The Spratly Islands: A Marine Park?

Author(s): John W. McManus

Source: Ambio , May, 1994, Vol. 23, No. 3 (May, 1994), pp. 181-186
Published by: Springer on behalf of Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/4314196

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 Article John W. McManus

The Spratly Islands: A Marine Park?

The Spratly Islands encompass a dense system of several

hundred coral reefs in the most biodiverse of the world's China Taiwan p
seas. They serve as breeding grounds for a wide variety of
organisms including sea turtles, birds, marine mammals,
and tuna. A study of pelagic larval survival times and current Vietnam T i
patterns indicates that they may supply recruiting organisms
for marine ecosystems throughout the South China Sea.
/cv
They may be of growing importance in replenishing over-
vc v v vX
harvested stocks which provide food and livelihood to
coastal villagers in the Philippines, Taiwan, mainland China,
v . . ..... . p Philippines
Vietnam, and Malaysia. Strategic concerns and vague
possibilities of hydrocarbon deposits have led each of these M
countries to station troops in the area, resulting in violent
B Malaysia
confrontations and environmental stress. Future oil drilling
could have widespread impacts. A more sustainable-use
strategy would be to freeze current claims on the islands Brunei
and establish an international marine park. Such a park
would rival the Great Barrier Marine Park in size, number of Figure 1. Conflicting claims to the Spratly Islands.
reefs and biodiversity, and could generate on the order of China, Taiwan and Vietnam claim all the islands and reefs.
The Philippines claims the area east of the solid line, and
USD 1 billion annually from tourism. Carefully managed, the
Malaysia claims that below the dotted line. Principal military
park would safeguard substantially-sized populations of outposts are shown as C, T, V, P and M for these countries.
tens of thousands of species, and help to ensure a steady Brunei (B) claims only one reef.
supply of recruits to regional fisheries.

INTRODUCTION
Every day, thousands of troops from five countries patrol the tiny
South China Sea (2). The Spratly Islands issue is currently one of
islets and exposed reefs of the Spratly Islands in the South China the greatest deterrents to economic cooperation and threats to
Sea. In the process, they trample nests of sea turtles and birds, and peace in the Southeast Asian region.
the shallow-water corals of one of the world's richest coral-reef In comparison with nearshore marine ecosystems in the region,
systems. Military garrisons grow continuously on small piles of the Spratly Islands are relatively pristine. However, that will not
rock and sand in a constant race for national sovereignty. Some be the case for long. The five countries that maintain significant
soldiers spend hours wading through daily tides because the military garrisons on the islands include the Philippines, The
structures they guard are not much higher than the surrounding People's Republic of China, Taiwan, Vietnam and Malaysia.
reefs. At least 78 personnel were reported to be dead or missing Taiwan has maintained a military presence in the area since 1956,
following a naval clash in the islands between China and Vietnam estimated in 1981 to involve approximately 600 personnel (4).
in March 1988. Seven Chinese and 49 Filipino fishermen have Other troop strengths are substantial, but figures have not been
been arrested for fishing in the disputed waters. The stakes inmadethe public. At least 40 of the islands and reefs are occupied, and
competition include strategic location and vague possibilities of defence constructions include buildings, heavy artillery
oil deposits. The risks include the loss of one of the Earth's greatinstallations, and two airports. These garrisons cost several tens of
natural repositories for marine species, and a source of larvae formillions of dollars annually to maintain, and put tremendous
small-scale fisheries throughout the region. stresses on the ecosystems of these small, low islands. The
The Spratly Islands encompass more than 600 coral reefs and presence of idle troops is of concern because of their tendency to
associated structures (1) scattered across an area north of Sabah engage in environmentally damaging activities such as shooting
and southern Palawan stretching for more than 300 nautic miles. turtles and seabirds, raiding nests, and fishing with explosives.
The structures which protrude above the sea surface at high tide More sporadic, but substantial, damage comes from occasional
include at least 26 islands and 7 exposed "rocks". China, Taiwan, parties of blast fishermen and coral-smashing muro-ami fishermen
and Vietnam each claim all the offshore islands in the South China from the Philippines. The Spratlys lie adjacent to major shipping
Sea, including the Spratlys. The Philippines claims most of the routes for oil and even nuclear waste (5) which could be released
Spratlys, and Malaysia claims islands in southern portions of the in the event of an accident in these reef-studded waters. More than
group (2). Historical claims include those by the Netherlands and 200 ships pass through the area daily (6). A potentially greater
France, and recently Brunei has joined the list (3). Ownership of threat comes in the form of possible oil spills emanating from
the islands is of concern not only because of potential indigenous nearby oil wells off western Palawan, Sabah, Sarawak, Brunei and
resources and strategic importance, but also because of the the Natuna Islands (5). This threat would be greatly intensified if
implications the islands have for the delineation of exclusive oil extraction were to commence within the Spratly Island group.
economic zones (EEZs) and similar boundaries throughout the Most of the concern over the islands has centered on potential

