer (PC), was also evolved and there is confusion with using the
abbreviation. So name of process controller was changed to programmable logic controller. It is
abbreviated as PLC.
❖ Introduction to Programmable Logic Controllers
➢ Programmable logic controller (PLC)

A programmable logic controller (PLC)

is a specialized computer used to
control machines and process.
It uses a programmable memory to
store instructions and specific functions
that include On/Off control, timing,
counting, sequencing, arithmetic, and
data handling
❖ Introduction to Programmable Logic Controllers
➢ Advantages of PLC Control

▪ Flexible
▪ Faster response time
▪ Less and simpler wiring
▪ Solid-state - no moving parts
▪ Modular design - easy to repair and expand
▪ Handles much more complicated systems
▪ Sophisticated instruction sets available
▪ Allows for diagnostics “easy to troubleshoot”
▪ Less expensive
❖ Introduction to Programmable Logic Controllers
➢ Disadvantages of PLC Control

▪ Large Initial Investment

▪ Increase in Unemployment
▪ Unpredictable cost
❖ Block Diagram of PLC
❖ Block Diagram of PLC
❖ Block Diagram of PLC
❖ Block Diagram of PLC
❖ Block Diagram of PLC
❖ Block Diagram of PLC
❖ Block Diagram of PLC
❖ Block Diagram of PLC
Memory system
Memory system
The memory system is the area in the PLC’s CPU where all of the sequences of instructions or programs,
are stored and executed by the processor to provide the desired control of field devices.
The memory sections that contain the control programs can be changed or reprogrammed, to adapt to
manufacturing line procedure changes or new system start-up requirements.

The total memory system in a PLC is actually composed of two different

memories
• The executive memory
• The application memory

Simplified block diagram of the total PLC memory system

 Memory
system

The executive memory: The application memory

The executive section is the part of the The application memory provides a storage area
PLC’s. for the user-programmed instructions that form
the application program.

It is collection of permanently stored

programs that are considered part of the
PLC itself. The application memory area is composed of several
areas, each having a specific function and usage.
These supervisory programs direct all system
activities, such as execution of the control
program and communication with peripheral
devices.
Memory types
Memory types
Memory can be separated into two categories: volatile and nonvolatile.
Volatile memory loses its programmed contents if all operating power is lost or removed, whether it is
normal power or some form of backup power. Volatile memory is easily altered and quite suitable for most
applications when supported by battery backup and possibly a disk copy of the program.
Nonvolatile memory retains its programmed contents, even during a complete loss of operating power,
without requiring a backup source. Nonvolatile memory generally is unalterable, yet there are special
nonvolatile memory types that are alterable. Today’s PLCs include those that use nonvolatile memory,
those that use volatile memory with battery backup, as well as those that offer both.
Depending on the characteristics and the manner in which the programmed
instructions are retained or altered within a PLC, memories can be classified into
following types:
• Read Only Memory (ROM)
• Random Access Memory (RAM)
• Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM)
• Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM)
• Electrically Alterable Read Only Memory
• Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM)
The discrete input/output (I/O) system
provides the physical connection Based on the status of the devices
between the CPU and field devices sensed or the process values
that transmit and accept digital measured, the CPU issues commands
signals. that control the field devices.

INPUTS & OUTPUTS CONNECTED TO PLC

Digital signals are noncontinuous

signals that have only two states – ON In short, input/output interfaces are
and OFF. Through various interface the sensory and motor skills that
circuits and field the controller senses exercise control over a machine or
and measures physical quantities process.
associated with a machine or process.
Typical discrete input/output system
 INPUTS & OUTPUTS CONNECTED TO PLC

As mentioned earlier, discrete input interfaces sense noncontinuous signals from field devices—that is,
signals that have only two states. Discrete input interfaces receive the voltage and current required for
this operation from the back plane of the rack enclosure where they are inserted. The signal that these
discrete interfaces receive from input field devices can be of different types and/or magnitudes (e.g., 120
VAC, 12 VDC). For this reason, discrete input interface circuits are available in different AC and DC
voltage ratings. List of standard ratings for discrete inputs is as below

Input Ratings
24 volts AC/DC
48 volts AC/DC
120 volts AC/DC
230 volts AC/DC
TTL level
Non voltage
Isolated input
5-50 volts DC (sink/source)
Now, let’s look at the different types of discrete input interfaces, along with their
operation and connections.

