Monuments

of northern Nepal

Corneille Jest

mresoo
Monuments
of northern Nepal
On cover:
Kutsapternga.
Statue of Maitreya.

The author is responsible for

the choice and the presentation of the
facts contained in this book and
the opinions expressed therein, which
are not necessarily those of Unesco and
do not commit the Organization.

The designations employed and the

presentation of the material in this
publication d o not imply the expression
of any opinion whatsoever on the part
of the Unesco Secretariat concerning
the legal status of any country,
territory, city or area or of its
authorities, or concerning the
delimitation of its frontiers or
boundaries.

Published in 1981 by the United Nations

Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization
7 place de Fontenoy, 75700 Paris
Printed by Journal de Genève

I S B N 92-3-101874-4
French edition: 92-3-201874-8

© Unesco 1981
Printed in Switzerland
 Preface

The Buddhist and Hindu monasteries, temples and shrines found

in the northern region of the K i n g d o m of Nepal are difficult of
access and little k n o w n . In this region, religious beliefs, mainly
Buddhist, are still strong, and religious practices are closely
mingled with the everyday life of the inhabitants. Nepal, one of the
active centres of Buddhist culture, possesses a heritage whose
influence extends far beyond the borders of this small country.
The author of this book, Corneille Jest, is a leading
ethnologist in Nepalese studies and head of the Co-ordinated
Research G r o u p for the P r o g r a m m e of Himalayan-Karakorum
Studies at the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique
( C N R S ) of France. His meticulous, well-documented analysis is
the result of work carried out in thefield,in contact with the
communities concerned. It gives the general reader an interesting
insight into a littje-known part of the world.
This book is one of a series designed to m a k e better k n o w n
Nepalese culture and tradition as well as to help the government
to raise funds for the preservation of the Nepalese people's cultural
heritage. Unesco is helping in this effort. If the reader wishes he
m a y send contributions to: International Trust F u n d for the
Preservation of Sites and M o n u m e n t s in K a t h m a n d u Valley,
Unesco, 7 place de Fontenoy, 75700 Paris, France.
 Contents

Introduction 9
The culture of northern Nepal 13
Religious beliefs 17
Religious buildings 25
Movable components 41
A description of some of the northern Nepal temples 47
Temples of
the H u m l a District 47
Temples of
the Mustang District 54
Temples of the
Sindhu-Palchock District 80
Temples of the
Solu-Khumbu District 91
Suggestions for the conservation of northern Nepalese
monuments and sites 101

Appendices
1. Model questionnaire for making an inventory of a
building 107
2. Inventory index-card for movable objects in temples,
chapels and private houses 114
Bibliography 117
 République populaire de Chine

Afghanistan

autonome du Tibet

Inde
 Introduction

Fig-1- Today Nepal's cultural heritage has become of widespread interest

Nepal and a n ¿ js
the object of extensive operations both on the part of the
neighbouring Nepalese
r
Government and of Unesco.
territories. _, , . , , , _. . , » ,.
That this remote country, isolated between China and India
and open to the Western world only as recently as 1951, should
have so quickly become aware of the wealth of its cultural heritage
is indeed remarkable.
A systematic inventory of the monuments of the Kathmandu
Valley has already been undertaken by Unesco. 1 W h a t then could
be more normal for the Nepalese Government than to con-
template a similar enterprise with regard to an inventory of the
monuments of northern Nepal, this contact zone of two great
civilizations? With this in view, a preparatory study of the region
was suggested in 1978.
First and foremost this involved a preliminary survey of the
district, covering an area extending over some 800 k m , access
to which was rendered practically impossible owing to its altitude
and the lack of means of communication.
This study should therefore be looked upon as a step towards
an exhaustive survey of the monuments of northern Nepal
drawing attention to the diversity of styles which, though
originating from c o m m o n patterns, are due to differences in
ecological and cultural environments.
These monuments are mostly related to the Buddhist religion,
but a few Hindu sanctuaries in pilgrimage centres have also been
described.
Without the experience of a previous long contact with the
1. Cf. Masterplanfor the Conservation of the Cultural Heritage in the Kathmandu
Valley, Paris, Unesco, 1977.
peoples of Tibetan culture and their language, this study could
never have been prepared. The knowledge acquired during years
of study and the everyday use of the Tibetan language enabled us
to define the socio-religious problems underlying the technical
problems of these people and their environment in an atmosphere
of mutual understanding.
It was not our intention nor were w e qualified to undertake
the study of the building structures. The present study therefore
will have to be completed by a thorough analysis based on the
architectural and technical findings.
Owing to the short time available for the survey it was soon
deemed impossible to cover the whole of northern Nepal. After a
preparatory period in K a t h m a n d u , w e went successively to the
Mustang District in April-May 1978 and in December 1978; the
Sindhu-Palchock and Dolakha District in October 1978; the
H u m l a District in November-December 1978.
Moreover, in January 1979 w e organized in the Archaeo-
logical Department a temporary exhibition on the Cultural
Heritage of Nepal to show thefirstresults of our endeavours to the
members of the ' L a m a Desh Darsan' Seminar, grouping about
eighty members of the clergy and village chiefs of northern Nepal.
Since the survey was to cover more than 30,000 k m 2 in the
difficultly accessible upper valleys, it was essential to draw up a
detailed work schedule.
A team, comprising a surveyor and a photographer, was
formed and a research plan, including a questionnaire, was drawn
up. The following tasks were to be carried out : (a) an exhaustive
graphic survey; (b) a description of the sites and their present
condition ; (c) a series of photographs ; (d) a log-book of all the
historical, ethnographical and technical data collected.
Contacts were established first of all with the chief and
members of the Panchayat ' and the responsible members of the
clergy. Separate reports were m a d e on eachfieldmission and all
data and photographic documentation were deposited with the
Archaeological Department of Nepal. T h e classification of the
documentation has been planned in such a w a y that each of its
components m a y be supplemented.
In order to record the state of the religious buildings, two field
missions, thefirstin the Sindhu-Palchock (Helambu) District in
1976 and the second in the S o l u - K h u m b u District in 1977, had
already been carried out. In the course of these missions a standard
survey model for future inventories was perfected.
1. A n administrative area equivalent to an important village or a group of
villages.
 The bibliography (see page 117) and a research plan for
iconographie documents appearing in ancient works have been of
great value as comparative materials.
W e should like to express our thanks to all the responsible
authorities w h o assisted us in our task, and more especially to
M r P . S. Rana, former Minister of Education in the Nepalese
Government; M r R . J. Thapa, Director General of the Depart-
ment of Archaeology, and his two assistants, M r J. L . Sharma and
M r P. H . Vajracharya ; the members of the Department's technical
team, and more especially M r T . R . Tamrakar, photographer, and
M r V . Ranjit, topographer. M r Tamla Ukyab, Under Secretary,
H o m e and Panchayat Ministry, Kusho Tsechu, m o n k in charge of
the annual L a m a Desh Darsan Seminar, and M r A . Kunzang
Phenbo, Buddhist temple builder, gave us useful information
about Himalayan traditions.
W e also wish to thank D r Grace Morley, Advisor in the
I C O M Agency for Asia, whose constant help and experience have
been invaluable, and John Sanday, architect and Unesco
consultant, closely associated with our work through his
monograph Building Conservation in Nepal, Paris, Unesco, 1978,
in which he has described some of the characteristic aspects of
northern Nepal.
Finally, w e wish to state that this study could never have been
successfully completed without the valuable co-operation of the
local authorities and the people of the upper valleys of Nepal.
13

The culture
of northern Nepal

Nepal occupies a unique position between India and China. It

covers an area of 140,000 k m 2 extending over 800 k m along the
southern slope of the high Himalayan range. Going north one
travels through three very different regions : the Terai plain, the
middle mountains of Nepal separated from the plain by the
Mahabharat range, andfinallythe high mountain range which
rises abruptly with its soaring peaks, the highest in the world.
The population exceeds 12,000,000 inhabitants.

The people and ways of life

The regions to the north where the cultural heritage has been
studied are situated along the Upper Himalayan Range between
28°-30° latitude North and 81°-88° longitude East.
Although these regions are difficult of access, they have been
the contact zone between India and central Asia.
It is not our intention here to give a historical analysis of the
cultures of this zone. Nevertheless a brief summary m a y be of use
in order to have a better understanding of the problems involved,
and to answer the various questions that arise concerning the great
wave of development that has overtaken the Himalayan region of
Nepal.
The people living in Nepal's central valleys look either
towards the K a t h m a n d u Valley or to the south and they speak, or
at least understand, Nepali, but the people living in the regions at
the foot of the high range and the upper valleys are of Tibetan
mother tongue and culture and are k n o w n as Bhotya (the Nepalese
use this term, meaning inhabitant of Tibet, for people w h o dress
and live like Tibetans although they are n o w citizens of Nepal). 1
The anthropological features of these people, their behaviour
and techniques, are m u c h the same as those of the Tibetans.
Moreover their economy is largely dependent upon trade with
the Chinese A u t o n o m o u s Region of Tibet. Consequently, these
Nepali citizens, members of a Hindu kingdom to which they
belong administratively, are culturally linked to their northern
neighbours and are Buddhists.
Owing to their geographical situation, they control the lines
of communication between the Chinese province and Nepal.
According to tradition, there are thirteen passes which cross the
high mountain ridge of the Himalayas or follow the courses of the
rivers whose sources rise in Tibet. These are all commercial
thoroughfares and axes of cultural penetration.
In the northern regions with which this study is concerned live
80,000 people w h o represent a variety of small ethnic groups that
have immigrated over the years from various regions in Tibet.
These groups live in areas shut off by rivers or rugged terrain.
Characteristics c o m m o n to these groups m a y be accounted for
either by their environment or by the fact that they belong to the
Tibetan cultural area.
The high altitude, cold climate and low rainfall north of the
upper range permit marginal agriculture only: wheat, barley,
buckwheat and very recently potatoes. T h e breeding of yaks,
sheep and goats provides food and raw materials for weaving. The
farming and grazing resources, however, have proved insufficient
since these groups settled in the upper valleys, and they are
supplemented by the barter of locally grown grain for rock salt
from the salt lakes of the upper Tibetan plateau.
Shortly after the spring planting, the herds are taken to
pasture in the high mountains ; during the s u m m e r trading in grain
and salt takes place in the A u t o n o m o u s Region of Tibet. In the
autumn after the harvest part of the population leaves for the
central valleys to sell their wares, such as textiles and medicinal
herbs.
The houses of these people are two or three storeys high,
solidly built to weather the extreme temperatures. The stables and
storerooms are on the ground floor with the living quarters above.
M e n and w o m e n are dressed in the Tibetan style and in winter

1. The terms Tibet and Tibetan, as used in this study, have no political
implications but serve to describe a people, a language, a culture of an area of
civilization which includes, among others, the Tibetan Autonomous Region
of the People's Republic of China.
wear long sheepskin-lined coats. T h e w o m e n , w h o are more
conservative than the m e n , wear jewels and headdresses which
distinguish them from the peoples of the other regions.
The Bhotya groups are divided into exogamic clans, a general
rule that is always strictly observed. These clans are divided into
distinctive hierarchical strata as follows : the aristocracy and the
hereditary clergy; the c o m m o n people; farmers and n o m a d
shepherds ; corporations of workers considered unclean : butchers,
ironsmiths, potters, etc. These strata are endogamous and
correspond to a division of w o r k based o n class.
Until the introduction of the recent Nepalese constitution,
local authority was in the hands of hereditary chiefs w h o were
aided by a village assembly responsible for the administration of
the community.
Religious life, which is exclusively Buddhist, developed in the
Tibetan manner. The people of the high valleys, w h o had either
c o m e from or been influenced by Tibet, have successively received
the teachings of the Sakya-pa, the Drug-pa and the Nying-ma-pa
orders, this last being the most important.
The organization of religious life in these orders is to a
considerable extent the same everywhere. Time is measured by a
lunar calendar (with the insertion of an intercalary m o n t h every
three years). T h e N e w Year, or Lo-sar (lo-gsar),1 falls in mid-
February and is associated with the eviction of evil. M i d s u m m e r is
marked by fertility and prosperity ceremonies for the soil and the
herds. There are m a n y places of worship : village temples, private
chapels, and monasteries for m e n and for w o m e n .
Monastic life, which had existed in the upper valleys of Nepal
but then declined, has reappeared in the last three or four
generations, particularly in the region of S o l u - K h u m b u .

Cultural and linguistic groups

These briefly described characteristic traits are a c o m m o n

denominator, but the different groups have their o w n particu-
larities which it is necessary to recognize.
The different Tibetan cultural and language groups which
exist from west to east are listed below:

1. A simplified phonetic transcription has been used to render c o m m o n Tibetan

terms. However, certain words of a religious nature (in brackets) have been
given a more exact transliteration in R o m a n letters for the purposes of
comparative studies.
Nepalese District Local name Classical Tibetan name

Darchula Tingkar Tiùg-Dkar

Humla Limirong Li-Mi Rong
Humla Nying
Mugu Mugum Mu-Gum
Dolpa Dolpo Dol-Po
Mustang Lo Glo
Mustang Baragaon
Manang Nyi-Shang Snyi-Shang
Manang Nar Snar
Manang Gyasumdo (Tingaon) Rgya-sum-Mdo
Gorkha Nub-Ri Nub-Ri
Gorkha Tsum Tsum
Rasuwa Langthang Glang-Thang
Sindhu Palchock Helambu/Yolmo Yol-Mo
Dolakha Rolwaling Rol-Ba-Gling
Solu K h u m b u Khumbu
Sankhusaba Shingsa Zhing-Sa
Taplejung Wallung Ha-Lung

At the extreme western tip of Nepal, the Byansi, w h o live in

the Darchula district, are a long-established group only slightly
influenced by Buddhism. O n the other hand, the inhabitants of the
H u m l a , M u g u and principally the Dolpo districts have preserved a
number of Tibetan traditions that have n o w disappeared in their
country of origin.
For instance, in the eleventh century Dolpo was a part of the
western principalities of Tibet, then of the Jumla kingdom, before
it became an integral part of Nepal after the latter's unification by
Prithivi-Narayan at the end of the eighteenth century.
The Mustang district (Glo in Tibetan), which w a s formerly a
Tibetan principality, retained until very recently its o w n political
and religious institutions,
T o this population of Tibetan origin one should also add the
Thakali (some 10,000) w h o ,firstassimilated to the Bhotya, are
n o w turning towards Hinduism, the religion of the economically
and politically powerful castes.
The people settled between the Kali Gandaki and the Buri
Gandaki ( M a n a n g and Gorkha) are likewise distinctive. In north-
east Nepal the best k n o w n is the Sherpa group (literally ' m e n from
the East'). Even before the opening up of Nepal to the Western
world, the Sherpas were already auxiliaries to mountain ex-
peditions. This ethnic group, which came from eastern Tibet, first
settled in the high valleys of the D u d h Kosi and then spread into
the neighbouring regions.
17

Religious beliefs

Nepal has c o m e under two influences: Hinduism, which spread

from India along the middle valleys, and Buddhism. In northern
Nepal, inhabited by Tibetan-speaking people, Buddhism is the
predominant religion. Here it is an esoteric development of
Buddhist doctrine, incorporating elements of local beliefs and
elaborate ritual, and is influenced by a tantric development of
Hinduism. This religion has spread, to central Asia, China,
Mongolia and the high valleys of the Himalayas in Nepal and
Bhutan.
The 'pre-Buddhist' beliefs, the dialectical term for which is
Bon, are still present in the intercessor's (shaman) ritual. Bon also
designates a religious sect representative of the continuity of both
pre-Buddhist beliefs and religious practices close to Buddhism. It
differs from the latter by the inversion of the divine attributes and
of names of divinities, and by the direction of the circumambu-
lation around sanctuaries. B o n - p o are few in Nepal and they live
mostly in the higher regions of the Kali Gandaki, Mustang
(Luprag) and Dolpo. It is in the centres of pilgrimage that both
Buddhism and Hinduism have kept alive their ancient traditions.
Initial beliefs were centred on mountain worship: a mountain
ancestor identified with the founder of an ethnic group or with a
line of descendants corresponding to a given region. These
mountains belong to a sacred geography assimilated by
Buddhism and, to a lesser extent, by Hinduism. T h e legend of
P a d m a s a m b h a v a refers principally to the metamorphosis of
ancient mountain and lake divinities into defenders of the n e w
faith, and he is said to have visited every region of Nepal.
 18

Buddhism

Buddhism has strongly impregnated the social structures of the

people of northern Nepal.
It developed in Tibet over a period of more than thirteen
centuries and spread to Bhutan, Ladakh and Mongolia. Although
of different origins, it has merged into a homogeneous whole.
Variations between orders or schools have been conditioned by
politics or a struggle for power far more than by differences in
doctrine. The fundamental beliefs of these orders are similar but
they vary in ritual and liturgical traditions. T h e basic writings
considered as being the revelations of Buddha, the Kanjur (bka'-
'gyur) and its commentaries Tenjur (bstan- 'gyur) are the reference
texts of all the orders, although each has in addition its o w n extra-
canonical and literary texts. Fig. 2.
The most important orders are the following : Nying-ma-pa Nying-ma-pa lamas
of Dolpo
(rnying-ma-pa), 'the ancient order', Sa-kya-pa (sa-skya-pa) 'from
performing a fire
the Sakya monastery founded in the eleventh century', Ka-gyii-pa oblation ceremony
(bka-rgyud-pa) 'the order of teachings transmitted orally' and'the (sbyin-sreg).
Ge-luk-pa (dge-lugs-pa).1
It is said that the origin of the Nying-ma-pa goes back to the
teachings of Padmasambhava, or G u r u Rinpoche, w h o in the
eighth century actively propagated Buddhism in Tibet and
consecrated the S a m y à temple. This is the most important order in
northern Nepal.
The Ka-gyii-pa order, which is also present in Nepal, stems
from the teachings of M a r p a (1012-97).