Ambio Vol. 23 no. 3, May 1994 ? Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences 1994 181

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 pelagic stage includes metamorphosed juveniles as well as larvae.
The pelagic stages are assumed to have adaptive significance,
probably related to avoiding predators on the crowded reef. The
species apparently use currents to remove their larvae from the
reef until they grow to more defensible sizes. It is strongly
suspected, though never clearly demonstrated, that coral reef fish
on certain reefs may be adapted to use temporally changing
currents and eddies to ensure a return to the originating reef
system (11). Even where this is the case, natural variations in
current patterns from year to year would cause a substantial
number of larvae to be broadly dispersed. The longer the pelagic
stage, the more likely this is to happen, and the more likely that the
species is adapted to population maintenance on larger geographic
scales than those of single reef clusters.
The South China Sea is subject to monsoonal wind patterns
which shift semiannually from origins in the northeast to origins
in the southwest. This results in a complex system of surface
currents, many of which completely reverse annually. These
currents have been mapped by Klaus Wyrtki for alternate months
of the year. The data sources which were available were often
Chinese junk in the Spratly Islands carrying shark skins and fins.
Large numbers of sharks and sea turtles are killed by long gill nets contradictory, but the general patterns are probably accurate on a
which are scattered across many reefs. Other fishers from Vietnam and large scale (13). Assuming that larvae were to be released from
the Philippines frequent the area, often using destructive fishing within the Spratlys at various times throughout the year, and that
techniques such as explosives. Photo: J.W. McManus.
some portion of larvae were then swept along with prevailing
currents, it is interesting to see where they would wind up. Figure
3 shows that larvae maturing in one or two months would often
resources to be gained by extraction from the area. In reality, the having to settle out in either Sabah, the Philippines,
find themselves
most important long-term resources to be had from the Spratlys
Taiwan, coastal China, the Paracell Islands, Vietnam, or the
may be those which are already actively being used-the larvae of Indonesian Natuna Islands. Even eastern Indonesia is apparently
fish and invertebrates which the Spratlys apparently supply to a possible destination for slow-developing larvae released in
heavily fished shore waters around the South China Sea. These October.
larvae may be the key to the simplest and most equitable solution The local fish stocks in most of these areas are very heavily
to the Spratly Island issue, the creation of an international marine fished. Adult fish are very difficult to find on some reefs in the
reserve. region. Most fish in the area reproduce in one or two peak periods

SUPPLYING REGIONAL STOCKS: A RESOURCE

SAVINGS BANK
f i ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~fn
The Southeast Asian seas annually yield approximately 7 million
tons of fishery resources. The annual value of this catch exceeds
USD 6.5 billion (5). The ASEAN nations export nearly USD 1
billion worth of fish products annually. More significantly, fisheries
contribute approximately 65% of the animal protein consumed in
countries such as the Philippines, Malaysia, and Indonesia (4),
with the highest dependencies being found among the poorest
coastal people. Areas adjacent to the Spratly Islands are particularly
productive, such that the annual catch from the reef-studded
waters of the Sabah-Palawan area is about 10 000 tons, valued at Isolated Philippine military outpost on Patag Island in the northern
approximately USD 15 million (5). Spratly Islands. Photo: W.Y. Licuanan.

