1.
Groups
1.1 Definition
A nonempty set is said to be a group if in there is defined an operation ¿
such that:
(a) For implies that .
(We describe this by saying that is closed under .)
(b) Given then
(This is described by saying the associative law hold in G.)
(c) There exists a special element such that for all .
( is called the identity or unit element of .)
(d) For every there exists an element such that .
(We write this element as and call it the inverse of in )
1.2 Definition
A group is said to be a finite group if it has a finite number of elements.
The number of elements in is called the order of and is denoted by .
1.3 Definition
A group is said to be abelian (commutative) if for all .
A group that is not abelian is called nonabelian.
1.4 Example
Let be the set of all real numbers except the integer 1. Let the operation
be defined by , where and are the usual arithmetic operations.
We will show that is group under .
Let .
Then and are real numbers
Suppose, for a contradiction that
Then
1
Therefore when
Thus , a contradiction.
Hence is a real number .
Therefore .
Closure law holds.
Take any
Then
Next
Therefore
Associative law holds.
There exists and
for all .
So the identity element is 0.
If then
Since
Also
; a contradiction.
Therefore and so .
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And we have
= 0;
= 0.
Thus .
Hence is a group.
1.5 Example
Let be the set of all integers under where , the ordinary product of
integers. We will show that is not a group.
Since , for such that
Therefore, 1 is the identity element of .
Since and there is no such that
But 0 has no inverse in .
So, is not a group under .
1.6 Lemma
Let is a group. Then:
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(i) Its identity element is unique.
(ii)
(iii) If
(iv) For
Proof:
(i) Let be a group.
Let and be identity elements in .
For all
and
Therefore
So the identity element is unique.
(ii) Let x and y be the inverse elements of .
Then
Therefore, the inverse element is unique.
(iii) For all , there exists such that
For all , there exists such that
Hence,
so that
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(iv) For all , there exists such that
Also, we have
and
So, .
Therefore
1.7 Example
Let be a group in which and for all . We
will show that is abelian.
Take any .
=
=
(1)
Similarly,
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by (1)
(2)
By (1) and (2),
Therefore is abelian.
2. Subgroups
2.1 Definition
A nonempty subset of a group is called a subgroup of if, relative to the
product in itself forms a groups. Written as .
2.2 Lemma
A nonempty subset of a group is a subgroup of if and only if
(i)
(ii)
Proof:
Let be a subgroup of . Then by Definition 2.1 (i) and (ii) hold.
Conversely suppose that is a nonempty subset of a group satisfying conditions
(i) and (ii).
Condition (i) gives closure.
Again
Hence associative law holds in .
Also, for any and so, by (i);
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Thus has identity.
Inverse of each element of is in by (ii).
Thus becomes a group under the multiplication of .
Therefore is a subgroup of .
2.3 Example
If A and B are subgroups of such that for all . We will
show that AB is a subgroup of .
Since A and B are subgroups, and .
Since , .
Therefore
Thus
So AB is non-empty subset of G.
Take any where
Since and
So AB is closed.
For we write So,
Since and
So AB is a subgroup of .
2.4 Definition
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be any element. The subset is
Let G be a group,
called a centralizer of a in G.
2.5 Example
Let G be any group and for . We will show
that centralizer of a in G is a subgroup of G.
Since , .
Thus
So is a nonempty subset of G.
Take any Then and
Since
For ,
Therefore
So is a subgroup of G.
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3. Homomorphism
3.1 Definition
Let G, be groups; then the mapping is a homomorphism if
for all
3.2 Example
Let G be two groups of all positive reals under the multiplication of reals, and
the group of all real under addition. Define a mapping by
for .
We will verify that is a homomorphism.
Take any .Then
Therefore is a homomorphism.
3.3 Example
Let G be the group of integer under and the subgroup of the
reals under multiplication.
Define by
We will show that is a homomorphism.
Case (i) Let and are both even.
Then is even.
Case (ii) If are both odd, then odd.
Therefore
Case (iii) If is odd, is even, is odd.
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Case (iv) If is even , is odd, is odd.
Therefore
So in all case,
Therefore is a homomorphism.