The clergy : their functions

The priests, or lamas (bla-ma), which simply means teachers, play

a determining role. They are m a n ' s indispensable guides, without
whose assistance there is n o hope of salvation. If they do not all
attain the stage of spiritual guide, at least they m a k e the liturgy and
the magic rites understandable to the layman. This structure and
its ramifications constitute a powerful clerical hierarchy which,
although externalized in complex rites and rigid formalism,
inspires a highly spiritual life and produces great mystics.

1. The Ge-luk-pa order represents the culmination of a slow revision process

begun in the thirteenth century, when there was a return to the sources of
Buddhist doctrine.
 19

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 The priest has manifold functions. A s a contemplative, he
seeks union with the divinities invoked in the rituals ; he relies on
his knowledge and religious experience to help the members of the
community ; he is an educator w h o teaches Tibetan, the language
of the religion; he can also be an artist, a physician or an
astrologer.
In the Nying-ma-pa order, the clergy, w h o are all m e m b e r s of
the upper class, are allowed to marry and their functions are often
both social and religious.
H o w does one become a m e m b e r of the clergy? At the age of
12, a boy, taught by a priest, learns to read and write. Later he will
conduct the religious services of the regular collective ritual
(ceremonies in the village temple on certain dates) and the
individual ritual (rites of the life-cycle) and ancestor worship, as
well as soothsaying and exorcising.
The religious institution is supported by compulsory contri-
butions from each household and by individual donations.
The monastic system, which flourished in certain regions
(Dolpo) four or five centuries ago, has experienced a renewal due
to the influence of certain Tibetan and Bhutanese lamas (end of the
nineteenth and beginning of the twentieth centuries).
The clergy constitute an assembly, trasang (grva-chahg), at
the head of which is an abbot, khenpo (mkhan-po). The head of the
community is assisted by two custodians, nyerwa (gner-pa), w h o
collect gifts and administer the monastery estates. Usually the
teacher, lopôn (slob-dpori), responsible for the instruction has
attained the highest degree of initiation, geshe (dge-bshes).
The religious community spends part of the year in medi-
tation without leaving the monastery; at other times their
activities are devoted to reading liturgical texts or to purification
rites performed at the request of the faithful.

Participation of the village communities

in religious life

This participation is intense, since m a n y of the community

members are priests in charge of the ritual. L a y m e n are
indispensable, since it is their duty to support the religious
community materially and contribute to the ceremonies by gifts in
kind throughout the year. A secretary is chosen from the
community and keeps the accounts of these gifts and donations.
Role of the clergy
Over the centuries, some priests have worked for the renewal of the
Buddhist faith; intellectually gifted, they have preached the
doctrine and performed praiseworthy acts such as the restoration
or construction of sanctuaries.
In recent times, two of the most famous contributors to this
renaissance were Shang Rinpoche, a native of central Tibet, w h o
for two decades (1940-59) travelled through north-west Nepal,
Dolpo, Mustang and M a n a n g rebuilding temples and sanctuaries.
L a m a Sherab Dorje (1884-1945), w h o was born in Bhutan,
participated in the restoration of the S w a y a m b h u site in the
K a t h m a n d u Valley and then built a number of monasteries and
temples in northern Nepal.

Buddhist ritual and calendar of

socio-religious activities
In the Buddhism of these regions, the practice of rites is of
foremost importance.
The word 'rite' signifies the means by which one m a y attain a
given goal, i.e. attain the state of Vajradhara, a condition allow-
ing one to work for the welfare of all h u m a n beings. The success of
this accomplishment depends on freely accepted purification and
the accumulation of merits.
Through his meritorious acts, the layman escapes from the
cycle of reincarnation. For this reason he participates in the
building of religious monuments, the periodic ceremonies and the
fashioning of ritual objects.
O n set dates specified in the Tibetan lunar calendar, the
priests assemble to celebrate a ritual involving the whole
community. T o the laymen falls the task of collecting and
preparing the food for all w h o participate (barley flour and raisins
for the sacrificial cakes).
In the monasteries the ritual is strictly defined, as are the
prayers and the regulation of the ceremonies. Each order has its
o w n festival calendar. However, a certain number of days (the
tenth, fifteenth and last day of the lunar month) are days of
c o m m o n prayer for everyone.
Following is the calendar of the Tengboche ( K h u m b u )
monastery, Nying-ma-pa order, Mindroling (Smiñ-gro-gliñg)
rule:
 22

Calendar of religious activities (Tengboche Monastery) '

Western calendar Tibetan Ritual Participation of

calendar the members
of the community

Mid-February 1st lunar month N e w Year

to mid-March lst-4th day lo-gsar
5th-10th day tshe-grub All the inhabitants
10th day tshe-dbang

Mid-March 2nd lunar month Meditation

to mid-April

Mid-April to m i d - M a y 3rd lunar month

M i d - M a y to mid-June 4th lunar month

7th to 15th day Collective fasting, smyung-gnas Inhabitants and
15th day Anniversary of the death of Buddha benefactors

Mid-June to mid-July 5th lunar month

10th day Anniversary of the birth of
Padmasambhava

Mid-July 6th lunar month

to mid-August 4th day Anniversary of the birth of Buddha

Mid-August 7th lunar month

to mid-September 1st-10th day Ceremony, ritual of rDo-rje Sems-pa

Mid-September 8th lunar month

to mid-October

Mid-October 9th lunar month

to mid-November 29th day ma-ni ril-grub All the inhabitants

Mid-November 10th lunar month

to mid-December until the 17th day ma-ni ril-grub All the inhabitants

Mid-December 11 th lunar month

to mid-January

Mid-January 12th lunar month

to mid-February

1. The Tibetan calendar is used in the regions of Tibetan culture and language in
Nepal (the districts to the north, including the Sherpa, the T a m a n g and the
Gurung groups).
A s in China and Japan, the years are reckoned according to a 60-year
cycle combining the 12 animals: the mouse, ox, tiger, hare, dragon, serpent,
horse, sheep, monkey, bird, dog and pig; thefiveelements: wood,fire,earth,
iron and water, each divided into male and female (ten signs).
The years are divided into 12 months of 30 days each (360 days) which
are numbered from 1 to 12.
In order to adjust this theoretical lunar calendar to the real lunar
calendar (354 days), a certain number of days have been left out. T o m a k e it
 23

Hindu calendar (Main festivals)

The main festivals of the Hindu religious calendar observed by the inhabitants of
the central valleys of Nepal are listed below. The places of pilgrimage are all
situated in the mountains of northern Nepal.

Western Nepalese Divinity Place of Main

calendar calendar worship pilgrimage

Mid-April to m i d - M a y Baisakh Bagvati, Devi In every village

(Purni: full m o o n )

M i d - M a y mid-June Jeth Goth puja Bahun in the

(Purni) village

Mid-June mid-July Asar —

Mid-July mid-August Saun Festival of the In every village
(Purni) snakes
(Nag Pancami)

Mid-August mid-September Bhadau Mahadev In every village Gosainkund

Bhairav kund
Bhairung kund
(Ansi: new m o o n ) (Kusi Ansi) Kalingchok

Mid-September mid-October Asoj

(Purni) Shiva (Dasain) In every village
(Ansi) (Tiwar) In every village
Mid-October mid-November Kartik Mahadev Pashupati
(Ansi) Halasi, D u m j a Beni

Mid-November mid-December Munsir Devi In every village Daneswar

(Purni)

Mid-December mid-January Pus Mahadev In every village Sailung

(Purni)

Mid-January mid-February Magh Mahadev In every village

(Sankantri: 1st day)
Mid-February mid-March Phagun
(Purni) (Holi) In every village

Mid-March mid-April (Purni) Cait (Cait Dasain) In every village

eight day after (Purni)
(Ansi) (Matathirta) In every village

coincide with the solar calendar (365 % days), an intercalary month is added
every 3 years.
The lunar N e w Year, the so-called 'Peasants' N e w Year', falls on the
closest possible date to the winter solstice (around mid-January of the
Western calendar), whereas the official N e w Year, 'the King's N e w Year',
comes about a month later.
Importance of Kathmandu :
pre-eminence as a pilgrimage centre

K a t h m a n d u Valley, called 'Nepal' by the northern populations,

is the site of the most important pilgrimage for the Nepalese.
During the winter, all the peoples referred to in this study meet in
K a t h m a n d u to visit the Buddhist pilgrimage centres. K a t h m a n d u
is in fact one of the four most important pilgrimages for all
Buddhists, and the best time to go there is in the Year of the
Bird, Chalo (bya-lo) in the Tibetan cycle. Bodhnâth and the
Katashimbu district of K a t h m a n d u are favourite places in which
to stay. Around the Bodhnâth stupa the pilgrims exchange the
wares brought from their far-away valleys, fabrics, textiles and
medicinal plants, for manufactured articles. Here they also buy
ritual objects.
25

Religious buildings

A n examination should n o w be m a d e of the numerous buildings in

the Buddhist world, representations of the 'spiritual body' of
B u d d h a (just as images represent his 'physical body' and books his
'speech'), as well as of the relationships established between m a n
and what he has constructed. T h e Himalayan people have
elaborated an architecture that is deeply rooted in Buddhist
philosophy and at the same time extraordinarily integrated in the
natural environment.

Standards of building according

to the Buddhist ritual

W e asked A m c h i Kunzang, an architect w h o has drawn u p the

plans for more than a hundred temples, to provide us with the
building rules that should be observed. They are found in various
religious texts such as the Tenjur, V o l u m e Ga and the
Richenterdzô (rin-chen gter-mdzod), a canonic work of the Nying-
m a - p a order.
The temple of Sarnya in Tibet, which w a s built in the eighth
century by P a d m a s a m b h a v a , is the prototype that has been
chosen.

The ground plan of a temple is square, its determining characteristics

depend on the size of the supporting framework, and its typology is a
function of the number of pillars.
The simplest type of building is rectangular; the main hall is square
and the roof is supported by four pillars, literally ka-shi-dung-gye (ka-
bzhi gdung-brgyad), 'the four pillars and eight beams'.
 26

Lr TJ
-<?- -Q-

-Ó- -Ô-

!
l
(

J • c
1
L

111 11 1 1 1111
2v
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 111 = A —
1 1 I 1 11 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 W

\ . / "\ ? ^

Fig. 3.
Plan and elevation
of a village temple
with four supporting
T h e n u m b e r four, which is related to the square, is part of a pillars (by A .
classification widely used in Tibet; for example, it establishes a Kunzang).
relationship between a structure and the lineage of followers. A given
lama will have a certain n u m b e r of disciples, the four most important
being the four pillars, then the eight beams, the sixteen joists, and the
thirty-two small joists.
Larger buildings with six pillars are called K h a d r u g dunggu (ka-
drug-gdung-dgu) ('the six pillars and the nine beams'). T h e two pillars
nearest the altar are sometimes higher and support a second storey which
leans against the wall opposite the entrance. This type of temple is k n o w n
as Pho-thog m o - t h o g {pho-thog mo-thog).
T h e great temples consist of ten pillars in two rows; the four in the
middle are higher and support a lantern tower, sin-gi-gyab.
 27

3 r

3 L, I

IZ=) 0= J

Fig. 4.
Plan and elevation
of the Pho-thog m o -
thog type of temple
(by A. Kunzang).
W h e n the decision has been taken to build a temple, whether by a
donor or a community, the site is chosen with great care. Whenever
possible, the main façade should look east, 'the great white w a y leading to
the rising sun'. O n the south, the site will be bounded by a river, identified
with the 'turquoise dragon'. O n the west, the back of the temple should be
• set against a mountain, corresponding to 'a red bird'. T o the north,
another mountain with the shape of a turtle will enclose the sacred
'precinct.
The choice of this site will be confirmed by casting dice or by
diyination dedicated to the divinity Palden L h a m o (dpal-ldan lha-mo).
Once all these conditions have been satisfactorily met, a square is
traced on the soil of the selected site by a grid composed of 9 x 9
compartments on which is traced the figure of an earth divinity (sa-bdag).
 28

A small amount of earth is dug out from one of the compartments and Fig. 5.
then replaced ; if its volume then proves greater, this indicates that the Diagram traced on
choice has been excellent. the ground of
T h e building process can then begin. Fragments found in the soil building site before
while digging the foundations are carefully examined. A piece of w o o d is construction of the
an auspicious o m e n , meaning the building will last a long time. Should a temple. The image
represents the
piece of charcoal be discovered, the building will be destroyed by fire. divinity Sa-bdag;
T w o ceremonies, rabnè (rab-gnas), consecrate the temple : one after the hatched square
the erection of thefirstpillar, and the other after work on the building has is the spot where the
been completed. diggingfirstbegins.

Typology of religious buildings

M o n u m e n t s in northern N e p a l are usually Buddhist, although

there are a few H i n d u m o n u m e n t s , mostly to b e found at
pilgrimage sites (Muktinâth, G o s a i n k u n d ) . These structures have
been designed to withstand the rigorous climatic conditions:
m o n s o o n rains o n the southern slopes, cold or drought o n the
northern slopes of the high H i m a l a y a n range.
In contrast with the buildings of K a t h m a n d u Valley, the
façades are austere. Studied elegance and profusion of ornaments
will be found inside.
Building techniques are determined first and foremost by
climatic conditions. Indeed, over a relatively short distance from
south to north the climate varies greatly from humid with heavy
rainfalls in the central valleys to arid in regions on the Tibetan
high plateau.
In the driest regions, there are terrace-roofs, doors and
windows that open onto a courtyard, and the enclosing wall is a
protection against the wind and cold.
In the d a m p regions, for example in Solu or H e l a m b u , the
roof is the protective element governing the general structure.
Usually it is a two-sided, gently sloping roof which projects some
distance beyond the walls so as to protect their base.
O n e of the most striking features of the buildings is the
hierarchy of the architectural components : (a) the proportions
and harmony of the façades in relation to the walls, apertures and
parapet ; (b) the increasing complexity of symmetrical openings—
windows and balconies—as the eye travels from the ground level
of the building to the roof; (c) an effect of contrasts and unison
linked with the interplay of colours and shades : white façades with
black openings, black borders to the parapet, red façades, white
ends to the joists and black-bordered parapet.
These are the m o r e striking contrasts of the exterior of a
temple in which, following a harmonious layout, are organized the
hierarchical areas, concealing somewhat the sacred character of
the interior of the building.
The architectural structure respects the symmetry of the
relationships of volume.
Religious buildings differ from the secular by the colour of
their façades, which are white or red, and by the painted decorative
elements appearing on the windows or roofs.
Other structural components are painted in a given colour,
undoubtedly for aesthetic reasons, but linked at the same time with
available materials and adaptable techniques.
For instance, the w i n d o w frames outside the casing are often
painted black; two types of clay were used formerly, one held the
w i n d o w frames together and the other was used to plaster the
walls. N o w a d a y s thefirsttype is conventionally represented by
black paint.
In addition to these religious buildings, others used for
domestic purposes should be mentioned: houses, dwellings of
local chiefs, and grain-mills. M a n y of them are built for defence
and offer protection against the cold and wind or an enemy.
 30

The historical concurrence of events can be illustrated by the Fig. 6.

different types of construction : large fortified buildings following Three-storeyed
house of a village
the spur of a rugged mountain ridge give w a y to free-standing chief (Dzar,
three-storeyed buildings that overlook a vast closed-in courtyard. Muktinâth valley).

The conception of religious space

A temple or a monastery is not a complete unit in itself; it is part

of a whole that has its social purpose and is so regarded by the
faithful.
A s has already been seen, a building site is not haphazardly
chosen : around a site where P a d m a s a m b h a v a fought a d e m o n , for
instance, or one where a saintly hermit rested, there is a whole
range of religious or historical motivations justifying the choice of
the particular location. Very often it will be an exceptional site : a
mountain or a terrace overlooking a river. A close-by mountain
peak, cliffs or rocks, a lake are then part of a sacred precinct that is
demarcated by votive structures, prayer walls and masts.
This area is clearly defined, since within a hallowed precinct
justice is dispensed by the head of the religious community.

