11/15/18

Time Response of Linear,

Time-Invariant (LTI) Systems
Robert Stengel, Aircraft Flight Dynamics
MAE 331, 2018
Learning Objectives
• Methods of time-domain analysis
– Continuous- and discrete-time models
– Transient response to initial conditions and inputs
– Steady-state (equilibrium) response
– Phase-plane plots
– Response to sinusoidal input
Reading:
Flight Dynamics
298-313, 338-342
Airplane Stability and Control
Sections 11.1-11.12
Copyright 2018 by Robert Stengel. All rights reserved. For educational use only.
http://www.princeton.edu/~stengel/MAE331.html 1
http://www.princeton.edu/~stengel/FlightDynamics.html

Linear, Time-Invariant
(LTI) System Model
Dynamic equation (ordinary differential equation)

Δ!x(t) = FΔx(t) + GΔu(t) + LΔw(t), Δx(t o ) given

Output equation (algebraic transformation)

Δy(t) = H x Δx(t) + H u Δu(t) + H w Δw(t)

State and output dimensions need not be the same

dim [ Δx(t)] = ( n × 1)
dim [ Δy(t)] = ( r × 1) 2

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System Response to Inputs

and Initial Conditions
Solution of a linear dynamic model
Δ!x(t) = F(t)Δx(t) + G(t)Δu(t) + L(t)Δw(t), Δx(t o ) given
t

Δx(t) = Δx(t o ) + ∫ [ F(τ )Δx(τ ) + G(τ )Δu(τ ) + L(τ )Δw(τ )] dτ

to

• ... has two parts

– Unforced (homogeneous) response to initial conditions
– Forced response to control and disturbance inputs

Step input
response
Initial condition
response

Response to
Initial Conditions

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Unforced Response to
Initial Conditions
Neglecting forcing functions
t

Δx(t) = Δx(t o ) + ∫ [ FΔx(τ )] dτ = eF(t−to ) Δx(t o ) = Φ ( t − t o ) Δx(t o )

to

The state transition matrix, Φ, propagates the

state from to to t by a single multiplication

eF(t−to ) = Matrix Exponential

1 1
= I + F (t − to ) + ⎡⎣ F ( t − t o ) ⎤⎦ + ⎡⎣ F ( t − t o ) ⎤⎦ + ...
2 3

2! 3!
= Φ ( t − t o ) = State Transition Matrix
5

Initial-Condition Response
via State Transition
Incremental propagation of Δx
Δx(t1 ) = Φ (t1 − t o ) Δx(t o ) Δx(t1 ) = Φ (δt ) Δx(t o ) = ΦΔx(t o )
Δx(t 2 ) = Φ (t 2 − t1 ) Δx(t1 ) Δx(t 2 ) = ΦΔx(t1 ) = Φ 2 Δx(t o )
Δx(t 3 ) = Φ (t 3 − t 2 ) Δx(t 2 ) Δx(t 3 ) = ΦΔx(t 2 ) = Φ 3Δx(t o )
…

If (tk+1 – tk) = δt = constant,
state transition matrix is
constant
1 2 1 3
Φ = I + F (δ t ) + #$ F (δ t ) %& + #$ F (δ t ) %& + ...
2! 3!

Propagation is exact
6

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Discrete-Time
Dynamic Model
Response to continuous controls and disturbances
t k+1
Δx(t k+1 ) = Δx(t k )+ ∫ [FΔx(τ )+ GΔu(τ )+ LΔw(τ )] dτ
tk

Response
x
to piecewise-constant controls and disturbances
t k+1

Δx(t k+1 ) = Φ (δ t ) Δx(t k ) + Φ (δ t ) ∫ ⎡⎣ e− F(τ −tk ) ⎤⎦ dτ [ GΔu(t k ) + LΔw(t k )]

tk

= ΦΔx(t k ) + ΓΔu(t k ) + ΛΔw(t k )

With piecewise-constant inputs, control and disturbance
effects taken outside the integral
Discrete-time model of continuous system = 7
Sampled-data model