AC/DC Inputs
Below figure shows a block diagram of a typical AC/DC input interface circuit. Input circuits vary
widely among PLC manufacturers, but in general, AC/DC interfaces operate similarly to the circuit
in the diagram. An AC/DC input circuit has two primary parts:
• The power section
• The logic section
These sections are normally, but not always, coupled through a circuit that electrically separates
them, providing isolation.
 Block diagram of an AC/DC input circuit

The power section of an AC/DC input interface converts the incoming AC voltage
from an input-sensing device to a DC, logic-level signal that the processor can
use during the read input section of its scan.
During this process, the bridge rectifier circuit of the interface’s power section converts the
incoming AC signal to a DC-level signal. It then passes the signal through a filter circuit,
which protects the signal against bouncing and electrical noise on the input power line. This
filter causes a signal delay of typically 9–25 msec. The power section’s threshold circuit
detects whether the signal has reached the proper voltage level for the specified input
rating. If the input signal exceeds and remains above the threshold voltage for a duration
equal to the filter delay, the signal is recognized as a valid input.
 Typical AC/DC Input circuit

Above Figure shows a typical AC/DC input circuit. After the interface detects a valid
signal, it passes the signal through an isolation circuit, which completes the
electrically isolated transition from an AC signal to a DC, logic-level signal. The
logic circuit then makes the DC signal available to the processor through the
rack’s back plane data bus, a pathway along which data moves. The signal is
electrically isolated so that there is no electrical connection between the field
device (power) and the controller (logic). This electrical separation helps prevent
large voltage spikes from damaging either the logic side of the interface or the
PLC. An optical coupler or a pulse transformer provides the coupling between the
power and logic sections.
 Input/Output Devices
Input/Output Devices:
The input devices considered include digital and analog devices such as
mechanical switches, proximity switches, photoelectric switches, temperature and Pressure switches,
potentiometers, linear variable differential transformers, strain gauges, thermistors, thermo transistors, and
thermocouples.

Output devices considered include relays, contactors, solenoid valves, and motors.

Input Devices:
The term sensor is used for an input device that provides a usable output in response to a specified physical input.
For example,
• a thermocouple is a sensor that converts a temperature difference into an electrical output.
• The term transducer is generally used to refer to a device that converts a signal from one form to a different
physical form.
• Thus sensors are often transducers, but also other devices can be transducers, such as a motor that converts an
electrical input into rotation.
• Sensors that give digital or discrete, that is, on/off, outputs can be easily connected to the input ports of PLCs.
• An analog sensor gives an output proportional to the measured variable. Such analog signals have to be converted
to digital signals before they can be input to PLC ports.
Mechanical Switches:
A mechanical switch generates an on/off signal or signals as a result of some mechanical input causing the
switch to open or close.
Switches are available with normally open (NO) or normally closed (NC) contacts or can be configured as either
by choice of the relevant contacts.
• An NO switch has its contacts open in the absence of a mechanical input and the mechanical input is used to
close the switch.
• An NC switch has its contacts closed in the absence of a mechanical input and the mechanical input is used to
open the switch.

Fig:Switch sensors
Push Button:
❑ A push-button is a simple switch mechanism for controlling some aspects of machine or a process.
❑ A push button is a momentary or non-latching switch which causes a temporary change in the state of an electrical
circuit only while the switch is physically actuated.
❑ An automatic mechanism (i.e. a spring) returns the switch to its default position immediately afterwards, restoring
the initial circuit condition.
❑ Made up of hard material, usually plastic or metal and flat or shaped
Selector switch:
• A manually operated multi-position switch, which is usually adjusted by a knob or handle and may have
detents to hold in a given position.
• Used for instance, in devices or instruments with multiple functions, ranges, or modes of operation.
• Such a switch is usually rotary also called selector.
Contactor:
A contactor is an electrically controlled switch used for switching an electrical power circuit, similar to a relay
except with higher current ratings.
 Proximity Switches
Proximity switches are used to detect the presence of an item without making contact with it.