Types of construction
A Buddhist environment is marked by a series of signs, expressions
of a deep-seated faith substantiated by concrete representations.
They are enumerated here so as to familiarize the reader with both
their form and their terminology:
They comprise buildings: monasteries, temples and smaller
constructions such as chapels or hermitages; prayer-wheels;
prayer-walls ; sanctuaries of minor deities ; small buildings housing
prayer-wheels set in motion by water ; engraved religious formulas
on rock slabs.

Temples

These buildings fall into five categories :

1. T h e monastery, g o m p a (dgon-pa), comprises a series of
buildings usually grouped around a courtyard. T h e temple
itself occupies one side, the other sides serve as dormitories for
the clergy and pilgrims, and as a kitchen.
In the main building, the temple is on the ground floor;
the living quarters of the head of the community and a smaller
temple dedicated to the protective deities (srung-khang)
occupy thefirstfloor.
The courtyard is used both as a shelter for the pilgrims
and members of the community during the major ceremonies
and as a stage for the performance of the religious dances that
take place once or twice a year.
2. The village temple (yul-gi-lha-khang) is built either within the
village or near it. It rarely has any buildings annexed to it,
though sometimes there m a y be a kitchen for use during
festivals. T h e caretaker's quarters m a y be part of the temple
itself.
3. T h e private temple chapel, labrang (Jbla-brang), is a part of a
house reserved for worship, and is always on an upper floor.
4. The meeting-house, mitsogpa (mi-mtshogs-pa), is in the village
or group of houses and is used for assemblies. It retains,
however, a religious character as it has a small altar and, often,
religious books.
5. The hermitage, tsamkhang (mtsham-khang), is a small house
with one or two rooms or it m a y be a cell hollowed out of the
rock. It is an isolated place for meditation. A m o n k m a y live
there in seclusion for a season or even longer.

Prayer- wheels

The great prayer-wheel, mani dungyur (mani dung-'phyur), 'a

hundred million man? is a means of expressing faith; it m a y be
integrated into the temple or monastery or placed in an
independent building.
The cylinder, which can have a diameter as big as 2 m x
1.60 m , contains printed prayers and stands in a square room, the
walls of which are usually covered with paintings of a religious
nature.

Votive buildings: chôrten

The chôrten (mchod-rten, stïïpa in Sanscrit), a 'receptacle of

offerings', is the most frequently found building. Only a reliquary
m o u n d at the beginning, its structures have subsequently been
modified; the hemisphere or d o m e , which initially was the whole
m o n u m e n t , has progressively diminished in size, whereas the base
has increased in volume.
StiTpas vary in size from the monumental type, such as those
of S w a y a m b h u or Bodhnath near K a t h m a n d u , to the small
buildings erected in the vicinity of temples and sanctuaries. '
The stüpa has become the symbol of the Buddhist doctrine
in general and of thefinalNirvana in particular. It is the simplest
way of representing the doctrine and plays a very important part
in Buddhist practices.
In northern Nepal, groups of three square-based chôrten
with two-tiered roofs called rigsum g o m p o (rigs-gsum dgon-po)
representing the three bodhisattvas, Manjusri, Avalokitesvara
and Vajrapani, are a m o n g the more c o m m o n .
Monumental free-standing gateways, kagani, sometimes as
high as 7-8 m , built on the plan of the chôrten, are to be found at
the entrances to villages.

1. These temples have been described in the sacred literature which, whether for
religious or practical reasons, specifies the standards and measurements for
their construction.
 33

Fig. 7.
Types of chôrten
(by A . Kunzang).
- *«1

im
w*-¿

ÏÏ» ,ii
• * « *

-•V

•'"'• ï^il* ^ " ^ p

 35

Prayer-walls : mani or mendang

Walls that m a y be more than 20 metres in length run along the

path leading to a temple. They bear medallions engraved with the
religious formula Om Mani Padme Hum. Sometimes the contents
of an entire book are carved on stone slabs, for example the
<Fig. 8. Tibetan translation of a sutra summarizing the 'perfection of
Entrance chôrten to knowledge'. These slabs are embedded vertically in the walls at a
the village of D o in given height and are protected byflatstones forming a roof.
the valley of Tarap
(Dolpo District). A chórten is often built at the end of the walls, with prayer-
wheels set at about 1.50 m above ground level.
Fig. 9. A s the wayfarer passes by these monuments, he will always
Prayer-wall: stones seek to keep them on his right, as this is tantamount to reciting the
carved with religious
formulae. prayers thereon.
Buildings devoted to minor deities

Buildings devoted to minor earth and aquatic deities are cube-

shaped (2 m x 2 m ) and crowned by a small pinnacle. Half-way up
there is a hollow in which juniper is burned.

Small buildings with prayer-wheels set in motion by water

These buildings, which are square and m a d e of stone, are found

near a stream or a diversion of a water-course. The prayer-wheel,
or revolving cylinder, is installed in the upper part of the building,
the axis being fitted at the base with paddles so that the water turns
the prayer-wheel in the same w a y as mill-wheels are turned.

Porticos and bells

The w o o d e n or stone portico, illustrating the Nepalese influence,

is sometimes used as a belfry. K a t h m a n d u bell-founders have long
excelled in the casting of large bells as well as of smaller ones used
during the services. The portico is built near the entrance door to
the temple.

Carved stone slabs

Cliffs and rocks are often engraved with the O m Mani Padme Hum
invocation.

Description of the temple-sanctuary

The temple is always located in the most advantageous position,
that is to say, higher than the neighbouring houses. It is
rectangular with a flight of steps leading to the slightly raised first
level. A porch, gomjor (sgo-phyor), precedes the main hall of the
temple. The open façade of the porch is supported by two or four
pillars; the three walls are decorated with mural paintings
representing the Wheel of Life and the deities 'Guardians of the
Four Quarters'. A curtain of woven yak hair, black with white
designs, drayôl (bra-yot), protects the porch from the wind and
the rain.
A double door leads into the square main hall, dükhang
(mdus-khang), and the altar faces the door. T h e ceiling is
supported by pillars, u p o n which rest the beams and joists
following a precise arrangement which gives the structure its
rigidity and is one of its main architectural features from the
aesthetic viewpoint.
The pillars are finely decorated according to exact and
unchanging standards. The main beams are parallel to the main
façade for aesthetic reasons.
The altar occupies an entire wall. It is generally of stone up to
about 1.20 m high and then comprises a series offinelycarved
w o o d e n niches and shelves which are painted. T h e statues of the
deities are placed on the altar.
The other walls are painted above a 1.50 m high skirting
board.
If the temple has twofloors,the head lama's living quarters
are on the upper floor together with a smaller sanctuary for the
'defending deities' and the library. All the sacred objects are kept
permanently in this part of the temple.

Construction of the temple

Building materials

Stone and clay are always found locally. According to the altitude
of the villages, the species of trees used as timber varies :
Pine: Pinus smithsiana (Nepali: Salla).
Tsuga: Tsuga dumosa (Nepali: Thingra salla; Tibetan: kit).
Fir: Abies spectabilis (Nepali: Gobre salla; Tibetan: Kaltag).
Magnolia : Magnolia campbelli (Nepalese : chap).
Juniper: Juniperus excelsa (Nepalese: dhub; Tibetan: shug-pa).

Foundations

Once the building site has been decided upon, by divinatory

calculations and a religious ceremony, the materials—stones,
unfired bricks, earth and sand for mortar—are stacked near the
site. Usually the foundations are no m o r e than 40 c m to 50 c m
deep. Arable soil mixed with chopped barley straw is used for
making the bricks, which are dried for several days in the sun
before they are used.
Carpentry

T h e w o o d e n door and w i n d o w frames giving onto the porch are

constructed separately; the jambs are decorated with floral
designs. T h e flooring, built separately from the walls, rests on
beams laid directly on the ground.
The pillars are m a d e of a quadrangular shaft about 20 c m to
30 c m square with a slight batter. The capital that tops the pillar is
three-fifths of the latter's height. It thus ensures a sound base and a
better spread of the upper loads. T h e space between the joists
varies from 20 to 25 c m . Quite often they are covered over with
planks upon which the joists supporting the floor of thefirststorey
are placed.
Sequence of the construction work:
1. Building of the ground-floor walls with incorporation of
the door frames.
2. Laying of the pillars, beams and joists with the beams
being set in the walls.
3. Construction of thefirst-floorwalls.
4. Laying of the roofing.

Master builders and

craftsmen
In the K a t h m a n d u Valley the work of building and maintenance is
done by qualified craftsmen belonging to a particular caste,
whereas in the upper regions of Nepal this work is carried out by
non-specialists. In every community, one or two m e n without any
specific qualifications can be found w h o are capable of acting as
foremen {rtsig-dpon).
Because of climatic conditions and the seasonal agro-pastoral
activities, building can be undertaken only at certain periods of the
year. T h e whole community then participates in hauling the
materials and laying the foundations. For the w o o d w o r k , a
carpenter-joiner provides his services only as requested.
Specialization appears in the painting, which only a m o n k can
do. H e is taught to paint by a master and the apprenticeship can
last one or two years. T h e work is varied: murals, painting on
w o o d , paper or textiles, the making of images of deities. Religious
buildings are decorated according to very strict rules.
The walls of the entrance porch and the main temple as well as
the upper part of the chórten gate are usually painted. T h e lower
part u p to a height of 1.50 m is coloured brown, with above it
a frieze and a series of images of divinities. T h e inner walls and
w o o d w o r k of the temple are also painted.
Beforehand there is a lengthy preparation of the surface to be
painted :firstof all, a mixture of two parts clay, one part horse-
dung and a half part fine sand is spread over the surface. This first
coating is smoothed level with a pebble. A second coating of three
parts fine sand and one part clay is then applied and smoothed
over while the wall is still d a m p . The surface then resembles that of
porcelain. Finally, it will be covered with a mixture of kaolin and
glue called a 'wall carpet'.

Stone engraving

The characters are drawn by the m o n k s and the engraving is done

by laymen, often poor people, w h o copy religious phrases such as
Om Mani Padme Hum. The remuneration that they receive from
the donors also represents an increase in merits for the afterlife.

W o o d engraving

S o m e members of the community specialize in w o o d engraving

(par-ba) and possess a set of gouges and chisels for working on
poplar and birchwood, which are well adapted to very delicate
carving. Once engraved, the boards are coated with ink ; sheets of
paper are then pressed on to them in order to obtain prints.

Ownership and maintenance

of religious buildings

A temple is owned by a community (village, group of villages) or

by a family. In thefirstcase the entire community is responsible for
the building of the temple and for its upkeep.
Each household contributes hours of labour for the hauling
of materials, the laying of foundations, etc., or gifts in kind (grain,
butter and tea) to feed the w o r k m e n .
Either a m a n or a w o m a n is appointed guardian, konyer (sku-
gnyer), and it is his or her duty to replace the lustral water daily and
offer the butter lamps.
In a monastery, these duties are performed by a m o n k .
 40

"'¿s»****'..

¿S* t f JUPK«|:'> jf

••r - ! 'I I

; r
l B B'¿:í'l:ÍTÍ ^""ïFji

% i
 41

Movable components

Fig. 10. Movable objects as representations of

Altar of the chapel
of Kagar in the Buddha's Body and Speech
valley of Tarap
(Dolpo District).
Above some The importance of these objects cannot be sufficiently stressed :
cupboards there are they are vital to religious practices and procure 'merits' both for
niches where statues
and books are kept. him w h o orders them and for him w h o produces them.
O n the altar are They are the outstanding expression of Tibetan art: whether
seven vases for sacred or profane, they represent a type of decorative research that
lustral water, a is spontaneous and inventive. This particular art is first and
butter lamp and
various ritual foremost sacred, its object being the depiction of religious
objects. principles. In this context, art becomes enlightenment in a visible
form.
Before describing the different kinds of object in detail, it
should be remembered that Buddhism gave rise—and continues to
do so—to a vast production of paintings, statues, ritual objects
and books. Paintings and sculpture provide an objective support
for meditation. T h e divinities are represented according to strict
rules. Their proportions, colours, attitudes, gestures and emblems
all correspond faithfully to the descriptions found in religious texts
(iconographical treatises of Indian origin have been translated
into Tibetan). All paintings are a n o n y m o u s . W h e n a painting is
finished a ceremony of consecration is performed.
 42

Paintings

The term thangka (thang-ka), meaning 'that which is unrolled', is

used to designate a pious image regardless of the techniques
involved: painting, embroidery or appliqué. The image is usually
mounted on silk.
Painted thangka are the most frequent. A piece of cotton
material stretched over a frame serves as a canvas. T h e surface
to be painted is coated with a mixture of kaolin and glue derived
from animal skins. It is then carefully smoothed d o w n with a
pebble. T h e artist uses a geometrical network to m a r k out the
images and then proceeds to colour them.
The composition of the thangka follows strict and unchang-
ing rules : in the centre is represented the divinity or the saint. O n a
smaller scale, around the centralfigure,appear the various forms Fig. 11.
the divinity can assume or the minor deities in his train or again a Religious masks
line of teachers or disciples. O n e of the most important gods of the representing the
fierce divinity G u r u
Buddhist pantheon is often represented in the top part of the
Dragpo (red).
thangka. Sometimes the paintings represent pilgrimage centres.
Usually these paintings are covered by a silk or cotton veil
which is raised during ceremonies, meditation sessions or religious
instruction.

Statuary

The sculptor uses either clay or metal. The larger statues are m a d e
of clay or copper sheeting and a wooden core supports the reliefs.
Statuettes in bronze or other alloys are cast by using the lost-wax
process. Bases and emblems are produced separately. The statues
are polychrome or gilded. They are hollow and contain dedication
relics held in place by a copper plate.

Reliquaries

Reliquaries containing the remains of venerable m o n k s are

generally copper or silver chórten embossed with turquoise or
coral. They are usually placed on the altars on the same level as the
statues.
43

wer* v.V

¿y
Ssfttf

-A-*,

^'Sf ^ V Í . ^ % * ? *

iij*
Current ritual objects
These are lustral water bowls, ewers, butter lamps, and objects
pertaining to specific rituals (mándala). They are m a d e of silver,
brass, copper or bone. Most of these objects are produced in the
K a t h m a n d u Valley, where the N e w a r craftsmen are famous for
their artistry.

Musical instruments

Musical instruments are essential to the celebration of rituals;

they include drums, bronze cymbals of various sizes, conches,
metal horns and oboes.

Masks and costumes for sacred dances

Masks used for dancing {'cham) are m a d e of papier mâché and

then painted. Occasionally they are m a d e of w o o d . During the
more important festivals of the religious calendar, masked m o n k s
incarnate the gods.

Furniture

The altar is usually covered with carved and painted wooden

objects.
The shelves on which the m o n k s place the books and the
instruments used during worship are delicately carved and
painted.

Printed works and manuscripts

A book is always held in great veneration, for it represents

Buddha's 'Speech'. Every temple, members of the clergy and some
laymen possess printed works and manuscripts, m a n y of them
produced with great care.
 Each volume is m a d e up of rectangular leaves wrapped in
either silk or cotton cloth and enclosed between two wooden
boards. The books are kept on shelves above the altar. Because of
the onslaught of rodents, insects and dampness, their conservation
is a serious problem. M o r e recently some of the works have also
been sold to tourists leaf by leaf.
The Kanjur (about 100 volumes), the Buddhist scriptures,
and the Tenjur (more than 200 volumes), which includes
commentaries thereon, and treatises on medicine and grammar
are the most important collections of works.
S o m e temples also possess finely engraved woodcuts of
religious texts and divinities used for reproducing texts and
making block prints.
47

A description of some of
the northern Nepal temples

A s w e have seen, Buddhist religious architecture has developed

from a c o m m o n model.
The temples described hereunder have been chosen for their
structural interest, their historical significance for the region, and
their relationship to the h u m a n environment or the site where they
have been built.
They present m a n y different problems which the specialists
responsible for the protection and preservation of the Nepalese
cultural heritage will have to face.
Descriptions of a private chapel, a village temple, a monastic
complex and, where there is one, a pilgrimage centre for each
district under study are given below.
Each district has, of course, its o w n specific problems to face.
These will be described together with the temples themselves.
Naturally an exhaustive study of each building cannot be set
d o w n . The details are to be found in the specific reports. (For the
survey grid which was followed, see Appendices 1 and 2).

