1 EXPERIMENT NO. :-8 Planck’s constant by photocell 's constant ‘h’ AAIM:- To study the Photoelectic effect and determine the value of Planck bench, Mercury , ical APPARATUS:- D.C. Power supply, Photocell with housing and mount, OPHCA TY eg ‘apor lamp fitted in wooden box, Choke of mercury lamp, A set of optical filters ( S700A) sn to be emitted from ergy in the form of ‘one photon (hv), THEORY:- Light striking a metal surface stimulates electrons causing the the surface. This process is known as Photoelectric effect. Light carries en ‘energy packets known as photons, Each photon has energy hu. By absorbing 1 electron will move out of metal surface if hu» energy is greater than electrostatic pull of metal known as work function. Work function is constant for @ particular material. The maximum Kinetic energy of emitted electron (KE) = hu -¢ hv = $+ KE a Where /h is Planck's constant and is frequency of incident radiation. This equatio Einstein Photo-Electric equation. It gives the following information: , 1. There should be minimum frequency v,called the threshold frequency at which photo energy becomes equal to work function and the photo electric effect ceases below this frequency. 2. The number of electrons emitted by the photo metal is directly proportional to the received intensity, 3. Kinetic energy of the Photoelectrons is directly proportional to the frequency of incident radiation, yn is known as Fig.(1): Schematic diagram showing Photoelectric effect. In Fig.(1), incident light strikes the cathode in the tube and photoelectrons are emitted. The emitted photoelectrons move towards the positive anode and give rise to a photocurrent. One can calculate the KE of photo electrons by applying negative potential to anode. The minimum-2- negative anode potential at which photocurent becomes zero is known a stoping potential (¥:) = e¥, and eq. (1) is modified as follows At the stopping potential KE hv =$+ev, @ eV, =hv-$ he V, =hv-p=- eh, =he- b= 6 Fitters can be placed in front of the window of photoelectric tube, which will allow a particular frequency of light to reach the emitter. This will help us to understand the effect of frequency of incident light on photocurrent and stopping pot Thus a graph between storping potential V,vs. frequency v is a straight line, with slope (h/e) related to plank’s constant / and x intercept being the cut-off frequency, v, where V, = 0. Plt hoa where 4. is corresponding cut-off wavelength (Fig. (2)}. a v Fig. (2): Stopping potential (V, ) versus frequency (v) plot If A, and A, be the wavelengths of light used to illuminate the cathode and V, and V, be their respective stopping potentials then, ey. 2 can be written us: hu, =b+eV, hv, =$+eV, Me, -0,) =e, -¥,) 8) DyUtilizing v = ; Eq. (2) becomes. (A -A) he: 2? = -V, pe th, -¥) V,-¥, She SS sant ~see This formula can be used to calculate the Planck’s constant. 1 4 Photocurrent t 4 b> hr y, Fig.(3): Photocurrent versus stopping potential plot at various intensities If the intensity of the light increases, the photocurrent also increases proportionally but ig-(3). At the same time, if the stopping potential remains the same. This is depicted in we decrease the intensity of light the amount of the photocurrent decreases but for even the weakest signal ‘photoelectric phenomenon’ takes place PROCEDURE:- Put the Photo cell and source of light en the optical bench and align them. I. Make proper connections of Planck’s constant set up with the Photo-cell through the 2. cable provided with the set up. 3. Switch ‘ON’ the Planck’s constant set up and adjust the zero in the nanometer (Photo current meter) keeping the anode potential zero. Put a filter between the Photo cell and source of light. 4. Switch “ON” the Mercury bulb and adjust the slit to get some deflection in the photocurrent meter at zero anode potential. 5. Note this Photo current for zero anode potential and make table as shown below. 6. Apply a small negative potential on the anode say 50 mV with the help of knob, provided in the supply and measure the corresponding Photo current. Note this Photo current in the observation table. 