Sampled-Data Control- and

Disturbance-Effect Matrices
Δx(t k ) = ΦΔx(t k−1 ) + ΓΔu(t k−1 ) + ΛΔw(t k−1 )
Γ = ( eFδ t − I ) F −1G
⎛ 1 1 1 ⎞
= ⎜ I − Fδ t + F 2δ t 2 − F 3δ t 3 + ...⎟ Gδ t
⎝ 2! 3! 4! ⎠

Λ = ( eFδ t − I ) F −1L
⎛ 1 1 1 ⎞
= ⎜ I − Fδ t + F 2δ t 2 − F 3δ t 3 + ...⎟ Lδ t
⎝ 2! 3! 4! ⎠
Φ ⎯δ⎯⎯
t→0
→ ( I + Fδ t )
As δt becomes
very small Γ ⎯δ⎯⎯
t→0
→ Gδ t
Λ ⎯δ⎯⎯
t→0
→ Lδ t 8

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Discrete-Time Response to Inputs

Propagation of Δx, with constant Φ, Γ, and Λ
Δx(t1 ) = ΦΔx(t o )+ ΓΔu(t o )+ ΛΔw(t o )
Δx(t 2 ) = ΦΔx(t1 )+ ΓΔu(t1 )+ ΛΔw(t1 )
Δx(t 3 ) = ΦΔx(t 2 )+ ΓΔu(t 2 )+ ΛΔw(t 2 )


δ t = t k +1 − t k

Continuous- and Discrete-Time

Short-Period System Matrices
• Continuous-time • Sampled-data ( digital ) system
( analog ) system
# 0.987 −0.079 &
• δt = 0.01 s Φ=% (
$ 0.01 0.987 '
" −1.2794 −7.9856 %
F=$ ' # −0.09 &
Γ=% (
# 1 −1.2709 & δ t = t k +1 − t k $ −0.0004 '
# −0.079 &
Λ=% (
" −9.069 % $ −0.013 '
G=$ '
# 0 & • δt = 0.1 s # 0.845
Φ=%
−0.694 &
(
$ 0.0869 0.846 '
" −7.9856 % # −0.84 &
Γ=%
L=$ ' (
$ −0.0414 '
# −1.2709 & # −0.694 &
Λ=% (
$ −0.154 '

• δt = 0.5 s # 0.0823
Φ=%
−1.475 &
(
$ 0.185 0.0839 '
# −2.492 &
Γ=% (
δt has a large effect on the digital model $ −0.643 '
# −1.475 & 10
Λ=% (
$ −0.916 '

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Continuous- and Discrete-

Time Short-Period Models
Learjet 23
MN = 0.3, hN = 3,050 m
Differential Equations Produce
VN = 98.4 m/s State Rates of Change

⎡ Δq! ( t ) ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ Δq ( t ) ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ −1.3 −8 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ + ⎢ −9.1 ⎥ Δδ E ( t )
⎢ Δα! ( t ) ⎥ ⎣ 1 −1.3 ⎦ ⎢ Δα ( t ) ⎥ ⎣ 0 ⎦
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
Difference Equations
Produce State Increments δ t = 0.1sec

# Δqk +1 & # 0.85 −0.7 & # Δqk & # −0.84 &

% (=% (% (+% ( Δδ Ek
%$ Δα k +1 (' $ 0.09 0.85 ' %$ Δα k (' $ −0.04 '
Note individual acceleration and difference
sensitivities to state and control perturbations 11

Initial-Condition Response
⎡ Δ!x1 ⎤ ⎡ −1.2794 −7.9856 ⎤ ⎡ Δx1 ⎤ ⎡ −9.069 ⎤
⎢
Δ!x ( t ) = FΔx ( t ) + GΔu ( t )
⎥=⎢
⎢⎣ Δ!x2 ⎥⎦ ⎣ 1
⎥⎢ ⎥+⎢
−1.2709 ⎦ ⎢ Δx2 ⎥ ⎣
⎣ ⎦
0
⎥ Δδ E
⎦ Angle of