Most benthic marine organisms have planktonic (drifting) or

pelagic (free-swimming) larval stages. These may range in dispersal
time from a few minutes in some corals and sea squirts, to nine Figure 2. Durations of the pelagic phase in 115 species of coral reef
fishes from 22 families, based on data from Brothers and Thresher (12).
months for some lobsters. In 1971, GunnarThorson estimated that Approximately one half of the species settle out only after 1-3 months
of approximately 135 000 species of benthic invertebrates in the of pelagic existence.
world, 100 000 probably have free-swimming larval stages of 2- 50%
4 weeks (7). At the higher end of this range are found some
commercially significant species, including some crabs (8) and at
40%
least one species of edible sea urchin (9). The pelagic period is
highly variable within genera. For example, six species of cones
metamorphose in the laboratory between 10-50Odays after hatching30 .

(10).
Coral reef fish species generally have pelagic larval, or o 20%

sometimes juvenile, stages of from 9 to 100O days ( 11 ).

Approximately one-half of the species have pelagic times of one
month or more ( 12) (Fig. 2). The term "pelagic" is used instead of
"planktonic" to indicate that the larvae actively swim. This 0%
activity is believed to be more meaningful with respect to later 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

stages than initial ones in terms of migration. In some cases, the Days in polagi

182 ? Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences 1994 Ambio Vol. 23 No. 3, May 1994

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each year. Recruitment to the Bolinao reef slope on western Luzon
occurs in a strong pulse around May, but that to the reef flat occurs
sporadically throughout the year (14). It is very likely that the
Spratly Islands and similar groups of uninhabited reefs serve as a
mechanism for stabilizing the supply of larvae to these areas. The
larval influx would be increasingly important as coastal populations
of adult fish become limited, as appears to be the case in many
coastal reefs of the Philippines and elsewhere.
If the larval supply from the Spratlys serves to stabilize certain
populations in the face of stresses such as harvest pressure, then
the larvae of those populations would likely have a similar effect
on downstream populations on the following generation. When
plotted on the Wyrtki current maps, these secondary dispersals
appear to cover most of Southeast Asia, plus some islands of
southern Japan.
These dispersal patterns may hold true not only for reef fish, but
for commercially important soft-bottom fish and invertebrates as
well. The islands and rocks of the Spratly group enclose hundreds
of subsurface reefs, extensive areas of shallow insular shelf, and
Seabirds on an island in the Spratlies. Traditionally, the islands were
some waters of substantial depths (2). It would appear, therefore,
densely covered with nests of seabirds and sea turtles. The situation
that the Spratly Island area could be considered a "savings bank" has changed drastically with the presence of armed troops on each
where commercially important fish and invertebrates are saved island and major exposed rock. Photo: W.Y. Licuanan.

Figure 3. Passive .............. ..... .... ................

....... ... .......
............... ........

dispersal .............. routes for ........ ........

............

..... ........
...............
........ .......

............ :::: December February

.... ........
.............. ........

slow -developing fish and ............. .... ............

.............
............
............
.......
............ .......
............
.......
........
........
.......

invertebrate larvae from 20-................ ....... .....

the Spratly Isla

Solid arrows indicate
... ... ................ .
.. . ...............

.
................. ':- X
. .. .. ......

dispersal w ithin one .................. ....

...................
............. ....
........... ....
.......... .... ....

. .......... ... .... .......... ....

month, dashed arrows are ............... .............. 7

...............
...............
...............
...............

for two months. Grey PI

10' -
areas are selected reef
0
banks. The large circle
encloses the Paracell
Islands and Macclesfield ..... .......
Bank. The arch covers the .....

....
.....

....
.....

......

Natuna Islands. Note that ....... ......

........ ... ...

oil spills in
Othe Spratly
' ......
follow similar routes.
. ..... -------
---- ....... ........
... ... .......
....... ........ .....
... .... ....... ....... .................
...
...
X
.......
......
.......
......
....... ........
.......
........ .................
........
....... .......
...... .......
........ .................
.................
........
....... .......
...... ....... .................
........ ...........

October ... _N Apdl

........ ....... .......
....... ...
........ ...

........ ....... .......