Temples of the H u m l a District

H u m l a , located in the extreme north-west of Nepal, is one of the

most isolated districts. T h e thinly populated area is only
marginally cultivated, and as it is in the Himalayan rain shadow it
receives very little precipitation in s u m m e r .
It consists of a series of small endogamic groups living on
terraced slopes, which are respectively at altitudes of 3,000, 3,500
and 4,000 m . The region has approximately 15,000 inhabitants.
 48

These groups of Tibetan-speaking people are distributed as

follows :
O n the east of Simikot: Nying (Nying-ba) also known as Yul-tsho-
bzhi, 'the four groups'.
O n the west of Simikot, on the upper H u m l a Karnali: (a)
Kangung, Sanra, Kalo, Charag; (b) La, Yapga, Tamsim; (c)
T u m p u tsho dun, Yangkar, Yolwang, Puye, Mutsu T u m p u
and Yangrig; and (d) Limi. 1
The valley of Nying was, according to the tradition, a 'hidden
valley' (sbas-yut). A local legend says:

P a d m a s a m b h a v a c a m e from India and stayed in a cave near the present-

day village of Torpa. T h e valley w a s infested by snakes. H e killed them
with his magic dagger (phur-pa). T h e n he went towards the mountain of
Shel-mo-gangs, where he left treasures (gter), asking a fairy (mkha-grd) to
Fig. 12.
watch them.
Humla District:
Milarepa, the famous saint and poet (1040-1123), c a m e to the valley entrance to the
and stayed in the cave where P a d m a s a m b h a v a had meditated. H e had a n grotto of Dru-phug
intuition of the existence of the treasures. W h e n he drew near them, the in Torpa where
fairy threw big rocks at h i m , but they did not hurt the saint; finally Padmasambhava
Milarepa found the treasures, precious stones of s o m e sort in the form of and Milarepa
eggs of very unusual dimensions (phyag-ril), and took possession of them. meditated. The door
opens into the
grotto (4.80 x 5 m )
containing seven
chôrten and a statue
of Padmasambhava.
Limi is of the Dri-gung Ka-gyü-pa sect. A pilgrim's guide to the Tise region
reports that the Dri-gung L a m a Spyan-snga was given Limi by one of the
Malla kings (circa thirteenth century). There are three monasteries in the Limi
valley, one in each village. The main monastery, the largest, is in Alzhi. It is a
two-storey structure with a courtyard in front. It can hold about fifty-five
monks, whose quarters are on the second floor. The monks in Limi live in the
monastery only during a two-to-three month period in winter, when the main
ceremonies occur. Otherwise they live at home and most in fact are either
married monogamously, or are part of fraternal polyandrous arrangements.
Part of the reason for this derives from the method of recruitment of monks.
They are recruited as children on the basis of a tax depending on the status of
the family and the number of male children it has. The upper-strata families
with two sons are required to make one son a m o n k . The lower-strata families
are required to do this only when they have three sons. Thus almost all the
monks have at least one secular married brother.
Each of the villages also has a Mani-lhakhang house which is used
sometimes for ceremonies. The monks claim that as recently as two
generations ago the rule of celibacy was maintained and frequently comment
on the deterioration of religion. The real reasons go deep. But they are trying
to maintain their traditions, and thefinefor a m o n k not attending the winter
prayer session is the price of one yak, in Limi a sum of about 2,500 rupees.
(Communication from M . Goldstein, Professor of Anthropology, Case
Western University, Cleveland, United States.)
The m o n k s belong to the non-reformed Nying-ma-pa order and
the higher social classes. Their religious existence is c o m -
plementary to their daily activities. Moreover, religion and wealth
endow them with the necessary authority in the present structure
of the Panchayat system, in which they have important functions.
The temple, which is an integral part of the house, is located
for religious reasons on the top floor.
T w o exceptions exist: the sanctuary grotto of Dru-phug,
where P a d m a s a m b h a v a and Milarepa lived and meditated; and
the famous pilgrimage site on the sacred mountain of Shel-mo-
gang that is guarded in turn by the lamas of the valley.
The area is interesting from the cultural point of view, as
Buddhism, Hinduism and local beliefs co-exist side by side.
Hinduism has penetrated the upper valley of the Karnali,
and the activities are concentrated in the shrine of Karpunath
located at the confluence of the H u m l a Karnali and the D o t s a m
Khola. M a h a d e v is worshipped in a vast cave where stone
representations of the god are enshrined. T h e main festival on
M a g h Sankranti attracts villagers from the whole region.
 50

Fig. 13.
Barungse, G o m p a
G o n g (Humla
District). Village
temple, third-floor
plan. (In these plans
the large black circle
marks the place of
the statue of the
Buddha.)

Fig. 14.
Raling G o m p a
(Humla District).
Pilgrimage centre.
Ground-floor plan
of temple.

One level below >*

the Gompa \#;

0 1 2 3 4 5rr
51

M o r e important are the religious beliefs linked with local

gods and the local dynasty. Kalashilto, Loasor, Masta and
Barapale, four brothers, protect the valley ; each is embodied in a
medium, dhami. Kalashilto, whose shrine is located above the
upper settlement of Simikot at the place of an old palace of the
Koleal kings, is the eldest of the four gods and also the most
venerated and powerful.
According to the tradition, Kalashilto, the protective divinity
of the region, came from the Indian town of Benares (Kashi). In
Simikot lived a d e m o n w h o destroyed the crops and used to eat
people. A king of the Koleal lineage, having heard of the power of
Kalashilto, sent one of his assistants to bring him to Simikot, and
he killed the d e m o n .
The four dhami priests of the divinities m a k e offerings
four times a year on the full m o o n of the months of Saun (July-
August), M a g h (January-February), Baisakh (April-May), Kartik
(October-November).

Village temple of Barungse

The temple of Barungse (or Drangsheb in local dialect), called
G o m p a G o n g (dgon-pa gong), is situated high above the village,
and is the residence of the lama caretaker. All the Buddhist
temples in the area are of the same type.
The building follows the local domestic scale and design,
withflatterraced roofs. It is constructed on a rectangular plan
(9 m x 15 m ) , the walls are m a d e of stones bedded with mortar.
The chapel, located on the upper storey (third level), is small
(4.70 x 5.40 m ) and faces south. The altar is on the eastern side.
Four posts support the ceiling and roof above. The wall paintings
are of mediocre quality. The chapel is used by the lama for his
daily worship and twice a year for village festivals.

Temple of Raling
Rating (Ra-gling) is considered the most sacred place in Nying. It
is a place of pilgrimage in H u m l a , and Padmasambhava and
Milarepa are associated with it, both having spent some time near
the mountain Shel-mo-gangs. The sacred mountain can be
circumambulated along three different itineraries in summer. The
path is marked out by stone slabs stuck in the ground and heaps of
white stones.
The temple of Ralings stands at an altitude of 4,000 metres in
a barren landscape under the high peak of Shel-mo-gangs ; it is set
 m0r*

on a southern slope. T h e temple and the lama-caretaker's dwelling Fig. 15.

occupy a surface of 13.80 x 8.20 m . T h e walls are built of stones; Raling G o m p a
(Humla District).
bonding timbers have been inserted at regular intervals to re- Southern façade. O n
establish the levels. the right, the
T h e flat roof is covered with a thick layer of clay banked at caretaker's living
the edges to control the flow of rain water or melted snow. A quarters; on the left,
entrance to the
porch, supported by three pillars, gives access to the assembly hall temple.
(6 x 5.40 m ) .
T h e interior follows the plan of four central pillars supporting
the ceiling, the altar being opposite the entrance door. T h e
caretaker's dwelling is located in the western portion of the
building on the first floor. T o the south-east there is a cave where
Milarepa is said to have meditated.

Shrine of Kalashilto (a local divinity)

T h e shrine of Kalashilto is located to the north of the village of

Simikot, close to some very old carved stones and the remains of a
monumental fountain. T h e shrine is a rectangular construction
(9 x 6.20 m ) with a flat roof open to the southern side. T h e
entrance porch has six carved pillars. Inside, in the centre, four
pillars delimit a sacred space to which only the priest in charge,
pujari, has access.
 53

Fig. 16.
Simikot (Humla
District). Kalashilto
temple. Ground-
floor plan.

Fig. 17.
Simikot (Humla
District). Kalashilto
temple. Main
façade.

Fig. 18.
Simikot (Humla
District). Kalashilto
temple. Detail of
carved pillars with
geometrical designs.
 54

The temples or domestic chapels of the District of H u m l a Fig. 19.

Muktinâth
need maintenance, and proper guidance must be provided to the
(Mustang District).
lamas in charge. Perspective sketch
Until n o w the isolation of the H u m l a and neighbouring of the site :
districts has been a factor of conservation, but there is a risk that it (1) way of
will handicap preservation. In fact, the inhabitants travel more circumambulation,
(2) holy spring,
readily to northern India, where they are tempted to sell cultural
(3) temple of
objects and import materials that are too new for them to be able Vishnu/Lokeswar
to master their use. and the 108 springs,
(4) shrine of the
serpent divinity,
(5) Salamebar
Dolamebar temple,
(6) group of
chórten, (7) prayer-
Temples of the Mustang District walls, (8) temple of
G o m p a Sarwa,
(9) imprints of
In the Mustang District, the valley of Kali-Gandaki has been the Padmasambhava,
line of communication and zone of contact between India, Nepal (10) temple of
and central Asia. Tibetan influence, cultural, religious, political M a r m e Lhakhang,
(11) sacred forest,
and technical, reached as far south as the T h a k region. T h e
(12) and (13)
customs, traditions and art are Tibetan and the history of the shelters for pilgrims,
district is intimately linked with religion. (14) temple, (15)
Since 1960 the social, cultural and economic situation of police check-post,
(16) shelter for
the Buddhist population has undergone a series of changes.
pilgrims (Raipowa)
Traditionally, an important trade, flowing across the Himalayas, (17) towards Dzar
provided opportunity for economic, social and religious contacts. village.
This trade has slowed d o w n , but adjustments to the changed
political situation have occurred. The religious institutions have,
however, been maintained.
The upper part of the Mustang District (classical Tibetan :
glo-sman-thang) is under the control of the Sa-kya-pa sect. A
religious revival took place through the zeal of the n G o r sub-sect
of the Sa-kya, founded by L a m a Kun-dga bzang-po (1382-1457).
According to the biography of this lama, Buddhism entered
Mustang in thefifteenthcentury.
The Ka-gyü-pa and Nying-ma-pa orders represent another
form of Buddhism, which penetrated at a later date into the region
and became established in the southern part.
It is moreover surprising to find in the district a series of B o n -
po shrines. This religion, an adaptation of indigenous beliefs into a
scheme greatly influenced by Buddhism, has followers in two
villages of the area. Pilgrims and lamas from K h a m s founded
these communities. Luprag, north-east of J o m o s o m , is the main
centre of this B o n - p o order.1
55

U p to today there is a survival of the ancient beliefs, an

original religion uninfluenced or influenced very slightly by
Buddhism. In addition, some ancient beliefs linked with the cult of
clan ancestors, a truly autochthonous religion, still exist.
The temples of Muktinâth, a pilgrimage centre where
emanations of natural gas have long been worshipped, will be
described successively. T h e n will follow a description of the
monastery and village temple of D z o n g , which are incorporated
into the fortress that dominates the village. Lastly the monasteries
of Kutsapternga and Cherok will be described.

1. The Bon-po lamas have contacts with members of the same order in Dolpo
and Tichurong (Tarakot), and in winter go to Mussorie in India where there is
now an important Bon-po centre. There are smaller Bon-po temples in Dzar,
Jomosom, Thini and Nabrikung, above Larjung.
The inhabitants of Luprag and Thini are Bon-po. It seems that the
proximity of the sacred cave of Guru Sang-phug below the Dhaulagiri glacier
is the reason for the presence of a Bon-po temple in Nabrikung.
Temples of Muktinath

The valley of Muktinath, oriented east-west, lies to the north-west

of the Nilgiri-Annapurna Range. This valley is k n o w n as Dzar-
dzong yul drug: 'Dzar-dzong and the other villages, six in all'.
There are three important villages on each side of the torrent,
Muktinath being located high above them. Going upstream from
Kagbeni one reaches on the right bank Khyingkar, Dzar and
Purang; on the left bank are located Chônkor, Putra and Dzong.
Dzong was originally the seat of the 'king' of the valley. O n e
of the kings moved to Dzar and today the village leader is a
m e m b e r of the royal lineage.
The houses of the villages are clustered together near the
cultivatedfields,and the settlements and irrigation channels stand
out against a landscape of rocks and brown barren earth.

The Muktinath pilgrimage sites. Muktinath is a famous place of

pilgrimage for Hindus w h o worship Vishnu and Brahma, and
Buddhists w h o honour Padmasambhava.
In the Hindu tradition, Muktinath is named Muktichhetra,
the 'place of salvation', and to bathe there gives salvation after
death. Brahma m a d e an offering in Muktinath by lighting afireon
water, these two elements being normally incompatible.
This sacredfirestill burns on water, stones and earth in the
temple of Jwala M a i . Padmasambhava visited the place and spent
some time in meditation. The eighty-four Great Magicians,
(siddha) on their way to Tibet left their pilgrim staffs, which grew
into poplars surrounding the shrine.
The pilgrimage place, located at 3,800 m , is on a west-facing
mountain slope. A grove of poplar trees indicates its location in an
otherwise treeless landscape.
The religious buildings and various shrines are scattered
about at an altitude of between 3,700 and 3,980 m . (See Fig. 19.)

The 108 sacred springs (Fig. 19, N o . 3). T h e water of a sacred

spring flows through 108 spouts m a d e of gilded copper or brass in
the shape of bull heads. These spouts, embedded in a wall two
metres high, have been given the Tibetan n a m e : Chumig gyatsa
(Chu-mig brgya-rtsa) ('Place of the hundred springs').
The water then flows through a grove of poplar trees and
operates some prayer-wheels. Pilgrims drink a few drops of water
and take a ritual bath.
 57

Fig. 20.
Muktinâth
(Mustang District).
Temple of
Vishnu/Lokeswar. The temple of Vishnu/Lokeswar (Tibetan: spyan-ras gzigs klu-
Ground-floor plan. khang rgyal-pu) (Fig. 19, N o . 3). This temple, which is free-
standing in a courtyard adjacent to the 108 springs, is built in the
traditional Newari style (5.55 x 5.55 m ) .
The temple has three projecting roofs in diminishing tiers.
The topmost roof is capped with a gilded brass pinnacle.
The design and details of the temple and roof construction are
basically the same as in the Newari buildings.
The temple contains images of Vishnu (which the Tibetans
call Avalokitesvara), Laksmi, Sarasvati and the Garuda bird,
Vishnu's mount.

Salamebar Dolamebar Gompa (Nepalese : Jwala M a i ; Tibetan : Sa-

la me- 'bar rdo-la me- 'bar dgon-pa, 'The temple of the miraculous
fire') (Fig. 19, N o . 5). T h e temple is rectangular in plan
(exterior dimensions: 9.40 x 6.40 m ) . The walls are in rough stone
bedded in a thin m u d mortar.

Fig. 21._
Muktinath.
Temple of
Salamebar
Dolamebar.
Ground-floor plan.
Fig. 22.
Muktinâth
(Mustang District).
Temple of
Vi shnu/Lokes war.
T o the left: the 108
springs. T o the
right : shelter for
pilgrims.

Fig. 23._
Muktinath
(Mustang District).
Temple of
Vishnu/Lokeswar.
Interior of the
shrine.
Centre : a statue of
Vishnu/Lokeswar
flanked by Laksmi
and Sarasvati. In
the foreground : the
Garuda bird, vehicle
of Vishnu.
59

Fig. 24._
Muktinath
(Mustang District).
Salamebar
Dolamebar, terraced
roof with lantern.
North-eastern
façade.

Fig. 25._
Muktinath
(Mustang District).
Salamebar
Dolamebar. Altar
and statue of
Avalokitesvara. O n
the lowest level: the
shrine where natural
gas burns.
 60

The roof isflat,supported by four pillars and a structure of

main beams on which the joists rest. There is a small lantern above
the area delimited by the four pillars. A parapet protects the
vulnerable point of junction between the wall and the roof.
The interior walls are plastered and decorated with wall
paintings. The groundflooris m a d e of w o o d and laid loosely over
joists which are set directly onto the earth.
O n the altar are statues of Padmasambhava, Avalokitesvara
and Vajradhara. Natural-gas flames burn in small recesses under
the altar; on the left 'the earth burns', in the middle 'water burns',
on the right 'stone burns'. Water runs beneath the temple and
comes out through a pipe on the western side.

The temple of M arme Lhakhang (Mar-me lha-khang : 'temple of the

lamps') (Fig. 19, N o . 10). M a r m e Lhakhang is located north-
east of the site beyond the grove of poplars. It is a two-storeyed
building (16 x 8 m ) with a courtyard and an entrance porch. T h e Fig. 26.
roof is terraced. The walls are m a d e of r a m m e d earth and random M a r m e Lhakhang:
eastern façade. O n
bonded stones. In the assembly hall, four pillars support the
the right, the lantern
ceiling. The whole building is very dilapidated and in need of gives light to the
urgent repair. temple proper.

~:^\'*~>:

h&
 Ji^ïpgipS!:

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7«*pfii
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ma*-
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Fig. 27.
Muktinâth
(Mustang District).
M a r m e Lhakhang.
Southern façade.

Fig. 28,
Muktinâth
(Mustang District).
M a r m e Lhakhang.
Ground-floor plan.