Δy⎡⎢ (Δy
t ) ⎥== ⎢H0 x Δx⎥ ⎢(t ) + ⎥ Δδ E( t )
Δy ⎤ ⎡ 1 0 ⎤ ⎡ Δx ⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤ Attack Initial
⎢ u Δu
⎥ +H
1 1
Condition
⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦ 1⎣ Δx⎦ ⎢⎣ 0
2 ⎥⎦ ⎣ ⎦

% Short-Period Linear Model - Initial Condition

F = [-1.2794 -7.9856;1. -1.2709];

G = [-9.069;0];
Hx = [1 0;0 1];
sys = ss(F,G,Hx,0);

xo = [1;0];
[y1,t1,x1] = initial(sys, xo);
Pitch Rate
xo = [2;0]; Initial
[y2,t2,x2] = initial(sys, xo); Condition
plot(t1,y1,t2,y2), grid

figure
xo = [0;1];
initial(sys, xo), grid

Doubling the initial condition doubles the output

12

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Historical Factoids
Commercial Aircraft of the 1940s
• Pre-WWII designs, reciprocating engines
• Development enhanced by military transport and bomber versions
– Douglas DC-4 (adopted as C-54)
– Boeing Stratoliner 377 (from B-29, C-97)
– Lockheed Constellation 749 (from C-69)

13

Commercial Propeller-Driven Aircraft of the 1950s

• Reciprocating and turboprop engines
• Douglas DC-6, DC-7, Lockheed Starliner 1649, Vickers
Viscount, Bristol Britannia, Lockheed Electra 188

Bristol Brabazon
“Jumbo Turboprop”
14

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Brabazon Committee study for a post-WWII jet-powered

mailplane with small passenger compartment
deHavilland Vampire, 1943 deHavilland Swallow, 1946

15

Commercial Jets of the 1950s

• Low-bypass ratio turbojet deHavilland Comet
engines
• deHavilland DH 106 Comet
(1951)
– 1st commercial jet transport
– engines buried in wings
– early takeoff accidents Boeing 707
• Boeing 707 (1957)
– derived from 367-80 prototype
(1954)
– engines on pylons below
wings
– largest aircraft of its time Sud-Aviation Caravelle
• Sud-Aviation Caravelle (1959)
– 1st aircraft with twin aft-
mounted engines
https://www.youtube.com/watch
?v=2Bvhov0nxPQ
16

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Superposition of
Linear Responses

17

Step Input

Step Response ⎧⎪ 0, t < 0

Δδ E ( t ) = ⎨
−1, t ≥ 0
⎩⎪
% Short-Period Linear Model - Step
" Δx1 % " −1.2794 −7.9856 % " Δx1 % " −9.069 %
F = [-1.2794 -7.9856;1. -1.2709];
$ '=$ '$ '+$ ' Δδ E
$# Δx2 '& # 1 −1.2709 & $ Δx2 ' #
# &
0 &
G = [-9.069;0];
Hx = [1 0;0 1]; " Δy1 % " 1 0 % " Δx1 % " 0 %
sys = ss(F, -G, Hx,0); % (-1)*Step $ '=$ '$ '+$ ' Δδ E
$# Δy2 '& # 0 1 & $# Δx2 '& # 0 &
sys2 = ss(F, -2*G, Hx,0); % (-1)*Step

% Step response
step(sys, sys2), grid

• Stability, speed of response,

and damping are
independent of the initial
condition or input

Doubling the input

doubles the output

18

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Superposition of Linear
Step Responses
% Short-Period Linear Model - Superposition

F = [-1.2794 -7.9856;1. -1.2709];

G = [-9.069;0];
Hx = [1 0;0 1];
sys = ss(F, -G, Hx,0); % (-1)*Step

xo = [1; 0];
t = [0:0.2:20];
u = ones(1,length(t));