........ ....... .... ...

20 - ....... ........ ....

... .... ........

. ... ........... 9NRRM
............
.....
... .............. ... ......
.................. ... . ...................
.................. ... . ....................

..................... .. ..................... ..... ..

............. ............. ....
............ .... ............
............ .... ............ ....
.... ........... .......... ............. .. .

...... ......
..... ............... .....
...... ................ ....

.......................... 70

10'

........ .....
........ ......

...................... .......

................
.................
.............................
........... ...........
............. ............ .................
............. .... ........... ............. .................
..... .................. ............
............. ....... . ... ............ . ................
............ ........... ................. ............. ... .................
............... ........... ......... ............. .... ................
.............. .... ............... ...
............... ...........
............ ................
............ A u gust ................
................ .............

................ ................ Ju n e
............. ...............

............... ................

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............ ............ .... ............. ....
............ ..... ... ...........
. ..... ............ ... ............

20'
........
....... ..... ...
...............
.. .. ......
......
........ .... .. ....

......
. ..... ............
... ................... ..... ....
... .................. .... ..... .....

.. ...................
................ ... ...
. ..................
.. ................. ....
.. ........... ....... . ....
.. .................. . ... . ......

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............... .....
............... ....

..........
..........

V
10' -

.... ..... ......

..... .... ..... ........ Li

O' 42
......... ....

......... .......
........ .......

100' 110' 120- 130- 100' 110' 120' 130-

Ambio Vol. 23 no. 3, May 1994 ? Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences 1994 183

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Figure 4. Numbers of reef-building coral genera . ...........
worldwide. The Spratly Islands (black square) fall -2. .
in the region of highest diversity. The same holds ~
true for most marine taxa. (Based on a figure by '' *.**-~1
Veron (17)). 2