❖ The eddy current type of proximity switch has a coil that is energized by a constant alternating current and
produces a constant alternating magnetic field. When a metallic object is close to it, eddy currents are induced in
it .
❖ The magnetic field due to these eddy currents induces an EMF back in the coil with the result that the voltage
amplitude needed to maintain the constant coil current changes. The voltage amplitude is thus a measure of the
proximity of metallic objects.
❖ The voltage can be used to activate an electronic switch circuit, basically a transistor that has its output switched
from low to high by the voltage change, creating an on/off device.
Output Devices
Relay:
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to mechanically operate a switch.
Relays are used where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low-power signal (with complete electrical isolation
between control and controlled circuits), or where several circuits must be controlled by one signal.

• When a current passes through a solenoid, a magnetic field is produced; this can then attract ferrous metal
components in its vicinity . With the relay, this attraction is used to operate a switch.
• Relays can thus be used to control a larger current or voltage and additionally, to isolate the power used to
initiate the switching action from that of the controlled power.
• For a relay connected to the output of a PLC, when the output switches on, the solenoid magnetic field is
produced, and this pulls on the contacts and so closes a switch or switches The result is that much larger
currents can be switched on. Thus the relay might be used to switch on the current to a motor.
A. Contactor relays
Contactor relays are often used in control and regulating functions.
They are used in large quantities for the indirect control of motors, valves, clutches and heating equipment.
Directional Control Valve :
These valves are one of the most fundamental parts in hydraulic machinery as
well as pneumatic machinery.
• They allow fluid flow into different paths from one or more sources.
• They usually consist of a spool inside a cylinder which is mechanically or electrically
controlled.
• The movement of the restricts or permits the flow, thus it controls the fluid flow.

Directional control valve

Motor

DC Motor AC Motor
A) Indicator Lights
The simplest example of a digital output device that can be controlled by a PLC is the light bulb.
As a digital output from the PLC can turn ON the light bulb or turn it OFF. Similarly, indicators such
as Green/Red pilot lights are controlled by PLCs using the same principle as the light bulb control.

For example, a digital PLC output can turn ON the Red pilot light to indicate that the
machine/system being controlled is not functioning.

B) Alarms
Alarms in PLC-controlled systems provide notifications of higher urgency.
For example, a horn, a blinking red light, or a buzzer could indicate the occurrence of a hazardous
condition in the PLC controlled system. Buzzers are creatively utilized in PLC control systems by
varying their ON duration or ON/OFF intervals.
A buzzer is simply an electronic device that produces a single frequency sound when powered by
a voltage source. They are more appropriate for use as alarms compared to indicators, because
nobody wants a buzzer sounding 24hrs a day.
C) Actuators
These are devices that convert an electrical or control signal into linear or rotary mechanical
motion.
Simply put, an actuator translates the digital output signal from a PLC into practical movement
operations.
Examples of Analog PLC Outputs
An analog PLC output is a time-varying or continuous signal from the PLC CPU to the field output devices.
Basically, PLCs provide two types of analog output signals-current and voltage. Hence, an analog PLC output
can either be a current or voltage signal.