[y1,t1,x1] = lsim(sys,u,t,xo);
[y2,t2,x2] = lsim(sys,u,t);

u = zeros(1,length(t));
[y3,t3,x3] = lsim(sys,u,t,xo);

plot(t1,y1,t2,y2,t3,y3), grid

" Δx1 % " −1.2794 −7.9856 % " Δx1 % " −9.069 %

$ '=$ '$ '+$ ' Δδ E
$# Δx2 '& # 1 −1.2709 & $ Δx2 ' #
# &
0 &
" Δy1 % " 1 0 % " Δx1 % " 0 %
$ '=$ '$ '+$ ' Δδ E
$# Δy2 '& # 0 1 & $# Δx2 '& # 0 &

Stability, speed of response, and damping are

independent of the initial condition or input 19

2nd-Order Comparison:
Continuous- and Discrete-Time LTI
Longitudinal Models
Differential Equations Produce State Rates of Change

⎡ ΔV! ( t ) ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ΔV ( t ) ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
Phugoid ⎢ ⎥ ≈ ⎢ −0.02 −9.8 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ + ⎢ 4.7 ⎥ Δδ T ( t )
⎢ Δγ! ( t ) ⎥ ⎣ 0.02 0 ⎦ ⎢ Δγ ( t ) ⎥ ⎣ 0 ⎦
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦

⎡ Δq! ( t ) ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ Δq ( t ) ⎤ ⎡ −9.1 ⎤
Short ⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ −1.3 −8 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥+⎢ ⎥ Δδ E ( t ) δ t = 0.1sec
Period ⎢
⎣
Δα! ( ) ⎥⎦ ⎣
t 1 −1.3 ⎦ ⎢⎣ Δα ( t ) ⎥⎦ ⎣ 0 ⎦

Difference Equations Produce State Increments

# ΔVk +1 & # 1 −0.98 & # ΔVk & # 0.47 &

Phugoid % (=% (% (+% ( Δδ Tk
%$ Δγ k +1 (' $ 0.002 1 ' % Δγ k ( $ 0.0005 '
$ '

# Δqk +1 & # 0.85 −0.7 & # Δqk & # −0.84 &

Short
Period
% (=% (% (+% ( Δδ Ek
%$ Δα k +1 (' $ 0.09 0.85 ' %$ Δα k (' $ −0.04 '
20

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Equilibrium Response

21

Equilibrium Response
Dynamic equation

Δx(t) = FΔx(t) + GΔu(t) + LΔw(t)

At equilibrium, the state is unchanging

0 = FΔx(t) + GΔu(t) + LΔw(t)

Constant values denoted by (.)*

Δx* = −F −1 ( GΔu * +LΔw *)

22

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Steady-State Condition
• If the system is also stable, an equilibrium point
is a steady-state point, i.e.,
– Small disturbances decay to the equilibrium condition
2nd-order example
! f11 f12 $ ! g1 $ ! l1 $
System Matrices F=# &; G = # &; L= # &
#" f21 f22 &
%
g
#" 2 &% #" l2 &%

" f − f12 %
Equilibrium $ 22 '
Response with
" Δx * %
1
$# − f21 f11 '& ") g1 , ) l , %
$ '= − $+ . Δu *+ + 1 . Δw *'
Constant Inputs $# Δx2 * '& ( f11 f22 − f12 f21 ) $#+* g2 .- + l2 . '
* - &

sI − F = Δ ( s ) = s 2 + ( f11 + f22 ) s + ( f11 f22 − f12 f21 )

Requirement
for Stability = ( s − λ1 ) ( s − λ2 ) = 0
Re ( λi ) < 0 23

Equilibrium Response of
Approximate Phugoid Model
Equilibrium state with constant thrust and
wind perturbations

Δx P * = −FP−1 ( G P Δu P * +L P Δw P *)

# VN &
# ΔV * & % 0 ( + # Tδ T & # DV & /
LV ( -- % ( % ( * --
% *
( = − %% ( , % Lδ T
*
( Δδ T + % −LV ( ΔVW 0
%$ Δγ (' −1 VN DV
% ( - % VN ( % V ( -
%$ g gLV (' -. $ ' $ N ' -1