- ~~, 60 50 30

from overharvest genetically to local conditions,

(albeit the genes of the population must
unintentionally
supply a continous flow of larvae (interest) to areas of depletion. somehow be returned to that locality. A population in which all
A second important facet of the area concerns fish migration. progeny are swept unidirectionally downstream, and which is
Stocks of high-valued Yellowfin Tuna are known to migrate past supplied only by progeny from upstream, can never adapt
the Palawan-Sabah area into the Spratly area each August to genetically to local conditions, such as current structures, predation
October, and to return to the Sulu Sea each June to August (15). or harvest pressure. However, a chain of population centers
These fish are vital to the handline and longline industries in the related in the form of a semi-closed loop could permit such
central Philippines, and comprise a major export to Japan. The adaptation at the geographic scale of the loop. This could well be
area is also known to act as a breeding ground for other coastal the case in the South China Sea, where genetic feedback is likely
tuna species. to be possible to an area such as the Spratlys within two or three
generations for many species. Hence, the adaptability of some
species to future stresses could be seriously impaired if the larval
STABILIZING GENETIC DIVERSITY: LONG-TERM, exchange system were to be disrupted.
HIGH YIELD A logical management approach would be to provide for a
Southeast Asia is a region of anomalously high species richness network of reserves in the area which could "feed" each other with
(16). Among reef-building corals, for example, the region in larvae. An excellent place to start would be the Spratlys, because
which the Spratlys reside includes at least 70 genera (Fig. 4). This of its strategic location with respect to larval dispersal, and
diversity falls off rapidly to the east and west, such that Central because no group of truly indigenous people is yet dependent
East Africa hosts about 50 genera and the Central Pacific ranges upon its local marine populations for food.
from 50 to 10 genera (17). The actual number of marine species Beyond the role in genetic stability, there remains the fact that
in Southeast Asia is difficult to estimate given the inadequate state many marine species are widely known to be threatened with
of taxonomic science, but it is undoubtedly the highest to be extinction, and that the Spratlys provide critical habitats for
found. As biogeographer Geevart Vermeij put it, ". . . I know of several of them. The islands are known breeding places for a
no taxonomic group in the Indo-West-Pacific that does not reach variety of marine birds and sea turtles. Early accounts describe
a peak of diversity in this region" (18). The high diversity is beach nesting areas so dense that they were difficult to traverse on
reflected in local consumption, such that the tiny Bolinao fish foot (3). The islands are also important habitats for whales and
market in western Luzon involves some 350 species of fish, other marine mammals.
invertebrates and seaweeds. The total number of species to be
found at all depths (to 1800 m) in the Spratlys certainly ranges into
the tens of thousands. DRILLING: SHORT-TERM, HIGH-RISK
Several species of Southeast Asian marine birds, reptiles, One of the major concerns prolonging the debate over ownersh
mammals, and some shallow-water fish and invertebrates are of the Spratly Island area is the possibility of oil. It is by no m
threatened with extinction directly by overharvesting, pollution, certain that oil exists in the area in quantities large enough to m
and loss of habitat. Most other marine species are so widely extraction economically feasible (6). However, if ownership were
dispersed that extinction from the direct effects of overharvest to beisclearly established, it may be assumed that oil exploration in
not likely. However, attention has focussed recently on an indirect the area would take place on a substantial scale. Oil drilling poses
effect of harvest pressure which may be of concern. It is becoming a substantial threat to the wildlife of the Spratlys.
increasingly clear that a species which appears to be adequately Generally speaking, the deeper the water, the more expensive
protected can become extinct for reasons related to declining the drilling operation. This creates a strong incentive to construct
genetic variability. The minimal size of a population which canoil be rigs in shallow-water reef environments. The shallower the
considered to be "safe" from extinction varies substantially among water, the more environmentally damaging the operation is likely
species. "Safety" here includes protection from a variety of fairly to be.
unpredictable events such as outbreaks of predators or pathogens,In oil exploration, the drill must pass through layers of sediment
or natural catastrophes. Populations which have been substantially containing fluids of various viscosities. In order to prevent an
reduced from natural levels are unlikely to maintain constant upward rush of these fluids which might delay the operation or
ranges of genetic variability ( 19). This is especially the case when even topple the rig (a "blow-out"), fluids known as "drilling
the agent causing the population reduction, such as fishing, is muds" are injected into the hole, with viscosities comparable to
highly selective for certain traits and therefore specifically reducesthose expected in the sedimentary fluids. The drilling muds also
certain aspects of genetic variability. Populations which approach serve to lubricate and to flush-out rock cuttings made during
the Maximum Sustainable Yield Point (MSY) are generally drilling. The cuttings and mud are discarded into the water, and the
already reduced by about one-half of natural levels. Populations plume of mud is sometimes visible downstream for more than a
of many harvested fish in the Philippines and adjacent areas have kilometer. These and other discharges can result in up to 5000
been reduced significantly below this level. The same case may be barrels of mud being released in a few hours (20).
true for harvested invertebrates, about which less is known (14). Gas and oil blowouts are more serious. Most occur during
A further concern involves the dynamics of genetic exchange development drilling operations, and last from 15 minutes to one
among marine organisms with substantial pelagic stages and day. However, 16 of 46 blow-outs in the Gulf of Mexico from
strongly directional currents. In order for a population to adapt 1971 to 1978 occurred during completion, production, and