0 1 2 3 4 5ir
i... i j t.
 62

The temple of Gompa Sarwa (dgon-pa gsar-pa: ' T h e n e w Fig. 29._

monastery') (Fig. 19, N o . 8). G o m p a Sarwa, built only forty Muktinath
(Mustang District).
years ago, is n o w in very bad condition. The building complex G o m p a Sarwa.
includes a courtyard with a kitchen, several rooms and a main two- There is a courtyard
storeyed temple. ' in front of the
Access to the assembly hall is u p a flight of steps. A series of temple. In the
foreground: prayer-
pillars supports part of the façade of the upper storeys. A double walls.
door, the framework of which is finely carved and painted, leads
to the interior.
The assembly hall (10.70 x 18.50 m ) is divided in half by a
wooden partition m a d e of carved panels. The northern part of the
hall is separated from the external wall by a deambulatory ; it is
possible to walk around this part of the shrine. O n the altar are
terra-cotta images of Sakyamuni, to the right Padmasambhava
1. The temple was built on the model of the one in Tradum, Autonomous
Region of Tibet.
 63

,? *. //» $ %

f
-•-• .«,y¡*~ , ' -,..- * s,f /"< - ' 7 p.

F<g. JO.
Muktinâth, G o m p a
Sarwa. Details of
the ceiling structure.

Fig. 31.
Muktinâth, G o m p a
Sarwa. Details of
the structure.

Fig. 32.
Muktinâth
(Mustang District).
G o m p a Sarwa.
Ground-floor plan. 0
t
1
. 1 . ...j
2
..i
3 4
i..
5m
.j
 65

<Fig. 33. Fig. 34.

Muktinath Muktinath. Gompa
(Mustang District). Sarwa : statue of
Gompa Sarwa: Padmasambhava.
carved temple door
surmounted with
lion heads.
66
 67

^Fig. 35.
G o m p a Sarwa:
wooden screen made
of carved panels.

Fig. 36.
Muktinath, G o m p a
Sarwa: wooden
screen separating
the two parts of the
assembly hall.

and on the left Avalokitesvara. T w o chorten represent the Jowo of

Kyirong.
All the temples of Muktinath are cared for by nuns or old
w o m e n from the villages of Dzar, Purang and Khyinkar; they
belong to the Nying-ma-pa order and receive donations from the
three villages and from the pilgrims. A Hindu priest from R a k h u
(near Beni) acts as pujari for the Hindu devotees. T h e main
religious festival is held on the full m o o n of the seventh month of
the Tibetan calendar: Yartôn {dbyar-stori), in August-September.
 68

Monastery of Dzong Fig. 38.

D z o n g : northern
side of the ruined
D z o n g (rdzong) (Survey of India: Chohang), which means fortress of R a b -
'fortress' in Tibetan, is the largest of the six villages of Dzar- rgya!-rtse. T h e
Dzong-Yul drug. It was originally called the 'Peak of Supreme monastery is located
.Victory' (Rab-rgyal rise). The ruins of the fort are impressive in on the highest level
to the right.
their dominating positions. D z o n g was the seat of the chief of the
whole valley. Fig. 39.
The monastery is built inside the fort at the highest level and Dzong (Mustang
is the only building still in fairly good condition. The religious District).
establishment belongs to the Sa-kya-pa (Ngor-pa) sect. T h e Monastery: altar.
building (ext. dim. : 15 x 13.30 m ) is an intricate complex of rooms
at two levels, mostly m o n k s ' dwellings and kitchens. ' T h e walls
are m a d e of r a m m e d earth. The assembly hall (9.35 x 12.50 m ) on
the lower level is open in the centre to thefirstfloor and then by a
lantern to the flat roof. O n the altar there are statues of
Sakyamuni and L a m a Tenzing Repa.
T h e hall is painted with murals of great beauty, though in a
poor state of preservation.
The upper level is divided into a kitchen used during
important ceremonies, and the chapel dedicated to the defending
divinities. This g o m p a of historical importance is in need of urgent
repair.

Fig. 37.
D z o n g (Mustang
District). Monastery
temple: ground-
floor plan of the
assembly hall.

1. There are only three rooms in good condition today.

"UiÉiïï
 70

973 extension

2 3 4 5rr
 71

Monastery of Kutsapternga

The monastery of Kutsapternga (sku-tshab gter-nga): 'Five

treasures of Bodily Representation') is located on a level site at an
altitude of 3,000 m on a spur dominating the valley to the north-
east of M a r p h a with a beautiful view of the Kali Gandaki valley.
Until 1973, the temple with its courtyard and dwellings opened to
the north-east.
The normal approach is from the east by the route from
Thini. O n the way up, the faithful worship a sacred lake and the
imprints left by G u r u Rinpoche. M a n y pilgrims come to the
temple for the annual ceremonies (seventh Tibetan lunar month)
to worship the five treasures brought from the monastery of
Samye in central Tibet.
The assembly hall is very big (9.25 x 7.75 m ; height: 3.30 m )
Fig. 40. and finely decorated. T h e upper parts of the walls are covered
Kutsapternga
with murals: on the left there are the various 'Tranquil' and
(Mustang District).
Monastery: ground- 'Fierce' divinities, and on the right is Padmasambhava in his
floor plan. different manifestations. The lower parts of the walls are painted
brown. T h e lantern is also finely painted.
O n the western side of the altar is a row of images of Maitreya,
a gilded bronze (height: 1.50 m ) , Avalokitesvara (height: 1.50 m ) ,
Vajradhara, Amithaba, Sakyamuni, Padmasambhava.
The most interesting part of the construction is the former
entrance to the north-east with its carved doors, lintels and pillars ;
these and the beams exhibit afinedegree of craftsmanship.
The assembly hall was repainted in 1956. In 1973, the
monastery was extended by the addition of a two-storeyed gallery
on a square plan on the southern side of the main building and at
the same time the terraced roofs were repaired. Outside, to the
north-east, there is a house which serves as a kitchen during
important ceremonies.
A community of m o n k s of the Ka-gyü-pa order is in charge
of the upkeep of the temple. The head lama died in 1972 and has
not yet been replaced. There is no caretaker living in Kutsapternga
(offerings are m a d e on the tenth day of each lunar month).
72

Fig. 41.
Kutsapternga.
Monastery with
newly built section
on the right.

Fig. 42.
Kutsapternga.
Monastery: statue
of Sakyamuni.
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Fig. 43.
Cherok (Mustang
District). Ground-
floor plan of the
monastery.

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Fig. 44. Monastery of Cherok

Cherok. Main
façade of the
monastery looking T h e monastery of C h e r o k (Survey of India: Chairo) is located o n
south-east. the left b a n k of the Kali G a n d a k i , below M a r p h a at a n altitude of
2,680 metres.
Within the monastic c o m p l e x , the temple called S a n g a
Chôling as it stands today, w a s built in the eighteenth century b y
L a m a Sangye. T h e buildings surround a courtyard: the m a i n
temple a n d a lateral chapel o n the north-west, the dwellings of the
m o n k s o n the south-east a n d the kitchen o n the west. A t w o -
storeyed gallery runs along the north-east side. T h e assembly hall
(7.30 x 9.25 m ) is o n a higher level than the courtyard. A statue of
S a k y a m u n i stands in the centre of the altar. In the adjacent chapel
there is a 3-metre-high statue of P a d m a s a m b h a v a .
O n c e a n important monastic centre, the temple has n o w only
four n u n s acting as caretakers.

T h e District of M u s t a n g is changing rapidly a n d tourism is having

a n ever greater impact. This could be a n opportunity to develop a
p r o g r a m m e of conservation in a region w h e r e the m o n u m e n t s are
of historical a n d cultural value.
76

Fig. 45.
Cherok. Monastery:
north-east side of
the courtyard.
 77

Fig. 46.
Cherok. Monastery:
altar in the
assembly hall.

Fig. 47.
Cherok. Monastery:
detail of mural
painting.
78

Fig. 48.
Cherok. Monastery:
detail of altar.

Fig. 49.
Cherok. Statue of
Padmasambhava in
the side chapel.
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Temples of the Sindhu-Palchock District
In the Sindhu-Palchock District, the small area of Helambu, or
Y o l m o in the local Tibetan dialect, lies to the north-east of the
valley of K a t h m a n d u . It contains a series of temples usually
associated with the founding clans. They are temple-houses quite
distinct from such more recent buildings as, for example, the
village temple of Tarkegyang, rebuilt in 1969, which does not
follow the local model and for which foreign building materials
were used.
The villages are located on the mountain slopes in groups of
five to ten houses. In Gangkharka and Tarkegyang the houses are
pressed close to one another and built in rows along the altitude
line. These villages are certainly the oldest in Helambu. Several
villages are located on a ridge running south-north along the
Ganjala Range, and the region is bounded by the rivers Melamchi
on the west and the Indrawati on the east. Helambu comprises
traditionally '500 households'.
In contrast with the H u m l a and Mustang Districts, the
m o n s o o n is a dominating feature in Helambu, which is one of the
regions of Nepal where rainfall is the heaviest, in s u m m e r as high
as 2,000 m m .
Helambu was a 'hidden valley' and considered sacred. It was
'opened' by L a m a Ra-chan Ca-kya bzang-po, w h o came from
Tibet. Prior to L a m a Ra-chan's arrival, Saint Milarepa is said to
have spent a period of his life meditating in a cave near
Tarkegyang.
The inhabitants of Helambu call themselves Sherpa. They are
of Tibetan stock, anthropologically and culturally. This society is
divided into a number of exogamic lineages. Until recently
marriage outside the group was not only unusual but practically
impossible. There seems to be general agreement about the origin
of the Helambu lineages. Their ancestors came from Kyirong in
southern Tibet, afive-daywalk away.
The members of the community are all followers of the
Nying-ma-pa sect and religion seems to be 'a family affair'. The
lamas lead a secular life. Religious instruction is given by a
relative.
A n important religious development took place in 1935 with
the creation of the monastery of Bagang by the Bhutanese lama
Sherab Dorje of the Drug-pa Ka-gyü-pa sect. This lama spent his
life building temples, monasteries and monumental prayer-wheels
in Tibet (Kyirong), Bhutan and Nepal (Tsum, Bagang and Bigu).
Another important event happened in 1959 w h e n Tibetans,
mainly lamas, left Tibet and settled in the border districts of the
Nepalese Himalayas. Helambu was one of the places where they
could find shelter in Buddhist communities whose language was
similar to theirs.
The village temples, called Gyang in local dialect and the
T a m a n g language, are under the direction of a head lama, k n o w n
as the Tika L a m a . H e is a married village priest and is assisted in
the running of the G y a n g by a group of villagers, the Goba
('headmen'). T h e office of the Tika L a m a is hereditary, the line
of inheritance being from father to eldest son. Within these
hereditary lineages the male offspring are referred to as 'clan
lamas'.
In some cases the villages grew u p around the temple.
Whereas the early Gyang were originally given guthi, land grants,
by the Malla and Shah kings to provide for their upkeep, the later
ones are supported by the villagers themselves.

Lhakhang Gyang
Lhakhang G y a n g is a village temple situated in one of the most
beautiful parts of the whole region. It is set on a north-eastern
slope at an altitude of 2,800 m , against a background of a fine
forest and overlooking the valley of the Indrawati, k n o w n as the
Ripar valley. T h e temple has a few scattered chôrten and mani-
walls around it and the ruins of a village abandoned two
generations ago and m o v e d to another site lower d o w n the valley.
The weather conditions in this valley are extremely inclement and
there are at least six months of mist, rain and snow, the latter often
falling to a depth of one metre.
It is the temple of the villages of Gangkharka (thirty-eight
houses) and Pangthang (twelve houses). L a m a Sarki is in charge of
the ritual. T h e structure follows a typical Sherpa pattern : w h e n
one faces the main façade the temple is to the left of the attached
caretaker's house. T h e walls are of split stone that is random
coursed, bedded in m u d mortar and set on a low platform. T h e
cross wall is of a similar construction. T h e main entrances to the
temple and the living quarters are on the south. W i n d o w s and
doors open on to the east but the two remaining walls are blank.
The roof coverings are w o o d shingles laid on split battens which
are set on unhewn purlins. T h e portico gives access through a
double door to a chapel. S o m e time during its construction some
alteration appears to have been m a d e to it. T h e original opening
must have been m u c h wider and this has recently been half
bricked; also the supporting pillars and brackets are all of
different styles.
 82

Fig. 50.
23 Level 2 Lhakhang G y a n g
(Sindhu-Palchock
District). Village
temple. Plan of
ground and first
Level 1 floors.
 83

Fig. 51. The chapel interior, which is finely decorated with murals,
Lhakhang Gyang. pillars, brackets and carved and painted beams, follows the
Foreground, prayer-
wall and chôrten; traditional plan of four central pillars supporting a painted ceiling
centre, building that and with the altar on the wall opposite the entrance door. O n the
formerly housed the altar, built against the wall facing the entrance, there are statues of
pilgrimage kitchen. P a d m a s a m b h a v a and the founder lama, Drug Tenzing N g a w a n g
Namgyal.
The dwelling consists of a storage room, a kitchen and
quarters for pilgrims on the groundfloorand on thefirstfloor the
caretaker's living quarters, which are set behind a large projecting
verandah opening to the south. T h e quarters consist of a guest
room, kitchen, living r o o m and the caretaker's bedroom.
 84

Fig. 52.
Chure Gyang
(Sindhu-Palchock
District). Village
Level 2 temple. Plan of the
ground and first
floors (by F.
Morillon and P.
Level 1 Thouveny, 1977).
85

The temple of Chure Gyang

The temple of Chure Gyang, of particular historic interest, is

situated about ten minutes' walk below the village of Tarkegyang.
It is set on an east-facing slope in a small forest.
This temple is considered to be one of the oldest in the region
of Helambu. It was founded by L a m a Nagtsang Sakya Zangpo
(sNag-chang Sha-kya bzang po) at the beginning of the eighteenth
century. Although partly damaged by the 1934 earthquake, the
upper storey has been rebuilt; the chapel and the artefacts in it are
some of the oldest andfinest.The building is larger than the usual
private temple and has a secondary chapel above the main hall. It
conforms to the standard layout with the lamas dwelling on the
right side of the temple.
The walls are constructed of split stone. T h e front elevation
contains carved windows obviously brought from K a t h m a n d u , as
were the decorated porch frames. A window on the east wall gives
light to the dwelling on thefirstfloor.
The exterior walls are whitewashed and the roof is of wooden
shingles.

West
Cm • - s

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"t*!'/*^

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 87

Fig. 54. T h e interior of the temple, which is accessible through an

Chure Gyang. open porch, is a well-proportioned r o o m with fine decorations
Ceiling of the
portico. and carvings o n the central pillars and brackets above.
O n the altar there are statues of P a d m a s a m b h a v a (the head
w a s m a d e in Tibet), Vajrapani and the Tama w h o founded the
temple.
T h e whole building is set o n a one-metre high platform. In
front there is a small flagged courtyard with a collection of
religious banners and a spring.

The temple of Tarkegyang

T h e temple of Tarkegyang, 'the temple of the 100 horses', w a s

established around 1727 by L a m a N y i m a Senge. H e w a s a lama
from Kyirong and received land from the N e w a r king Jaya
Jagatjaya Malla of Kantipur ( K a t h m a n d u ) in return for stopping
an epidemic in 1723. A biography of L a m a N y i m a Senge gives
m o r e information about the foundation of this temple.
A long time ago an epidemic broke out in the Kathmandu Valley, in
Yerang (Patan). The Newar kingfinallycalled a lama w h o was said to
have great powers. L a m a Nyima Senge of the Ten-gi Ling-pa lineage
performed the sku-rim ceremony and the epidemic stopped at once. The
Fig. 55. king wanted to reward the lama and asked what was his wish. The lama
Chure Gyang. Wall asked for a hundred horses and took them to a place which was called
paintings of the from then on Tarke: 'the 100 horses'. The lama's wife suggested that he
temple portico. also ask for land as there was not enough pasture land for the horses. The
Guardian divinities
of the four quarters. lama went to the king and asked for land, and was given a place called
Lang-ri gya-sa.

This lamafirstestablished a hermitage o n the ridge called Yangri-

m a above the present village of Tarkegyang and a few years later
built a shrine of s o m e importance. T h e present temple w a s rebuilt
in 1969 and follows what is locally called the 'Bhutanese' style with
two-tiered roofs capped with a small pinnacle, the entrance porch
being protected by a canopy.
T h e structure stands o n a low platform, protected by the
overhanging roof. It has two storeys (exterior dimensions:
16.40 x 12 m ) . T h e walls are built of local stone and are externally
plastered and whitewashed. W i n d o w , door and porch frames are
of timber. T h e roof is covered with corrugated sheeting.
T h e upper structure rests o n four pillars supporting the
intersecting beams. T h e internal walls of the porch, assembly hall
and chapel are plastered and painted. These paintings have been
coated with a poor quality varnish.
 88

Fig. 56.
Tarkegyang
^3" (Sindhu-Palchock
District). Village
temple: cross-
section and ground-
floor plan (by F.
Morillon and P.
Thouveny, 1977).
 89

South

West

0 1 2 3 4 5 IT

Fig. 57.
Tarkegyang. Village
temple: southern
and western façades
(by F. Morillon and
P. Thouveny, 1977).
 90

Opposite the entrance, the altar supports a statue of Fig. 58.