24

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Equilibrium Response of
Approximate Phugoid Model
LδT
ΔV * = − ΔδT * + ΔVW* Steady horizontal wind
LV
affects velocity but not
1% D ( flight path angle
Δγ * = 'TδT + LδT V * ΔδT *
g& LV )
With LδT ~ 0, steady-state velocity perturbation depends only on
the horizontal wind
Constant thrust perturbation produces steady climb rate
Corresponding dynamic response
to thrust step, with LδT = 0

25

Equilibrium Response of
Approximate Short-Period Model
Equilibrium state with constant elevator and
wind perturbations
−1
Δx SP * = −FSP (GSP ΔuSP * +LSP Δw SP *)
# Lα &
% Mα (
% VN (
1# & # Mα & 5
# Δq* & % 1 −M q ( 3 % M δ E ( % ( * 33
(=−$ '3 *
% 2% L ( Δδ E − % −Lα ( Δα W6
%$ Δα * (' * Lα - 3% − δ E ( % V ( 3
,+ V M q + M α /. 34 $ VN ' $ N ' 37
N

26

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Equilibrium Response of
Approximate Short-Period Model
% Lα (
'& V M δ E *)
N
Δq* = − Δδ E *
% Lα (
'& V M q + M α *) with LδE = 0
N

Δα * = −
( MδE ) Δδ E + Δα W*
% Lα (
'& V M q + M α *)
N

Steady pitch rate and angle of attack response to elevator perturbation are
not zero
Steady vertical wind affects steady-state angle of attack but not pitch rate
Dynamic response to elevator step with LδE = 0

27

Phase Plane Plots

28

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A 2nd-Order Dynamic Model

⎡ Δ!x1 ⎤ ⎡ 0 1 ⎤ ⎡ Δx1 ⎤ ⎡ 1 −1 ⎤ ⎡ Δu1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥+⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ Δ!x2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ −ω n −2ζω n ⎥ ⎢ Δx2 ⎥⎦ ⎣ 0 2 ⎦ ⎢⎣ Δu2 ⎥⎦
2
⎦⎣

Δx1 ( t ) : Displacement (or Position)

Δx2 ( t ) : Rate of change of Position

ω n : Natural frequency, rad/s

ζ : Damping ratio, -
29

State ( Phase ) Plane Plots

" Δx1 % " 0 1 % " Δx1 % " 1 −1 % " Δu1 %
$ '≈$ 2 '$ '+$ '$ '
$# Δx2 '& $# −ω n −2ζω n ' $ Δx2
&# '& # 0 2 & $# Δu2 '&

% 2nd-Order Model - Initial Condition Response

clear
z = 0.1; % Damping ratio
wn = 6.28; % Natural frequency, rad/s
F = [0 1;-wn^2 -2*z*wn];
G = [1 -1;0 2];
Hx = [1 0;0 1];
sys = ss(F, G, Hx,0);
t = [0:0.01:10];
xo = [1;0];
[y1,t1,x1] = initial(sys, xo, t);

plot(t1,y1)
grid on

figure
plot(y1(:,1),y1(:,2))
grid on

Cross-plot of one component against

another
Time is not shown explicitly 30

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Dynamic Stability Changes

the State-Plane Spiral
Damping ratio = 0.1 Damping ratio = 0.3 Damping ratio = –0.1

31

Scalar Frequency Response

32

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Speed Control of
Direct-Current Motor

Angular Rate

Control Law (C = Control Gain)

u(t) = C e(t)
where
e(t) = yc (t) − y(t)
33

Characteristics
of the Motor
• Simplified Dynamic Model
– Rotary inertia, J, is the sum of motor and load
inertias
– Internal damping neglected
– Output speed, y(t), rad/s, is an integral of the
control input, u(t)
– Motor control torque is proportional to u(t)
– Desired speed, yc(t), rad/s, is constant
– Control gain, C, scales command-following
error to motor input voltage
34

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Model of Dynamics
and Speed Control
Dynamic equation
dy(t) u(t) Ce(t) C
= = = [ yc (t) − y(t)], y ( 0 ) given
dt J J J
Integral of the equation, with y(0) = 0
t t t
1 C C
y(t) = ∫ u(t)dt = ∫ e(t)dt = ∫ [ yc (t) − y(t)] dt
J0 J 0 J 0