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workover operations, and were usually of longer duration and the study of Antarctica during the International Geophysical
much greater environmental impact (5). Year. The treaty was conceived of as a way to perpetuate such
Human error has been a factor in most blow-outs. However, the fruitful cooperation. At the time, there were a multitude of nations
situation is often exacerbated by natural factors, such as hurricanes,with potential claims to the resources of the continent. Actual
earthquakes, or large waves. The South China Sea has the most claims of specific areas (often overlapping) included those by
volcanos of any area of comparable size in the world. Earthquakes Argentina, Chile, Great Britain, Norway, New Zealand, Austra-
and typhoons occur less frequently in the Spratly Island area than lia, and France. Potential claims by the US and Germany had not
in the Philippines, but are still major concerns. Tsunamis occur in yet been formally pursued. Some minor armed conflicts and
the basin on an average of about one every three years (5). Thus, property destruction had occurred. The treaty, enacted in 1961,
regardless of what safety measures are taken, there is a reasonable included a moratorium on claims of resources. The provisions of
probability that serious accidents will occur sometime within a the treaty are highly relevant to a possible Spratly agreement
few years following oil discovery, and considerable damage to the (Table 1). The emphasis on international cooperation in science
wildlife of the Spratlys will ensue. This damage might be less has paid off remarkably, such that a substantial part of what is
immediate, however, than that which is likely to arise as a currently known about global processes has arisen from
consequence of armed conflict over the oil resources. Bombs, of internationally collaborative programs in Antarctica (21). The use
course, can cause considerable damage to coralline structures. of the Antarctic Treaty as a pattern for the "freezing" of claims
More significantly, an armed conflict would be very likely tothroughout
arise the South China Sea has been proposed by several
after the onset of oil drilling, and a small-scale version of the authors (22).
recent Persian Gulf oil spill is a possible consequence. The Torres Strait Treaty between Australia and Papua New
Guinea, is very detailed and includes provisions specifically
designed to protect a region of islands and reefs from
AN INTERNATIONAL MARINE PARK: TIMELY overexploitation and damage (2). Recent authors, however, have
INVESTMENT renewed the call to reinforce the agreement with actual marine
Negotiations involving national boundaries are more complex reserve designations (23). The agreement contains provisions that
than most people realize. For example, if it became widely neither country will attempt to extend its boundaries in specific
recognized that Malaysia had a legal claim to even one of the regions (2).
Spratly Islands, then other boundaries in the area would become
open for renegotiation. These might include the EEZ boundaries
in the eastern South China Sea between Indonesia, Malaysia, and A MANAGEMENT SCENARIO: INVESTING WISELY
Vietnam, which are based on the principal of equidistance from A possible treaty for the Spratlys might follow the leads of the
national baselines. Even nonclaimant Indonesia could stand to Antarctic Treaty and the Torres Strait Treaty in calling a truce to
lose potential seafloor area and resources as a result of attempts to ownership aspirations for a definite period, such as 50 years, with
resolve the Spratly issue (2). an option for review and indefinite renewal. A possible manage-
A "rock" extending above the water can be used to extend a ment strategy might include five elements: (i) an international
national baseline. However, a structure qualifying as an "island" board of directors; (ii) a contracted research and management
can alsojustify a 200 nautic mile EEZ and other benefits. Ownership institution; (iii) a private ranger/air-sea rescue force; (iv) tourism
of the Spratlys would imply control over large areas of the central facilities; (v) research facilities and programs.
South China Sea. To add to the confusion, rocks jutting above The claimant countries would probably each require represen-
reefs can rapidly turn into islands following the accumulation of tation on a pooled board of directors. It would be particularly
sand and vegetation. Similarly, islands can disappear after storms fruitful if this board were composed of scientists, and carried the
or volcanic activity. Furthermore, the rules regarding boundary extra function of planning for international collaboration on
claims are not universally recognized by all the claimant nations research programs in the area. The actual management of the
(2). The Spratly Island issue could be settled only after incredibly reserve would involve research and monitoring activities in order
complex and unusually fruitful negotiations between 6, 7 or 8 to head off possible deterioration from such things as regional oil
countries, concerning present and even future geographic spills, or diminishing supplies of larvae from other areas. An
considerations. Armed conflict might be even more multinational, international research organization might be contracted to oversee
as most local claimants have military support agreements with
major powers including the US, Great Britain, Australia, New
Zealand, and possibly some remnants of the former Soviet Union.
Considering the fact that military units from at least four nations
now occupy islands in the Spratlys, the possibility of armed
Table 1. Selected provisions of the Antarctic Treaty
confrontations in the future is by no means remote. pertinent to a possible Spratly Island Treaty (21).
With regard to boundary negotiations concerning the South
China Sea outside of the Spratly area, the simplest strategy would Article Provision
be to simply ignore the Spratlys. This has essentially been the case
in recent history, and it could continue to be so as long as all I. Peaceful use of Antarctica
II. International cooperation and freedom of
countries agreed not to pursue their claims of ownership among
scientific investigation
the Spratlys. By turning the Spratlys into a neutral, international IlIl Free exchange of plans, scientific results, and
personnel
marine reserve, all claimants could continue to benefit from the IV. Nonrenunciation of prior claims; prohibiton of
living resources emanating from the area, and a host of potential new claims and citation of any activities during
the treaty term as a basis for past or future
conflicts could be avoided. Also to be avoided are the many tens claims
of millions of dollars currently being spent each year on maintaining V. Prohibition of nuclear explosions or waste
disposal
garrisons of troops to guard against each other. There are several VII. Open inspection of any nation's Antarctic
operations by any other nation
international agreements which could serve as precedents for such
XI. Referral of disputes to the International Court of
a development. Two such agreements are the Antarctic Treaty and Justice if they cannot be settled peacefully
through negotiation or arbitration
the Torres Strait Treaty. XII. Review of the treaty after 30 years upon request
The Antarctic Treaty was conceptualized in 1957 after 18 of any contracting party