P a d m a s a m b h a v a . The temple possesses a series a series of religious Tarkegyang. Temple
books, a collection of the 108 volumes of the Kanjur (Narthang and village.
imprint).
In front of the temple there is a space where prayer flags are
erected. At the south side a big prayer-wheel has been set up in a
separate building.

There is hardly a building in the District of Sindhu-Palchock that

does not suffer from the effects of humidity and lack of
maintenance. Most buildings show the effects of earthquakes.
Rapid salvaging action should be taken in this region, linked
with a training programme in restoration for the religious
community.
Temples of Solu-Khumbu District

The S o l u - K h u m b u District comprises three regions: K h u m b u ,

Pharak and Solu. K h u m b u fans out round the Everest Massif
from the Chinese border to the south of the confluence of the
D u d h Kosi and the Bothe Kosi. T h e small region of Pharak is
immediately south of K h u m b u , and lower still Solu (in Sherpa:
Shorung) encompasses the valley of the Solu river.
The local economy is based on the breeding of yak and its
hybrids and on potato-growing, but these resources are not
enough to m a k e the inhabitants self-sufficient throughout the
year. In recent years, tourism has brought extra resources.
N a m c h e Bazar (Nawoche), K h u m j u n g and K h u n d e are
located between the D u d h Kosi and the Bhote Kosi : Phortse is in
the upper D u d h Kosi Valley, Pangboche and Dingboche are
located in the Imja Khola, while in the upper Bhote Kosi are
located T r a m o , T h a m e and Thameteng. N a m c h e Bazar has
become fairly important since the expansion of tourism.
The dwellings are built on a rectangular plan with stone walls,
usually double-storeyed. T h e roofs in two sections are covered
with shingles held d o w n with big stones. In some houses there is a
chapel with an altar an panelled walls decorated with paintings.
Temples and religious buildings as well as shrines and prayer-
wheels are found in all the villages.
Sherpa tradition says that the Sherpas immigrated from
eastern Tibet between 400 and 500 years ago and some clans
settled in the K h u m b u area at that time. M o r e recently there
have been important migrations within Nepal so that there are
numerous Sherpa settlements to the east of the D u d h Kosi. T h e
progressive development of the religious movement and insti-
tutions has for a long time occurred in direct liaison with Tibetan
monasteries.
The Sherpas have a clear sense of distinct identity that sets
them apart from the other high-altitude dwellers of Tibetan stock
along the main Himalayan range.
A village constitutes a community of families, linked by
kinship, which makes it possible to take concerted action for the
general organization of the agro-pastoral and religious activities.
Today the panchayat system has replaced the former system of
village administration based on the principle that all authority is
delegated to officials elected for a limited period of time. These
panchayat members can, however, still call public meetings to
discuss the more important problems.
 The villagers participate in the religious festivals which are
celebrated in the village temple. The officials of the temple are
responsible for the organization of the ceremonies, for the
administration of the temple funds and income and for the
maintenance of the buildings. In strict rotation, the householders
have specific tasks to perform during the religious ceremonies.
According to C . von Fürer-Haimendorf, 'Buddhist thought and
practice has gradually permeated the Sherpa w a y of life; the
pattern of behaviour and the moral precepts characteristic of
Tibetan Buddhist civilization govern the conduct of both wordly
and spiritual affairs'.
According to local tradition, the foundation of the oldest
settlements in K h u m b u is ascribed to L a m a Sanga Dorje (gsang-ba
rdo-rje) w h o in his twelfth incarnation was the head lama of
the D z a R o n g p h u (rdza-rong-phu) monastery north of M o u n t
Everest. L a m a Sanga Dorje, w h o founded the temples of
Pangboche, Kyirog and Rimishung, is considered the patron of
K h u m b u ; he left m a n y traces of his presence during his stay
in Tengboche, Pangboche and Dingboche. (His remains, eyes,
tongue and heart, are enshrined in a silver casket preserved in
Pangboche temple).
Seasonal and domestic rituals are performed in the village
temples by the lamas, w h o m a y have been novices for some time in
one of the monasteries. Once a year they practise seclusion and
meditation in a hermitage in the region. D . A . Snellgrove, in
Buddhist Himalaya, points out that the establishment of monas-
teries in Solu as well as in K h u m b u is a recent phenomenon.
The most important monasteries are Tengboche and T h a m e
in the K h u m b u region. Tengboche was founded in 1923 by L a m a
Gulu, w h o only devoted himself to religion at an advanced age. H e
studied in Tibet and settled in K h u m j u n g before starting the build-
ing of the monastic complex in Tengboche. The temple collapsed
during the 1934 earthquake and L a m a Gulu died shortly after.
It was rebuilt with the help of the villagers of K h u m b u . Since
its foundation, m a n y young m e n have come to the monastery to be
initiated. S o m e left to take up secular occupations. In 1930 L a m a
Gulu founded, also in Deboche, a settlement for nuns situated
half-an-hour's walk from Tengboche.
The second monastery in importance in K h u m b u is located in
T h a m e . In 1920, L a m a Tundu, a descendant of a line of lamas
from T h a m e , built the monastery above the village of T h a m e O g .
In Solu, monastic institutions were created in Jiwong,
Takshindo, Tolaka, Kole Thodung and, recently, in N o p u n g near
Junbesi.
The temple of Pangboche

The trail from Tengboche to Pangboche runs north along the Imja
Khola through a forest of juniper and rhododendrons. A s one
approaches Pangboche the inhabitants' religious fervour is
demonstrated in an increasing number of chôrten, prayer-walls,
carved rocks and prayer-flags. T h e village is divided into two
groups of houses, one at 3,900 m and the other at 4,000 m . Below
the temple terracedfieldsreach d o w n to the river. The houses are
built at the same height as the temple or below it.
According to tradition, Pangboche was founded by L a m a
Sanga Dorje, and local cultural and religious history is closely
related to the life of this lama, w h o was responsible for the spread
of the Buddhist religion in the K h u m b u region. The development
of Pangboche is also connected with that of the settlements of
T h a m e , Rimijung and Kirog, since according to local tradition
these were the first major settlements in this region of the
Himalayas. The presence of L a m a Sanga Dorje is once again
manifested by the imprints of his hands and feet as well as by the
religious motifs he traced on the surrounding rocks.
At the beginning Pangboche was a monastery with seven
religious dwellings. It was only afterwards that it became a
settlement. It consists today of sixty houses. A b o v e the village, at
about 200 m , there are six hermitages facing south just under the
peak of Tawoche, the protective divinity of Pangboche.
The temple is a two-storeyed building facing south-east; in
front it has a courtyard with wooden two-storeyed arcades. Access
to the courtyard is through the doors either to the east or west. The
building itself is set about one metre off the ground and a flight of
steps leads to the portico, formed by a lintel supported by two
pillars.
The walls are constructed of random stone set in a m u d
mortar. The western wall is built into the side of the mountain and
only about three metres of it are exposed. It contains five windows,
two at the lower level and three at the upper level. The east wall is
blank and up against it is set the M a n i dungyur; the main south
elevation contains the large entrance porch.
The upper floor rests on beams that are supported by
brackets and columns. The lantern is also supported by four pillars
with brackets carved in the form of sea monsters.
A double-door opens on to the rectangular-shaped chapel.
The altar is set against the north-west wall. The general layout of
the chapel is of the traditional pattern with four pillars supporting
the upper structure and a lantern.
 94

Fig. 59.
Pangboche G o m p a
(Solu-Khumbu
District). Village
temple. Plan of
ground and first
floors (by W . Korn,
mAm^^/^m^^^^^^^^^ 1977).

W///A^/////M=^S/AW*~=>im.
 95

At the eastern corner of the porch a staircase leads to the

gallery on thefirstfloorwhich gives access to a panelled chapel
containing statues of G u r u Rinpoche, Tsepame and two statues of
the lama of Pangboche ; on either side there are religious texts,
including the Kanjur, on the shelves. The paintings were executed
about thirty years ago. T o complete this description, mention
should be m a d e of a 'Yeti skull and hand' as well as other religious
objects which belonged to L a m a Sanga Dorje.

The temple of Kyangmo Lhakhang (Chauri Kharkha)

This private chapel is located on the main trail from Lukla to

N a m c h e Bazar. Chauri Kharkha is a large natural terrace to the
west of the trail and the chapel is on a raised piece of ground
surrounded by erratic boulders. T h e temple is a two-storey
building with the main chapel on the ground floor beneath the
owners' dwellings.
The chapel is reached through an open porch on the south,
Fig. 60. and the altar faces the entrance on the north wall. T h e chapel
K y a n g m o (Solu-
(10.80 x 8.20 m ) is of typical layout with a grid of four pillars
K h u m b u District).
Private temple: supporting the structure above. It is lit by single windows on the
eastern façade. east and the west. Access to the dwelling above is up steps built on
the western side. T h e wooden window frames are joined by means
of tenons, a type of construction usually found only in older
buildings.
The temple was built about 100 years ago. In the centre of the
altar there is a statue of Guru Rinpoche flanked by racks
containing the Kanjur. O n the eastern side there are two large
statues of Jamyang and G u r u Rinpoche. T h e pillars and consoles
are of interesting design and execution. This temple w a s
constructed by L a m a Kuntu. The present owner, aged 49, is the
grandson of the founder. H e has been given a religious education
and is n o w responsible for the ceremonies.

The monastery of Jiwong

The monastery of Jiwong (Spyi-dbang) is situated on the spur of
the K e m c h e D a n d a at an altitude of 3,000 m commanding a
magnificent view over the Solu valley. It backs on to a ridge
reaching an altitude of 3,500 m near a forest offirand
rhododendron.
At the highest level on the slope the main temple, a school of
theology and the m o n k s ' quarters are situated ; below are another
temple, the M a n i Lhakhang, a private chapel and the nuns'
dwellings.
The monastic complex is surrounded by an encircling wall
with an entrance gate and a chórten. It is of the temple-courtyard
type with the main entrance facing south. The courtyard is reached
up a staircase and through a big portico, with rooms used as cattle
sheds on either side. The upper level of the courtyard has a gallery
along three sides where the faithful stand during important
ceremonies. O n the east side two large rooms serve as the
c o m m u n a l kitchen and the monks' refectory. Access to the temple
is up a flight of steps. A large door opens on to the assembly hall
(11 x 15 m ) , which is decorated withfinemurals and contains on
shelves the volumes of the Kanjur and Tenjur. (D. A . Snellgrove
gives a detailed description in his Buddhist Himalaya, p. 219.) O n
the north side of the hall there is a shrine on a raised platform,
concealed by a screen.
The ceiling over the platform is raised higher than that of the
main ceiling and topped by a further construction with pillars and
a lintel carrying the roof.
The ground floor is covered with short lengths of boards
spanning exposed bearers. A n air space is left below the floor. The
floor of the platform is constructed in the same way.
The walls are plastered from floor to ceiling and are
WA^///////////W

Fig. 61.
Jiwong G o m p a
(Solu-Khumbu
District).
Monastery: ground-
floor plan.

vzzzœzzmi

¡^^^%Aj^m

^Mmmmmmm

«nn^/tn^rzirA
completely covered with murals done in a water-based paint which Fig. 62.
is varnished over. Three walls of the assembly hall are decorated Jiwong G o m p a .
Temple and nouses
but the walls of the shrine arefittedwith shelves to take the of the monks.
religious texts. The screen wall is in trellis-work and there is a small
centrally placed recess for further images. Fig. 63.
O n the upper level, reached by a staircase in the entrance Jiwong G o m p a .
Courtyard of the
porch, there is a series offinelydecorated rooms, a big chapel, and
temple.
a living r o o m for the lama, with the centre opening on to the
assembly hall. O n the south side a decorated r o o m leads to a Fig. 64.
balcony overlooking the courtyard. A small chapel containing Jiwong G o m p a .
images of the protective divinities adjoins this room. Murals on the upper
floor of the galleries
The construction follows a typical form with the grid of four overlooking the
pillars capped with brackets that carry the main beams running outer court.
east-west; these beams support the ceiling joists.
A s an extension to the wall of the courtyard and on three sides
of the temple an ambulatory has been built, so that one can walk
round ; it has simple framed openings.
The walls of the building are m a d e of stones set in m u d
mortar. Immediately beneath the roof the wall is decorated with a
band of circular motifs and projecting false joists.
In 1973 the roof structure was adapted to take a corrugated
iron covering. A complicated framework was m a d e with four main
trusses supporting new purlins.
 Jiwong monastery as it stands today was founded in 1923 by a Fig. 65.
rich Sherpa, L a m a Sangye, w h o endowed it with lands and cattle Jiwong G o m p a .
Murals on the upper
to provide an annual income. At its peak it hadfiftym o n k s . Today floor of the galleries
this number has dwindled to ten, and one has the impression that overlooking the
there is neither guidance nor interest, so the monastery is in a very outer court.
bad state. The school of theology no longer functions. About half
of the m o n k s ' dwellings are in a state of collapse. The m o n k s claim
that they have no support from benefactors or the surrounding
community.
Jiwong, which needs not only technical and financial
assistance from the communities, could become a nucleus of
cultural interest to visitors if the religious life is maintained.

The traditional life-style and culture of the inhabitants of the Solu

K h u m b u region are slowly being undermined by the pressure of
tourism and 'Western influence'. The Sherpas' natural tendency to
follow a lucrative trade and the adventure-seeking tourists w h o
have c o m e to find beautiful scenery and an unusual way of life set a
problem that has to be resolved, particularly with regard to the
religious buildings and their communities. If these people suffer
rapid and uncontrolled Westernization, their culture will quickly
disappear.
The Solu K h u m b u District is a 'test zone' where the
responsible authorities should closely follow developments, as w e
have suggested, so as to avoid both a cultural and a material
decline.
Suggestions for
the conservation
of northern Nepalese
monuments and sites

The preceding accounts underline the problems that must be

solved in the field of conservation and promotion of northern
Nepal's cultural heritage.
The behaviour of m e n imbued with Buddhist philosophy, the
limitations imposed by an exceptional ecological milieu, and the
priorities to be respected in a developing country narrow d o w n the
choice of operations.
Moreover it is an accepted principle that the preservation of a
cultural heritage should never be an obstacle in the struggle for
better living conditions.
Responsibility for cultural matters rests with the village chiefs
and the clergy. The maintenance work on m o n u m e n t s , however, is
undertaken only occasionally. M o r e often than not repairs are
m a d e only w h e n a building is on the brink of total collapse. In
recent years, interest in the preservation of old buildings has
declined. In some cases, it m a y accompany the forsaking of
religious practices.
In the autumn of 1978, during a conversation with the abbot
of the Tengboche monastery, w e suggested various solutions for
the preservation of the monastery. H e replied, 'But what is the use
of a building in perfect condition w h e n there are n o priests to
celebrate divine services?'
Operations should be undertaken at various levels. It is not
for us to intervene in the field of religion. T h e religious circles
themselves are moreover seeking a solution. T h e abbot of
Tengboche has advocated the creation of a Buddhist theological
school at K a t h m a n d u .
The recommendations m a d e here concern only the inventory
of the buildings and their conservation.
 The most important aspect of preservation activities,
although it is not easily quantifiable, is that of changing mental
habits ; in other words, the conversion of those in authority to a
n e w psychological modus operandi. This is an arduous task
because the only direct means is by h u m a n contacts and the
'missionary' spirit of the people in charge of the work. T h e
problem is that of persuading the authorities to accept the concept
of conservation, which is an entirely n e w concept in a developing
country.

The following recommendations for the protection of northern

Nepal's cultural heritage take into account the results of the
H e l a m b u and Solu K h u m b u missions in 1976 and 1977.
First, the creation of a unit to m a k e an inventory of the
cultural property. The unit should include an architect specialized
in restoration, an epigrapher, a specialist in the humanities
(history and ethnology), a photographer specialized in photo-
graphing mural paintings.
The unit's work will consist in the pursuance of a systematic
inventory of cultural property in all the districts of northern
Nepal. (An attempt in this direction has already been m a d e by
sending out questionnaires requesting a description of each site, its
history, and an account of its present condition.)
For each m o n u m e n t and each site a considered statement of
facts is essential in order to draw up guidelines for the restoration
(see Appendix 1, setting forth the observations to be m a d e and
giving advice o n the repairs to be done, and Appendix 2,
containing an inventory index card for movable objects in temples,
chapels and private houses.)
The unit should also compile a list of the craftsmen belonging
to the various corporations, by region and by groups of villages.
These craftsmen will be needed for repair work and they could also
promote local production of objects likely to interest tourists.
Second, the constitution of a special team to intervene in
matters related to the maintenance and restoration of imperilled
m o n u m e n t s . In some regions, protective measures should be taken
immediately, particularly where buildings need to be protected
from rain, or movable objects safeguarded from theft or pillage,
the most vulnerable being paintings, statues and books.
Should the Nepalese Government consider it worthwhile, a
single m o n u m e n t might be selected in each district for restoration
by specialists so as to serve as an example to be followed.
Periodical inspection tours would also fall within the
responsibilities of the team, which could advise the local
authorities after examining with them the problems to be solved.
Third, the establishment of a permanent consultative bureau
where local authorities and chiefs of districts could obtain the
assistance and co-operation of specialists—architects, restorers,
etc.
Fourth, the organization of a campaign aimed at making the
responsible authorities, the general public and the inhabitants of
the northern regions aware of conservation problems by means of
the press and radio, exhibitions and lectures.
Seminars on the theme of conservation and restoration might
be organized. The ' L a m a Desh Darsan' Seminar, for example, has
convened annually fifty to eighty lamas and members of the
Panchayats from some twenty districts of northern Nepal since
1972. This seminar is held in the winter (December-January) and
lasts a week. It gives officials of the H o m e and Panchayat Ministry
of Nepal an opportunity to show all interested visitors not only the
pilgrimage centres but also what has been achieved in the way of
infrastructure and the use of modern technology. This seminar
has already had useful results. Its members visited the H a n u m a n
D h o k a Palace, the restoration of which is being carried out by the
Government of Nepal and Unesco.