Direct integration of yc(t)

Negative feedback of y(t)
35

Step Response of
Speed Controller
• Solution of the integral, "$ 0, t < 0
yc ( t ) = #
with step command 1, t ≥ 0
%$

( −$ 't +
"C %

y(t) = yc *1− e # J & - = yc ()1− eλt +, = yc (*1− e τ +-

−t

*) -, ) ,

• where
– λ = –C/J = eigenvalue or
root of the system (rad/s)
– τ = J/C = time constant of
the response (sec)

36

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Angle Control of a DC Motor

Control law with angle and angular rate feedback

u(t) = c1 [ y c (t) − y1 (t)] − c 2 y 2 (t)

Closed-loop dynamic equation, with y(t) = I2 x(t)

! x1 (t) $ ! 0 1 $ ! x1 (t) $ ! 0 $

€# &=# &# &+# & yc
#" x2 (t) &% #" −c1 / J −c2 / J & # x2 (t) & # c1 / J
%" % " &%

ω n = c1 J ; ζ = ( c2 J ) 2ω n
37

Step Response of Angle Controller,

with Angle and Rate Feedback
• Single natural frequency, ω n = c1 J ; ζ = ( c2 J ) 2ω n
three damping ratios c1 /J = 1
c2 /J = 0, 1.414, 2.828
% Step Response of Damped
Angle Control

F1 = [0 1;-1 0];
G1 = [0;1];

F1a = [0 1;-1 -1.414];

F1b = [0 1;-1 -2.828];

Hx = [1 0;0 1];

Sys1 = ss(F1,G1,Hx,0);
Sys2 = ss(F1a,G1,Hx,0);
Sys3 = ss(F1b,G1,Hx,0);

step(Sys1,Sys2,Sys3)

38

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Angle Response to a Sinusoidal

Angle Command
yC (t ) = yC peak sin ωt

• Output wave lags

behind the input wave
• Input and output
amplitudes different

y peak
Amplitude Ratio (AR) =
yC peak
Δt peak
Phase Angle (φ ) = −360 , deg
Period

39

Effect of Input Frequency on Output

Amplitude and Phase Angle
ω n = 1 rad / s
yc (t) = sin ( t / 6.28 ) , deg ζ = 0.707
• With low input
frequency, input
and output
amplitudes are
about the same
• Rate oscillation
leads angle
oscillation by
~90
• Lag of angle output
oscillation,
compared to input,
is small
40

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At Higher Input Frequency, Phase

Angle Lag Increases
yc (t) = sin ( t ) , deg

41

At Even Higher Frequency,

Amplitude Ratio Decreases and
Phase Lag Increases
yc (t) = sin ( 6.28t ) , deg

42

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Input Frequencies (previous slides)

Angle and Rate Very low dam ping

Response of a M oderate dam ping

DC Motor over High dam ping

Wide Input-
Frequency
Range
§ Long-term response
of a dynamic system
to sinusoidal inputs
over a range of
frequencies
§ Determine
experimentally from
time response or
§ Compute the Bode
plot of the system s
transfer functions
(TBD)
43

Next Time:
Transfer Functions and
Frequency Response
Reading:
Flight Dynamics
342-357

Learning Objectives
• Frequency domain view of initial condition response
• Response of dynamic systems to sinusoidal inputs
• Transfer functions
• Bode plots
44

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Supplemental Material

45

Example: Aerodynamic Angle, Linear

Velocity, and Angular Rate Perturbations
Learjet 23
MN = 0.3, hN = 3,050 m
VN = 98.4 m/s
Aerodynamic angle and linear velocity perturbations

Δα ! Δw V
N

Δα = 1° → Δw = 0.01745 × 98.4 = 1.7 m s

Δβ ! Δv V
N

Δβ = 1° → Δv = 0.01745 × 98.4 = 1.7 m s

Angular rate and linear velocity perturbations

Δp = 1° / s
Δwwingtip = Δp ⎡⎣ b 2 ⎤⎦ = 0.01745 × 5.25 = 0.09 m s
Δq = 1° / s
Δwnose = Δq [ xnose − xcm ] = 0.01745 × 6.4 = 0.11m s
Δr = 1° / s
Δvnose = Δr [ xnose − xcm ] = 0.01745 × 6.4 = 0.11m s 46