months of very successful international scientific cooperation in

Ambio Vol. 23 no. 3, May 1994 ? Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences 1994 185

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 References and Notes
1. Anonymous. 1988. Another Spratlys spat. Asiaweek, May 20, 26-27.
2. Prescott, J.R.V. 1981. Maritime jurisdiction in Southeast Asia: a commentary and map.
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Honolulu, Hawaii, 60 p.
3. Doyo, C.P. 1991. Kalayaan, the Philippines' claim. Sunday InquirerMagazine 6, 16-19.
4. Valencia, M.J. 1990. Intemational conflict over marine resources in Southeast Asia:
trends in politicization and militarization. In: Conflict over Natural Resources in South-
East Asia and the Pacific. Ghee, L.T. and Valencia, M.J. (eds). 256 p. United Nations
University Press, Oxford University Press, and Ateneo University Press, Manila,
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5. Valencia, M.J. 1989. Petroleum and minerals: policy issues. In: Coastal Area Manage-
ment in Southeast Asia: Policies, Management Strategies and Case Studies. ICLARM
Conference Proceedings 19, 254 p. Chua, T.-E. and Pauly, D. (eds). Ministry of Science,
Technology and the Environment, Kuala Lumpur; Johor State Economic Planning Unit,
Johore Bahru, Malaysia; and Intemational Center for Living Aquatic Resources Mana-
gement, Manila, Philippines, p. 27-41.
6. Anonymous. 1992. Troubled waters. Asiaweek, February 21, p. 20-21.
7. Thorson, G. 1971. Life in the Sea. McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 256 p.
8. Friese, U.E. 1973. Marine Invertebrates. T.F.H. Publications, Inc. Neptune City, N.J.,
240 p.
9. Cameron, R.A. 1986. Reproduction, larval occurrence and recruitment in Caribbean sea
urchins. Bull. Mar. Sci. 39, 332-346.
10. Kohn, A.J. 1983. Marine biogeography and evolution in the tropical Pacific: zoological
perspectives. Bull. Mar. Sci. 33, 528-535.
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important in maintaining biodiversity and harvestable stocks p. 183-230. In: The Ecology of Fishes on Coral Reefs. Sale, P.F. (ed.). Academic Press,
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Lepidozygus tapeinosoma approach an overgrown Porites rus coral
of Indo-Pacific coral reef fishes. In: The Ecology of Coral Reefs. Reaka, M.L. (ed.).
head inhabited by a Cephalopholis urodeta grouper. Symposia Series for Undersea Research, NOAA's Undersea Research Program, 3(1). p.
Photo: J.W. McManus. 53-69.
13. Wyrtki, K. 1961. Physical oceanography of the Southeast Asian waters. NAGA Report
Vol. 2, 195 p. Scripps Institution of Oceanography, La Jolla, Califomia.
14. McManus, J.W., Nafiola Jr., C.L., Reyes Jr., R.B. and Kesner, K.N. Resource Ecology of
the Bolinao Coral Reef System. ICLARM Studies and Reviews 22, 117 p.
15. Valencia, M.J. 1991. Coastal area management in ASEAN: the transnational issues. In:
Towards an Integrated Management of Tropical Coastal Resources. ICLARM Conference
Proceedings 22. Chou, L.M., Chua, T.-E.,Khoo, H.W., Lim, P.E., Paw, J.N., Silvestre,
management and related studies. A "park" ranger team would be G.T., Valencia, M.J., White, A.T. and Wong, P.K. (eds). National University of Singa-
necessary to prevent poaching and other violations of manage- pore; Singapore; National Science and Technology Board, Singapore, and Intemational
Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management, Philippines, p. 279-290.
ment regulations. Such a team could serve a secondary role as a 16. McManus, J.W. 1985. Marine speciation, tectonics and sea-level changes in Southeast
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regional air-sea rescue squad, which would be of tremendous
17. Veron,J.E.N. 1986. Corals ofAustraliaandtheIndo-Pacific. Australian Institute of Marine
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18. Vermeij, G.J. 1978. Biogeography and Adaptation: Patterns of Marine Life. Harvard
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providing advanced warning on the approach of oil slicks from 19. Hedrick, P.W. and P.S. Miller. 1992. Conservation genetics: techniques and fundamentals.
Ecol. Appl. 2, 30-46.
passing or grounded ships, and by assisting with and coordinating 20. Hudson, J.H., Shinn, E.A. and Robbin, D.M. 1982. Effects of offshore oil drilling on
oil containment and clean-up operations. Philippine reef corals. Bull. Mar. Sci. 32, 890-908.
21. Ford, A.B. 1986. Antarctica. Encyclopedia Britannica 15th Edition 13, 845-863.
Most of the funds for management operations could come from Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc. Chicago, Illinois.
22. Johnston, D.M. and Valencia, M. 1991. Pacific Ocean Boundary Problems: Status and
the consortium of claimant nations and others that would benefit
Solutions, Vol. 16. Publications on Ocean Development. Dordrecht-Boston-London:
from having peace and security in the region. However, some Martinus Nijhoff Publs.
23. Johannes, R.E. and MacFarlane, J.W. 1991. Traditional Fishing in the Torres Strait
form of well-regulated tourism would generate additional income, Islands. CSIRO Division of Fisheries, Hobart, Australia. 268 p.
and help to maintain public awareness and hence longevity of the 24. First submitted 11 February, 1993. Accepted for publication 19 April 1993. Contribution
no. 222, Marine Science Institute, University of the Philippines.
agreement. Designated reefs could serve as diving spots for cruise
vessels based in peripheral countries, thus, boosting the regional
tourist trade. The comparably-sized Great Barrier Reef Marine
Park provides Australia with an annual tourist income of USD 1.4
billion. Finally, research facilities could be established, such that
the international community could benefit from the vital ecological
and management information to be gathered at such an anomalously
pristine site amid highly diverse waters. The development of a
field research training program for marine-science graduate
students would further address critical needs of the region and
enhance the value of the reserve as an international asset.