In this same spirit, an exhibition presenting the cultural heri-

tage of Nepal—and especially the northern temples (districts
of Mustang, Sindhu-Palchock and H u m l a ) w a s organized in
January 1979 with the co-operation of the Nepalese Department
of Archaeology. During audio-visual sessions, the different
problems of restoration and conservation were broached and
illustrated.
In future, the seminar organized by the H o m e and Panchayat
Ministry could discuss the utilization of new building materials,
with their advantages and pitfalls; the protection of w o o d e n
structures; mural paintings, etc.
Fifth, close liaison should exist between the preservation
specialists and the tourism authorities. Indeed, the m o n u m e n t s of
northern Nepal are nearly always set in an exceptionally beautiful
landscape. Buddhism and the environment are the two poles of
attraction for cultural tourism. M a s s tourism, however, has its
dangers, and safeguarding cultural property without restricting
the flow of visitors has today become an urgent problem and
demands thought.
It would be useful to train some villagers as guides.
Sixth, the legislation specified in the Master Plan for the
Conservation of the Cultural Heritage in the Kathmandu Valley
should be extended to the cultural heritage of northern Nepal with
appropriate modifications. S o m e of the temples could be listed as
'national m o n u m e n t s ' and taken over by the government. Such a
procedure, which has already been adopted in several countries
(for example in Japan), would not be easily accepted by the local
authorities in spite of their awareness of the problem. O n the other
hand, if tourists are sufficiently well-informed, it might induce a
change in their attitude towards works of art which are often
remarkable.
In the past the location of villages and the structure of the
buildings were determined by what one might call 'natural laws'.
Buildings were often grouped together for protection. They were
oriented for m a x i m u m exposure to the sun and complied with the
necessity of keeping all arable areas free.
Today it is becoming increasingly expensive to build in the
'traditional' style with local materials and to employ highly
qualified craftsmen. Unfortunately, thefirstattempts at building
with cheaper and m o r e resistant materials have failed and led to
the rapid disappearance of traditions and the destruction of the
environment.
It should be noted that the dynamic energy and practical side
of the enterprising and active mountain populations have m a d e
them impatient to use n e w materials (corrugated iron, cement,
nails) while completely overlooking their possible drawbacks.
Although corrugated iron is bothfireand water resistant and
will soon replace shingles, and although the use of cement reduces
the bulk of the walls and makes them impervious to humidity,
these recently introduced materials are employed inexpertly,
without knowledge of the proper methods and very often without
due consideration for traditional forms. The resulting effects are
regrettable. W o r k m a n s h i p has also lost its quality of a fine
handicraft, and the workers themselves have not yet received the
training they need to adopt the new techniques.
Changes will inevitably be brought about by the attraction of
novelty, the scarcity of w o o d for construction purposes and of
qualified m a n p o w e r , as well as the rapid increase in the d e m a n d
for more comfortable buildings in a n e w style (which implies
fitting windows, better thermal insulation, etc.). N e w forms will of
necessity appear. N o r can the religious m o n u m e n t s evade these
considerations, which in their case deserve special attention.
Tourism in Nepal is bound to develop, and some economists
do not hesitate to predict that a sizeable revenue will be derived
from this sector.
 In 1977, 120,000 tourists visited Nepal, and 25,000 of them
visited the northern regions, which are of great cultural interest.
Whether one wants it or not, industry is going to 'exploit' the
cultural resources ; all the more so as Buddhism in its Tibetan form
has always elicited curiosity and sympathy. Temples and sanc-
tuaries are being opened to tourists, and some caretakers even
place collecting-boxes in a prominent position for offerings to help
maintain the buildings. In some of the more isolated places,
however, the insistence of indiscreet visitors arouses suspicion,
and sometimes dishonest guides lead to hostile reactions.
O n e should never lose sight of these indirect effects of
tourism, which m a y be good or bad. Priests have been seen selling
ritual objects and old w o m e n pages from a book (which means
that the book has been destroyed).
Yet not all aspects are negative by any means. Stimulated by
tourist interest in 'souvenir articles', the villagers have begun to
engrave religious formulas on shale plaques, while some of them,
despite the fact that they are laymen, are painting thangkas.
Although these objects are m a d e to be sold, they develop
handicrafts derived directly from religious expression.
W e have a right to wonder what is to become of this culture in
which religion and the ways of daily life are so intricately linked.
Periodic renewals of interest in religious life and religious
observance have always characterized Nepal. Proof of this is to be
found in biographies of holy lamas written in past centuries. A
learned m o n k settles in a certain place, attracts disciples, starts or
revives a religious community. Then, as the need arises, n e w
buildings are erected with everyone participating. W o r k , offerings,
or the presentation of a child w h o will one day become a priest, are
all expressions of deep faith. Even today, this pattern of behaviour
is not rare. During the past twenty years, moreover, priests from
the north have been settling in the high valleys, where their
influence on local religious life is evident.
In this respect, attention should be drawn to the role of K u s h o
Tsechu in Nepal. H e is a m o n k , born in Kyirong and educated in
Bhutan, w h o has lived in K a t h m a n d u for over thirty years.
A follower of L a m a Sherab Dorje, the founder of various
monasteries in Nepal, he has m a d e himself responsible for the
Drug-pa Ka-gyu-pa order in T s u m as well as in H e l a m b u ; he has
encouraged the teaching of religion and has built or restored
temples.
A dedicated intermediary between isolated communities and
the royal administration, m u c h concerned about religious prob-
lems, K u s h o Tsechu is also responsible for the organization of the
L a m a Desh Darsan Seminar.
K a t h m a n d u , long an important pilgrimage centre for the
Himalayan Buddhists, is n o w fast becoming a centre of spiritual
life. Here several monasteries have been built, and the Western
world's growing interest in Buddhist philosophy has contributed
to this development.
The inhabitants of northern Nepal enjoy a number of
advantages—cyclical renewal, greater diffusion of sacred texts due
to modern methods of reproduction that have replaced the
woodcuts of long ago, congregations of the clergy that facilitate
initiation into complex rites, travel of scholars from one centre to
another (India, Sikkim and Bhutan play an important role in the
transmission of knowledge).
It is to be hoped that all these efforts will have repercussions
on the conservation of the cultural heritage.
It is through the awareness of theJauthorities on the one hand,
and by simple conservation operations on the other, that a well-
balanced programme can be carried out, one in the same spirit as
that of the K a t h m a n d u Valley Master Plan, and unique in its value
of universality.
Appendices

Appendix 1. Model questionnaire for making

an inventory of a building

Hereunder is a model of a questionnaire for obtaining a complete

description of a building.
The building's present condition and appropriate repair recommend-
ations are given in parallel columns. (The advice given should be tested
before beginning the work.) Although this questionnaire was developed
for northern Nepalese monuments, it could be useful for similar work in
other parts of the world.
Photographic and topographical summaries are, of course, essential.
The form of the questionnaire should be scrupulously observed, as
the document m a y be used not only by technicians but also by research
workers for the purpose of comparative studies.
The collecting of historical documents, written and oral archives, is
particularly important. In addition to the inscriptions often found in the
entrance porch or near the altar (construction or restoration dates, list of
donors, names of m o n k s in charge), a study should also be m a d e of:
(a) publications such as biographies of lamas, descriptions of pilgrimages
or sacred places, documents of local history; (b) documents containing
lists of former members of the clergy, arranged in chronological order
(these lists are also included in the prayer gSol-deb) ; (c) accounts kept by
the secretary of the village assembly and village archives. Interviews with
the craftsmen and foremen w h o are thoroughly acquainted with the
materials used would be a great asset.
These data will be valuable not only for immediate preservation of
the monuments but also for the establishment of a general inventory of
religious culture in northern Nepal.
Model for a description

Introduction :
Object of the description.
General information, ecological data (the landscape), ways of life of the
inhabitants, elements of local history.
Methods of construction and description of the building methods
employed in the cultural area, main problems and defects.
Detailed description of building complexes: each building should be
studied separately and adequate numbering given to each ensemble.
(A numbering with reference to a national system should be adopted; it
might follow the division into districts and the Panchayat.)

1.00 Definition and type.

1.01 Localization, environment, altitude, gradient, distance
between h u m a n settlements.
1.02 Description of the building:
dimensions, plan, utilization, style.

2.00 Cultural elements.

2.01 History, foundation of the building in relation to the social
and religious history of the region, successive stages in the
building's existence.
2.02 Religious and cultural aspects, religious orders (which m a y
determine the style of iconographical representation).
2.03 Type of architecture.

3.00 Construction. Foundations and main walls.

3.01 .Detailed description of walls in a precise direction
(clockwise).
3.02 Roof.
3.03 External elements, secondary work.
3.03.1 Doors.
3.03.2 W i n d o w s .
3.03.3 Pillars and lintels.
3.04 Upper storeys.
3.05 Internal elements.
3.05.1 Walls.
3.05.2 Pillars.
3.05.3 Beams.
3.05.4 Flooring.
Present state of conservation and recommendations regarding repairs
and maintenance.

4.00 Structure.
4.01 Foundations and walls.
 4.02 Inner structure, starting from the g r o u n d floor.
4.03 Condition of the roof structure.

5.00 Technology.
5.01 Rising d a m p in walls.
5.02 Wall coverings.
5.03 G r o u n d floor.
5.04 U p p e r floors a n d ceiling.
5.05 Roofing.

6.00 In the case of a group of buildings, other buildings such as a chapel

with a prayer-wheel, communal kitchen, caretaker's quarters,
chôrten.

7.00 Estimate of costs.

8.00 Projects of the local responsible authorities.

PRESENT STATE OF CONSERVATION REPAIR R E C O M M E N D A T I O N S

4.00 Structure If there are signs of serious movement

in the building, it must first be
4.01 Foundations and walls: ascertained whether this movement is
still alive. T h e crack is bridged with a
Hardly a single wall in any of the small tell-tale, a thin strip of glass that is
religious buildings has not m o v e d at firmly bedded in cement on either side
some time or another. M o v e m e n t is of the crack. If the glass breaks it shows
inevitable in old buildings, whether due there is m o v e m e n t , and usually close
to materials which would be considered examination can tell in which direction.
weak by modern standards, to the Depending on h o w serious the crack is,
interaction of structure and building or its repair consists infillingthe opening
through ageing. In any case, structural either with well-matched stonework
movements are only of significance in or by the insertion of a reinforced-
the following circumstances: concrete bonder ( m a x i m u m dimen-
a. W h e r e movement is still 'alive'. sions: 1 0 0 x 2 5 x 2 5 c m ) cast in situ.
b. If initial movements have caused W h e r e there is failure at roof level, a
significant structural weakness. ring b e a m in stone bedded in a cement
c. W h e r e structural cracks or widened mortar can be used in cases that are not
joints have allowed rain or frost to serious or, where the walls are very
penetrate or caused further weak- unstable, a reinforced-concrete b e a m
ening. should be inserted. The reinforcement
In Nepal, most of the structural weak- should be a thick-gauged mesh ; the use
nesses in buildings have been caused by of steel bars should be avoided.
earthquakes ; these movements are and
will always be a constant threat to the
buildings.
PRESENT STATE OF CONSERVATION REPAIR RECOMMENDATIONS

4.02 Inner structure First, the w o o d should be left to dry out

for some time before use. Normally, the
T h e timbers used are nearly always inner structure should be well
oversized and put in place w h e n 'green' connected to the supporting walls. If
so that they warp and look unstable. this is not so, the two elements should
Occasionally the spans are excessive for be joined together by bolting steel
the b e a m sections. T h e main defects are anchors onto the b e a m ends and setting
the result of roofing in bad condition, them in a concrete padstone.
causing wet rot in the timbers.

4.03 Roof structure The traditional roof structures are

sufficiently strong to support a simple
The inner structures are always well covering. Their life expectancy can be
built, but roofing is often of very low prolonged by chemical treatment.
standard and constructed of unhewn S o m e of the newer roof designs need
timber; the purlins are too spaced out. either strengthening or altering. In
T h e m o r e complicated roof structures, m a n y cases a carefully designed and
entailing hipped and tiered roofs, are constructed timber truss would save
badly m a d e . M a n y roofs have simply timber and simplify building cons-
been adapted to accommodate n e w truction. These elements are not
materials : the pitch is insufficient and generally visible; if a major building
the roof has become structurally programme is envisaged in a given
unstable. region, as most of the buildings follow a
standard module based on available
timber sizes, it would be advisable to
m a k e standard mass-produced trusses.

5.00 Technology There are nowadays m a n y sophisti-

cated methods of combatting rising
5.01 Rising damp in walls d a m p , such as silicone injection or
insertion of mechanical damp-proof
Old buildings are nearly always membranes and high capillary tubes,
susceptible to rising d a m p because, but none of these is really suitable for
unlike modern buildings, they have no the type of material used in the
damp-proof course built into the walls. construction of Nepalese buildings
Wall-base d a m p m a y occur from the since most of the moisture is borne by
following causes : bedding material, the m u d mortar
a. G r o u n d d a m p rising within the between the almost non-porous stones
thickness of the walls through used in the wall construction.
capillary attraction. If the wall bases were properly
b. Saturation from rainwater splash. protected against rainwater, the
c. Water penetration caused by problem would easily be solved. T h e
external ground levels being higher following are some feasible alterna-
than internal floor levels. tives :
a. The laying of porous land drains in
Once rainwater has infiltrated the wall a gravel-filled trench along the
base, it can often rise to remarkably external walls to collect and control
PRESENT STATE OF CONSERVATION REPAIR R E C O M M E N D A T I O N S

high levels through capillary move- ground water. T h e gravel topping

ment. must always be left clear of
Rising d a m p is not of itself necessarily vegetation and rubbish to allow
dangerous but it is sufficient to cause continuous evaporation,
the disintegration of the basic structure. b. Correct and careful tabling of the
It is of significance however in the ground around the wall base to
following cases : ensure that all the rainwater is
a. W h e n rising d a m p carries with it directed immediately away from
natural earth salts in solution which the wall. T h e plinths around the
in recrystallizing just below the buildings should be correctly
internal plasterwork can cause maintained and kept clear of any
irreparable damage to the murals. growth, as this attracts moisture
b. W h e n timber is in contact with and prevents the wall from drying
d a m p surfaces, particularly w h e n out.
unventilated, favourable conditions
are created for dry or wet rot and The murals painted on a mud-based
possible w o o d w o r m attack. O n c e plaster are those most susceptible to
initiated in a d a m p area, true dry damage. Normally the paintings start
rot can then spread to the whole above the limit of rising d a m p but often
w o o d e n structure. the lower parts of the murals are
damaged by moisture drawn u p by
capillary attraction. It is recommended
that in such cases the lower section of
plaster be removed u p to where the
murals begin. T h e walling beneath
should be allowed to dry out before it is
replastered and a gap of 3 c m should be
left between the old and new plaster to
prevent the passage of moisture.

5.02 Wall coverings Dry rot. T h e presence of dry rot must

always be fully investigated and treated
5.03 Ground floor as a matter of the greatest urgency.
5.04 Upper floors and ceiling In suspect areas, the structure must be
fully opened up at the point where
In most cases where both walls and conditions are right for an outbreak,
floors are of timber, they are liable to and all paths of water travel, all
fungal attack. T h e c o m m o n factor timbers within the area, very carefully
encouraging timber defects is a d a m p examined. If an attack is found, each
and unventilated environment. line of its spread must be fully traced to
The characteristics of the various its farthest extent and beyond. All
defects are as follows. affected timber must be scrupulously
removed and burned, and retained
Fungal decay timber around the perimeter of the
True dry rot (Merilius lachrimans). attack, together with walling and
This is the greatest danger for all finishes, must be fully sterilized with a
timber. suitable fungicide. Thick walls or large
Fungus occurs and grows under the timbers sometimes need to be drilled to
following conditions: impregnate them.
PRESENT STATE OF CONSERVATION REPAIR RECOMMENDATIONS

a. Lack of ventilation In restoration treatment, the use of

b. Relatively w a r m conditions (an timber must be reduced to a m i n i m u m ,
ambient temperature of between and any w o o d used needs to undergo
20° and 30° C ) . preventive treatment. M o s t important
c. A moderate moisture content (20 is that the conditions causing the
per cent to 25 per cent). In such outbreak must be rectified ; the cause of
cases,the spores of the fungus can the d a m p conditions identified and
germinate and reproduce, even stopped, and ventilation introduced
travelling in search of suitable tim- wherever possible.
bers. In well-established attacks, the
m u s h r o o m s develop and ripen to
produce millions of spores. T h e
result of dry rot is total destruction
of all timber in the structure and the
infection of adjacent building m a -
terials in which the fungus m a y have
laid dormant for several years ready
to be re-actived by favourable con-
ditions for further attack.