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Continuous- and Discrete-Time

Dutch-Roll Models
Differential Equations Produce
State Rates of Change

⎡ Δ!r ( t ) ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ Δr ( t ) ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ≈ ⎢ −0.11 1.9 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ + ⎢ −1.1 ⎥ Δδ R ( t )
⎢ Δβ! ( t ) ⎥ ⎣ −1 −0.16 ⎦ ⎢ Δβ ( t ) ⎥ ⎣ 0 ⎦
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
Difference Equations
Produce State Increments δ t = 0.1sec

# Δrk +1 & # 0.98 0.19 & # Δrk & # −0.11 &

% (≈% (% (+% ( Δδ Rk
%$ Δβ k +1 (' $ −0.1 0.97 ' %$ Δβ k (' $ 0.01 '
47

Continuous- and Discrete-Time

Roll-Spiral Models
Differential Equations Produce
State Rates of Change

⎡ Δ!p ( t ) ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ Δp ( t ) ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ≈ ⎢ −1.2 0 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ + ⎢ 2.3 ⎥ Δδ A ( t )
⎢ Δφ! ( t ) ⎥ ⎣ 1 0 ⎦ ⎢ Δφ ( t ) ⎥ ⎣ 0 ⎦
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
Difference Equations
δ t = 0.1sec
Produce State Increments

# Δpk +1 & # 0.89 0 & # Δpk & # 0.24 &

% (≈% (% (+% ( Δδ Ak
%$ Δφ k +1 (' $ 0.09 1 ' %$ Δφ k (' $ −0.01 '
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 11/15/18

4th- Order Comparison: Continuous-

and Discrete-Time Longitudinal Models
Phugoid and Short Period

Differential Equations Produce State Rates of Change

⎡ ΔV! ( t ) ⎤ ⎡ ⎡ ΔV ( t ) ⎤ ⎡
⎢ ⎥ −0.02 −9.8 0 0 ⎤⎢ ⎥ 4.7 0 ⎤
Δγ ( t ) ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎡ ⎤
Δγ! ( t ) ⎥ ⎢ 0.02 0 ⎥ ⎢ Δδ T ( t )
⎢ ⎥⎢
0 0 1.3 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥+⎢
⎢ Δq! ( t ) ⎥ ⎢ 0 0 −1.3 −8 ⎥⎢ Δq ( t ) ⎥ ⎢ 0 −9.1 ⎥ ⎢ Δδ E ( t ) ⎥
⎢⎣ −0.02 ⎥⎦ ⎢ ⎢ ⎣ ⎦
⎢ ⎥
Δα! ( t ) ⎥ 0 1 −1.3 Δα ( t ) ⎥⎥ ⎣ 0 0 ⎥⎦
⎢⎣ ⎦ ⎢⎣ ⎦

Difference Equations Produce State Increments δ t = 0.1sec

⎡ ΔVk+1 ⎤ ⎡ ⎡ ΔVk ⎤ ⎡ 0.47 0.0005 ⎤

⎢ ⎥ 1 −0.98 −0.002 −0.06 ⎤ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ Δγ k+1 ⎥ ⎢ 0.002 1 0.006 0.12 ⎥
⎥⎢ Δγ k ⎥ ⎢ 0.0005 −0.002 ⎥ ⎡ Δδ Tk ⎤
⎢ =⎢ +⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
Δqk+1 ⎥ ⎢ 0.0001 0 0.84 −0.69 ⎥ ⎢ Δqk ⎥ ⎢ 0 −0.84 ⎥ ⎢ Δδ Ek ⎥⎦
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎣
⎢⎣ Δα k+1 ⎥ ⎣ −0.002 0.0001 0.09 0.84 ⎥⎦ ⎢ Δα k ⎥ ⎣ 0 −0.04 ⎥⎦
⎦ ⎣ ⎦
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