SUMMARY: AN EQUITABLE SAVINGS APPROACH

The primary benefactors of the "Spratly Resource Savings Bank"
appear to be the low-income fishing families living along the coast
of the South China Sea. National interests are currently being
John W. McManus is a senior scientist at the International
served as well, in terms of a widely distributed and critical food
Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management
supply, and substantial export earnings. The task of protecting that (ICLARM), where he coordinates the development of
system would involve a substantial effort and a high degree of Reef Base, a database designed to track the ecological and
cooperation among several nations. However, the complexity and management status of the coral reefs of the world. He has
spent more than fourteen years conducting research on the
costs would be small in comparison with those of the Antarctic
coral reefs and fisheries of Southeast Asia. The present
program. There are very few alternative scenarios which do not
study was a product of his work as On-Site University of
involve the threat of armed conflict, or, at the very least, inequitably Rhode Island Scientist of the Fishery Stock Assessment
divided short-term gains acquired at the risk of substantial damage Collaborative Research Support Program (FSA-CRSP) at the
to regional fisheries. The marine-reserve alternative appears to be Marine Science Institute of the University of the Philippines.
His address: ICLARM, MCPO Box 2631, 0718 Makati, Metro
the most rational way to settle the Spratly Islands issue so as to
Manila, Philippines.
save regional and global natural resources, and human lives as
well.

186 C Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences 1994 Ambio Vol. 23 No. 3, May 1994

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