In most PLC systems, the analog output modules supply either voltage or current signals to field output
devices in standard ranges of ±5 V(Volts), ±10 V, 0…5V, 0…10 V, 0…20 mA(milliamperes), or 4…20 mA,
respectively.
Analog PLC outputs are mainly used to control or operate field devices in industrial environments.
For example,
• you can provide a speed reference signal to a Variable Frequency Drive (VFD) using an analog PLC output.
• Also, in case you’re using a PLC control system to measure the pressure of a piping system, you can
readily use an analog pressure meter as a field output device to display the pressure readings.
• In addition, the implementation of analog PLC outputs can also be seen in the operation of water level
meters, temperature gauges, and control of various other equipment/machinery.
Types of PLC
FIXED INTEGRATED PLC:
The Fixed I/O PLC is the most popular name for this kind of PLC.Actually, “Fixed I/O” stands for Fixed
“Input/Output.” In other words, the manufacturer determines and fixes every form of output or input.
Additionally, with this kind of PLC, the number of inputs and outputs may not be increased.
Small-scale applications are controlled or carried out using these PLC types. A small package houses the
processor, power supply, memory, inputs, and outputs. These PLCs typically have set numbers of inputs and
outputs, such as 8, 16, 24, 32, and 40 inputs and 4, 8, 16, 32, and 40 outputs. The amount of inputs,
outputs, and memory configurations vary according on the manufacturer and model. Inputs include
analogue and digital inputs, while outputs include digital and analogue outputs. The primary benefit of
fixed type PLCs is their reduced price. The lack of flexibility with fixed type PLCs is one of their drawbacks.
Additionally, certain versions require the replacement of the complete system if any component
malfunctions.
Advantages of Fixed PLC:
1.Fixed PLCs can only store a certain amount of data. This is due to the fact that every component is contained
within a single entity.
2.Fixed PLCs may be substantially less expensive.
Disadvantages of Fixed PLC:
1.Less memory is frequently built into fixed PLC than into their modular equivalents. Fixed PLC have a fixed
number of inputs and outputs since they are manufactured with I/O components already installed.
2.Because the system is put together as a whole, it is difficult to fix if one component breaks. Longer downtimes
may result from this for repairs.
3.Fixed PLC cannot do more complex tasks as a result. The pre-assembled feature of fixed PLC has the additional
drawback that repairs could be more difficult.
Modular PLC:
The term “modular” refers to a form of PLC that enables various expansions of the PLC system through the
use of modules.
Due to the independence of each component, modules usually make it simpler to use the programmable
logic controller and provide more functionality like more I/O units.
Advantages of Modular PLC:
1.The memory and data storage capacity of modular PLCs are significantly greater.
2.The modular PLC is more useful since it can handle more complicated procedures.
3.In order to develop and adjust processes for smooth expansion, modular PLCs were created.
4.Modular PLCs can quickly identify problems and rectify them while continuing to run some processes.
5.Modular PLC has higher long-term economic security.
Disadvantages of Modular PLC:
1.Reduced space efficiency caused by modular PLC.
2.When modules fail, modular PLC might increase troubleshooting cost.
3.Configuration complexity increases as a result of modular PLC.
4.Because modular PLC have low IP ratings, enclosures are required.
5.Maintaining more spare inventory on-site for modular PLC
6.Modular PLC I/O racks promote centralised rather than distributed I/O, which is certainly not standard way in
the modern world.
 Content
Compact PLC Modular PLC
Modular PLC is also known as Rack-
01 Name Compact PLC is also known as Fixed PLC.
Mounted PLC.

In Compact PLC, the number of inputs and outputs are In Modular PLC, the number of input
fixed. and output are not fixed.
02 I/O
Because I/O capabilities are decided by the manufacturer Inputs and outputs can be added to
but not by the user. the modular PLC systems by the user.
In this PLC, several components are
03 Module It has inputs and outputs modular fitted with CPU. fitted on chassis or rack or bus with
different slots.
Modular PLC is easy to maintain and
04 Repair Compact PLC is not easily repaired.
repair as compared to compact PLC.

It has more memory and capabilities

05 Memory It has fewer memory capabilities to store data/information.
to store more data.
It is used for industrial purposes and
It is useful for smaller applications and most suitable for
06 Use also for future industrial expansion
domestic purposes.
and growth.
It occurs in a large size with i/o
07 Size It is smaller in size. connectivity, power supply,
computing capabilities, etc.
08 Cost It is an economic model. It is costlier than Compact PLC
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