Wet rot. There are m a n y differing Wet rot. T h e treatment of wet rot is
species of wet rot related to differing relatively simple : removal of weakened
circumstances of light, humidity, timbers and their repair or replacement
ventilation and types of material. and preventive treatment with fungi-
However, all their characteristics are cide. A careful check must be m a d e that
basically similar. W e t rot is normally dry rot has not set in. T h e source of
found in the following places: dampness must be traced and stopped,
a. In the ends of timbers built into wet and extra ventilation is again most
walls, especially at ground level, in desirable where possible.
floors and pillars which are in
contact with the earth.
b. In areas of localized roof leaks.
This type of fungal attack occurs under
high humidity conditions (50 per cent
to 60 per cent moisture content), in fact,
in conditions that are too wet for dry
rot; and it is of itself far less dangerous;
it is m u c h less destructive and less likely
to spread. W e t rot can cause weakness
in structural timbers but its real
significance is that it indicates defective
conditions which could indeed lead to
dry rot.

Woodworm T h e treatment against w o o d w o r m is

similar to that used against fungal
This type of attack is extremely rare. attack, and the chemical used is usually
a fungicide combined with an insecti-
cide. T h e timbers have first to be
cleaned and then thoroughly treated
with the chemical.
PRESENT STATE OF CONSERVATION REPAIR RECOMMENDATIONS

5.05 Roofing: M o d e r n techniques should be used to

lay d o w n traditional roofs to give them
A major problem besetting all buildings longer life-expectancy than at present.
in northern Nepal is the poor condi- It will be essential to persuade the local
tion of their roof coverings. Very people to revert to them rather than use
few buildings were reported to have a the corrugated iron sheeting which
watertight roof and those that did typifies 'development and progress'.
probably had had their roofs renewed This can be achieved by treating the
recently with corrugated iron sheeting. shingles in the following way.
It is true that this type of roof keeps the
building dry but it is very detrimental to
the local environment.

There is basically one traditional roof The shingles should be chemically

covering in the region, south of the treated against fungal and w o o d w o r m
Himalayas, which w e k n o w as shingles degradation, then dipped in silicone
(panglep). These are wooden roof tiles solution to prevent water penetration.
of varying sizes that are riven from fir They should then be laid o n battens
trees (Tsuga dumosa). The shingles are and held in position by stones.
split off the tree trunk across the grain Possibly after a year or so, if the
into widths of about 15 c m and lengths shingles curl, they should be turned
of about 1 metre (occasionally, on some head to tail and thenfixedby nailing, if
of the older and cruder buildings, they possible with non-ferrous nails. If the
can be longer). The shingles usually rest roof covering is of corrugated iron, it
on battens spanning the rafters and can form a base over which the roof can
were originally held d o w n by stones. be battened and counter battened over
The shingles usually warp and as a the sheeting with shingles.
result it is necessary to turn each tile
after thefirstyear from head to tail. At regular intervals the roof should be
This type of roof often leaks. checked to m a k e sure that it is
In regions where the roofs are terraced watertight and the water runs out of the
infiltrations m a y occur at the point waterspouts.
where the supporting wall is covered by At present the roof is covered with a
the roof structure. The wall is usually thick layer of clay over which a plaster
topped by a parapet on which a stock of sheet is spread, overlapping the walls
firewood is kept. If the rainwater and and held in place by a further thin layer
melted snow do not run away freely, of clay. This technique has not been
infiltrations occur. tried and tested and there is ariskof
blocking the ventilation. This material
must be laid very carefully to avoid any
rents.
Appendix 2. Inventory index card for movable
objects in temples,
chapels and private houses

Paintings

Paintings on canvas (banners: thangka).

For each painting:
Overall dimensions, dimensions of the painting itself
Iconographical material (complete data and photographs of
individual details)
Inscriptions
State of preservation
Place of deposit
Other paintings

Statuary

For each object :

Material (clay, bronze, copper)
Dimensions (photograph—full-face, profile)
Iconographical data
Information concerning working methods
State of preservation

Ritual objects

For each object:

Material
Dimensions
Place of production
State of preservation
115

Musical instruments used in religious ceremonies

Material
Dimensions

Books

For each volume or series of works:

Title (photograph of title page and colophon)
Woodcut or manuscript
Dimensions, number of pages
State of preservation

Engraved woodwork (works or protective charms)

For each object :

Description (photograph)
Dimensions

Masks for religious dances

For each object :

Material
State of preservation

Craftsmen specialized in producing or repairing religious objects

Name
Place of residence
Level of proficiency
Bibliography

A number of publications not directly related to our subject are listed

here. They all contain information concerning ways of life—or illus-
trations (photographs of temples)—useful for comparative studies.

GENERAL

BISTA, D . B . People of Nepal. Kathmandu. Department of Publicity,

Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, 1967.
G A B O R I E A U , M . Le Népal et ses populations. Brussels, Complexe, 1978.
L A N D O N , P. Nepal. London, Constable, 1928. 2 vols.
LEVI, S. Le Népal; étude historique d'un royaume hindou. Paris, E . Leroux,
1906-8. 3 vols.
Objets et mondes. Paris. Three issues devoted to Nepal. Vol. VI, N o . 2,
1966; Vol. IX, N o . 1, 1969; Vol. XIV, N o . 4, 1974.
S N E L L G R O V E , D . A . Buddhist Himalaya. Oxford, B. Cassirer, 1957.
S N E L L G R O V E , D . A . (éd.). The Image of the Buddha. Paris, Unesco, 1977.
STEIN, R . A . La civilisation tibétaine. Paris, Dunod, 1962.

CONSERVATION OF THE CULTURAL HERITAGE

BANERJEE, N . R . Preservation of Monuments in Nepal. Kathmandu,

Indian Co-operation Mission, 1970. (Limited distribution.)
B U S C H , H . et al. Bhaktapur, Sanierung. Urban Renewal and Development.
Darmstadt, 1973. (Limited distribution.)
G U T S C H O W , N . Die Restaurierung des Pujari Math in Bhaktapur I Nepal,
Vol. 30, N o . 2, pp. 103-18. Munich/Berlin, Deutsche Kunst
Dekmalpflege, 1972.
H . M . G O V E R N M E N T . D E P A R T M E N T OF H O U S I N G A N D PHYSICAL P L A N N I N G .
The Physical Development Plan for the Kathmandu Valley.
Kathmandu, 1969
 . Socio-Economie Survey, Kathmandu, Patán, Bhaktapur. Kath-
m a n d u , n.d. (Limited distribution.)
H Y V E R T , G . Nepal. Central Laboratory for Preservation and Restoration in
Kathmandu. Paris, Unesco, 1972. (Limited distribution.)
JEST, C . Preservation of the Cultural Heritage of Nepal, Report by I C O M
to the Government of Nepal, 1964. (Limited distribution.)
Kathmandu Valley. The Preservation of Physical Environment and Cultural
Heritage. Protective Inventory. Vienna, A . Bonroll, 1975. 2 vols.
P A O R , L . B . de. Nepal, Archaeology and Historical Monuments Preser-
vation. Paris, Unesco, 1965. (Limited distribution.)
P R U S C H A , C . Kathmandu Valley. Physical Planning for its Development. A
Summary of Activities and Recommendations. Kathmandu, 1973.
(Limited distribution.)
S A N D A Y , J. Nepal, the Conservation of the Hanuman Dhoka Royal Palace.
Kathmandu, 1970-72; Paris, Unesco, 1973. (Limited distribution.)
. The Hanuman Dhoka Royal Palace, Kathmandu. Building Con-
servation and Local Traditional Crafts. London, A A R P , 1974.
. Building Conservation in Nepal, a Handbook of Principles and
Techniques. Paris, Unesco, 1978.
S E C K L E R , E . F. Preservation in the Kathmandu Valley. Report of Unesco
Mission, 1972. (Limited distribution.)
SECKLER, E. F.; ALLCHIN, R . ; BOREL, P.; CHAYABONGSE, C . ; JEST, C . ;
KUSSMAUL, F. ; SABA, H . S. ; T U N N A R D , C. Master Plan for the
Conservation of the Cultural Heritage of the Kathmandu Valley. Paris,
U N D P / U n e s c o , 1977.

TIBETAN ARCHITECTURE
D E N W O O D , P. Bhutan and its Architecture. Objets et mondes, Vol. X V I ,
N o . 4, 1974.
F I L C H N E R , W . Kumbum Dschamba Ling, chap. VIII. Leipzig, Brockhaus,
1933.
H A R R E R , H . Meine Tibetbilder. Seebruck, Heering V G , 1953.
H U M M E L , S. Tibetische Architektur. Bui. soc. suisse d'anthropologie et
d'ethnologie, 1963-64, pp. 62-95.
M O R I L L O N , F . ; T H O U V E N Y , P. Histoire et modèles d'une architecture
traditionnelle: Helambu une vallée de l'Himalaya Central. Nancy,
1978. (Thesis.)
SESTINI, V . ; S O M I G L I , E . Sherpa Architecture. Paris, Unesco, 1978.
S T E I N , J. A . ; JEST, C . Dynamics of Development and Tradition: T h e
Architecture of Ladakh and Bhutan. In: Himalaya; écologie et
ethnologie. Paris, C N R S , 1977.
STEIN, R . A . Architecture et pensée religieuse en Extrême-Orient. Arts
asiatiques, Vol. IV, N o . 3, 1954.
Tucci, G . Mc'od-rten e c'a-c'a. In: Indo-Tibetica, Vol. I. R o m e , Reale
Accademia d'Italia, 1933.
. The Symbolism of the Temples of bSams-yas. East and West
(Rome), Vol. VI, N o . 4, 1954.
LAMAIC ART

With special regard to the art of Tibetan Buddhism, for which carefully
documented publications exist, reference m a y be made to the catalogue of
the exhibition Dieux et démons de l'Himalaya, Paris, 1977.

VARIOUS DISTRICTS OF NEPAL UNDER STUDY

Humla District

F Ü R E R - H A I M E N D O R F , C . V O N . Himalayan Traders. London, J. Murray,

1975.
G A B O R I E A U , M . Note préliminaire sur le dieu Masta. Objets et mondes
(Paris), Vol. IX, N o . 1, 1969, pp. 19-50.
G O L D S T E I N , M . C . Report on Limi Panchayat, H u m l a District, Karnali
Zone. Contributions to Nepalese Studies (Kathmandu), Vol. 2, 1975,
pp. 89-101.
. Tibetan-speaking Agro-pastoralists in Limi. A Cultural Ecological
Overview of High-altitude Adaptation in North-west Himalayas.
Objets et mondes, Vol. 14, 1974, pp. 259-68.
JEST, C . La Haute Seti, pays du dieu Langa. Objets et mondes, Vol. X I V ,
N o . 4, 1974, pp. 247-58.
LEVINE, N . The Origins of sTod-pa: A Nyinba Clan Legend. Contribu-
tions to Nepalese Studies (Kathmandu), Vol. 4, N o . 1, 1976,
pp. 57-75.

Mustang District

L ' h o m m e et la haute montagne. Objets et mondes, Vol. X I V , N o . 4,1974.

J A C K S O N , D . P . The Early History of L o (Mustang) and Ngari.
Contributions to Nepalese Studies (Kathmandu), Vol. 4, N o . 1, 1976,
pp. 39-56.
. Notes on the History of Se-rib and Nearby Places in the Upper Kali
Gandaki Valley. Kailash, Vol. VI, N o . 3, 1978, pp. 195-227.
JEST, C . Les Thakali. Note préliminaire concernant une ethnie du nord-
ouest du Népal. L'ethnographie (Paris), 1964-65, pp. 26-49.
M A C D O N A L D , A . W . A Tibetan Guide to Some of the Holy Places of the
Dhaulagiri, Muktinath Area of Nepal. In: A . K . Narain (éd.).
Studies in Pali and Buddhism. Delhi, 1979, pp. 243-53.
S N E L L G R O V E , D . A . Himalaya Pilgrimage, a Study of Tibetan Religion.
Oxford, B . Cassirer, 1961.
. Nine Ways of Bon. London, Oxford University Press, 1967.
. Places of Pilgrimage in Thag (Thakkhola). Kailash, Vol. VII, N o . 2,
1979.
Tucci, G . Journey to Mustang. Kathmandu, Ratna Pustak, 1977. (New
edition.)
. Preliminary Report on Two Scientific Expeditions in Nepal. R o m e ,
ISMEO, 1956.
Sindhu-Palchock District

C L A R K E , G . E . A History of Helambu. (Unpublished.)

Solu-Khumbu District

The Sherpas have been the subject of a series of studies and one must
quotefirstthe work of C . von Fürer Haimendorf, The Sherpas of Nepal. A
series of dissertations contributes to the knowledge of their way of life and
mentality. In the present field of interest, the best document is D .
Snellgrove, Buddhist Himalaya, which gives a description of the Solu-
K h u m b u religious practices and the attitudes towards religion since 1955.
Serving as a guidebook, it gave us a possibility of comparison with
present practices, particularly in Chiwong G o m p a , which is described in
detail. Also of importance is the description of two monastic communities
by C . von Fürer Haimendorf and B . H . Aziz in Kailash, Vol. IV, N o . 2 .

Aziz, B . H . View from the Monastery Kitchen. Kailash, Vol. IV, N o . 2,

1976, pp. 155-68.
F U N K E , F . Religious Leben der Sherpa. In: Khumbu Himal, Vol. 9.
Innsbruck/Munich, 1969.
F Ü R E R H A I M E N D O R F , C . V O N . The Sherpas of Nepal, Buddhist Highlanders.
London, J. Murray, 1964.
HAGEN, T . ; DYRENFURTH, G . O . ; FURER-HAIMENDORF, C. VON;
S C H E L D E R , E . Mount Everest. Formation ; Population and Exploration
of the Everest Region. London, Oxford University Press, 1963.
JERSTAD, L. G . Mani Rimdu, Sherpa Dance-drama. Seattle, University of
Washington Press, 1969.
M A R C H , K . S. The Iconography of Chiwong Gompa. Contributions to
Nepalese Studies (Kathmandu), Vol. V , N o . 1, 1977, pp. 85-92.
. Of People and Yaks: The Management and Rearing of High-
altitude Herding among Contemporary Solu Sherpas. Contributions
to Nepalese Studies (Kathmandu), Vol. IV, N o . 2, pp. 83-97.
OPPITZ, M . Geschichte und Sozialordnung der Sherpa. Khumbu Himal,
No. 8, 1968.
P A U L , R . A . Sherpas and their Religion, University of Chicago, 1970.
(Ph.D. thesis.)
SANGYE TENZING SHERPA L A M A ; M A C D O N A L D , A . W . (comps.). Docu-
ments for the Study of the Religion and Social Organization of the
Sherpas. Paris-Nanterre, Junbesi, 1971. (Three manuscripts in
Tibetan.)
SESTINI, V . ; S O M I G L I , E . Aspetti architettonici degli insediamenti Sherpa
nella regione del K h u m b u . In: Lhotse 75 Spedizione alpinistico del
C.A.I, all Himalaya del Nepal. R o m e , C . A . I . , 1977.
. Sherpa Architecture, Paris, Unesco, 1978.
S N E L L G R O V E , D . A . Buddhist Himalaya. Oxford, B . Cassirer, 1957.
W O R K S IN THE TIBETAN L A N G U A G E

The temples and monasteries possess religious works, manuscripts,

woodcuts, the Buddhist Canon and commentaries, texts of the daily
ritual, biographies of lamas, historical data concerning temples and
pilgrimage places, and medical and soothsaying works, which are kept
either in the assembly halls or in specially appointed rooms.
In the past twenty years or so two diametrically opposed activities
have been under way : on the one hand, unscrupulous members of the
clergy and laymen have been selling these works (pages of which are to be
found in Kathmandu or N a m c h e Bazar markets), and thus destroying
part of an irreplaceable cultural heritage of manuscripts; on the other
hand, the clergy has had the more important works reprinted either in
India or in Sikkim.
The Library of Congress in Washington, D . C . , United States of
America, has a continuing programme for the acquisition of Tibetan
works, m a n y of them from Nepal, which are regularly listed in its
Accession Lists.
[II 20] C C . 8 0 / D . 126/A