3.4 Definition
The homomorphism is called a monomorphism if is one-one . A
monomorphism that is onto is called an isomorphism. An isomorphism from G
to G itself is called an automorphism.
3.5 Definition
Two groups G and are said to be isomorphic if there is an isomorphism of
G onto . We shall denote that G and are isomorphic by writing
3.6 Example
Let G be any group, in the discussion. Define by
for all . We will prove is an isomorphism of G onto itself.
Take any Then
So is a homomorphism.
Let
Then
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So is one-one. For any we write so that
So is onto .
Therefore is an isomorphism of G onto itself.
3.7 Lemma
If is a homomorphism of G into , then:
the unit element of
(a)
(b) for all .
Proof:
(a) Let be a homomorphism.
Let and be the unit element of G and .
Since
Therefore
(b) For any
Therefore
3.8 Definition
If is a homomorphism of G into , then the kernel of is defined
by
3.9 Theorem
If is a homomorphism of G into , then:
(a) , is a subgroup of G.
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(b) Given
(a) Proof:
Let be a homomorpism.
Since
So
Therefore is a nonempty subset of G.
Take
Then and
Therefore
then and
For
Therefore
So is a subgroup of G.
(b) Take ; then
So,
and
(because is homomorphism)
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Therefore
So
3.10 Normal Subgroup
3.11 Definition
The subgroup N of G is said to be a normal subgroup of G if
for every We write “N is a normal subgroup of G” by the abbreviated
symbol, .
3.12 Lemma
N is a normal subgroup of G if and only if for every
Proof:
If for every , certainly so N is normal in G.
Conversely, suppose N is a normal subgroup of G. Then, since ,
Hence
3.13 Theorem
if and only if every left coset of N in G is a right coset of N in G.
Proof:
Suppose that
Then for all
Thus for every .
By transposing, for all .
Hence, every left coset of N in G is a right coset of N in G.
Conversely, suppose that every left coset of N in G is a right coset of N in
G. For every , for some
Then
Thus
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Therefore for all .
i.e., for all .
So
3.14 Example ( You should apply lemma 2.2 because you use one test)
If and and we will prove MN is
a subgroup of G and that
First we show MN is a subgroup of G.
Since
So MN is a nonempty subset of G.
Take any
Then and for all and
, since
Therefore
Thus MN is a subgroup of G.
Let and be arbitrary.
We have for all and
Then
since and
So for all and
Therefore MN is a normal subgroup of G.
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3.15 Definition
Suppose N is a normal subgroup of G. Then it can be proved that
where is a group . Moreover, M
is called the factor group or quotient group of G by N.
The symbol we use for M is
3.16 Theorem
If and , prove that is a group
relative to the operation
Proof:
Since
So
Take any
Let
Since
Therefore is closed.
Take
Let
, (since G is group.)
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Therefore associative law holds.
Since for
Therefore is the identity element of
For
Then
So is the inverse of .
Therefore is a group.
3.17 Theorem
Let be a homomorphism of G onto with Kernel . Prove that
the isomorphism between these being effected by the map
defined by
Proof:
Define by for
If then for some
Thus
, since .
So
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Therefore is well- defined.
for some
Therefore is onto in .
But
Then given then we have for some
Therefore is onto in .
Suppose that
Thus so that
Therefore is one-one.
Take any for
Next, (since is normal)
(because is homomorphism)
So is a homomorphism of onto .
Thus
fore
There
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Acknowledgements
We would like to thank Dr Thin Thin Si, Head of Department of Mathematics,
Pakokku University for her kindness permission to write this term paper. We are
greatful to Dr Marlar Aung, Professor, Pakokku University, for giving direction to do
this paper.
We are very thankful to our supervisor, Dr Myint Myint Swe, lecturer,
Department of Mathematics, Pakokku University, for her valuable advices, correct
guidance, encouragement and support in writing our term paper.
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We are also indebted to all our teachers who have taught us during our
academic career.
References
[1] Herstein, I. N., “Topic in Algebra”, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Second Edition,
1975.
[2] Herstein, I. N., “Abstract Algebra”, Third Edition, Printice Hall, New York,1996.
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