7. Increase the negative anode potential (may be in step of 50 mV) and note the corresponding Photo current for same filter till it becomes zero. 8. Repeat the experiment for different light filters.10, Find the stopping p 11, Calculate tie value 9, Plot a graph between current on y-axis for dif tential for each wavelengt 4. negative anode potential on x axis and the corresponding Photo ferent filers of wavelength of light th from the graph ‘of Planck's constant fur eacl: wavelength and find ws mean, OBSERVATION [ENo | Negative Conespor Jing Phoio-cuire..i ( HA) ‘Anode Potential Violet filter | Blue Filter | Yellow filter (Volt.) 4000 A 4900 A $700 A T [00 2 (0.04 3 [008 fa Tei 3 [016 6 (020 7 [024 4 8 [028 9 [032 10 | 036 rr) - 2 [0.44 | 13 [048 1/952 | is [056 16 [0.60 37 «(0.64 18 | 0.68 19 [0.72 7 2% | 0.76 21 ‘| 0.80 GRAPHS:- Plot a graph between Negative Anode Potential (on X-axis) (on Y-axis) for different wavelengths of Hight and obtain the wavelength and the coresponding Photocurrent values of stopping pctential for eachPhotocurrent (A) ‘Negative anode Potential (V) Fig. (4) Graph between Photocurrent (WA) and Negative anode Potential (V) at different wavelengths Stopping potential for violet filter y= Stopping potential for blue filter V,= Stopping potential for yellow filter V, = CALCULATIONS:- Electronic charge =1.6x10~" Coulomb Velocity of light(c) = 3x10° m/sec Using equation (3), we can find different values of Planck’s constant Ing = IAA F506 oa, -2,) VA) 7, eA, -A) hy, = KAA) 5 005 ne ela, -a) fsTf Asay pa 9 pn sued Byddos 24) 1 ‘Aire peas 2qprnot -yowda 40 saa4NOS “sasea1our ipiuofonen sv as6aip prnoys aBeyon Bends UL 6 wousadxo ayy Sunaiduoo s9ye aoy> 1434 29 prnous f20I0K 2 JO IS UL ‘pauoyd 29 pinoys siod eep ajo sow yBnong Buszed au yBtens OOM Y Jo Aureauruou ‘Suddors 419 1 anp axa rexpsuou prone o1 ydesd oxy Kq paunseous 2 pj ‘iy 9am] 38 YL pug “anyon wanuuyeeu so) parsnipe woos ap © pouuopad 9 pInoys wow 1 ~sNOWAVOA {298 31n0f ,..01 X Z9Z9°9 = (4) 1URISUOD §,42UB1d JO AIBA | prepuns) yea prepews ‘001 x (SATE PIRPURTS = TEX FATISGO) = s0uD aBuaaiog “youd JOVNIOUId sana Aq paridaynus edoys snyy. “fy adoqs quLAB MANUAL EXPERIMENT NO. -9 eTER HELMHOLTZ GALVANOMI jong the axis of Helmholtz AIM: = To study the variation of magnetic fiekd with distances ° galvanometer and to estimate the radius of the coil. iminator, eli APPARATUS - Helmholtz galvanometer, magnetometer compass POX ammeter, battery theostat, commutator switch, key plug, connecting, wires. je form THEORY: The term Helmholtz coils refers to a device for producing a resi” of nearly unife magnetic fel. Is named in honor of German physicist Hermann von Hele identical circular magnetic coils that are placed symmetrically parallel cach other ani axis, z-axis. The rings have radius r and they are separated by @ distance equal to oF than r. Each coil carries an equal electrical current flowing in same direction. tz. It consists of two don acommon slightly larger Figure 1. Helmholtz coils The first step is to calculate the field produced by pair of Helmholtz coil Ifa current (1) is allowed to flow through a wire of length (1), and the wire is bent into an arc of radius r, then the magnetic field intensity (F) at center of the coil is Where [1o= permeability of free space (4x x 107 (Henry/meter = kg m/A?s*)) For a circular coil of n tums we substitute I=2rtm in equation (1)Deparment ow, substituting the value of He in equation 2) “The magnetic field produced by each ring given by ‘The magnetic ld at any point on axis at ctance (x) from center of cil is , pea 4 10’? +r?) te of of magnetic field. —ooo Tr Fr / Magnetic field nenerated by aco! with radius LZ ()=Im. Magnetic field generated by a pair of Helmholtz coils ‘Therefore, dF 5 @F _ ayn +r)? oF =-3u2nir?Vs" +17) ] # s 1 EF omits or) 300 +P ee dx From which, rath, if r ‘Thus a point, x= +, from center of coil, F constant 2 ixDepart ment of mLOtPhy sis and Materials Sctene n lence and Engineering We obs : Oo tet Figure, the rte of nerese of Feld due to one col at midpoint between the cols is equal to away slog whe ‘ate of decrease of field due to the other at the same point. Therefore if one moves Compensated By me othe Midpoint, any diminution in the intensity ofthe fied due to one coli Practically uniform increase in the field due to the other so that the field between the coils 1s th magnetic field and magnetic field of c Magnetometer: ‘The magnetic compass box used inthis experiment is called Magnetometer. The ed point in the cieuity n Corresponds to North direction (Red is analogous to positive terminal of electrical expen ain Sbsence of magnetic field the needles ae in east west direction and while performing the Periment in order to avoid to the Earth's horizontal magnetic field. So the bench of the Helmholtz Balvanometer should be kept in east-west direction. Magnetic meridian: The vertical plane passing through the axis of a freely suspended magnet is called magnetic meridian, The direction of Earth's magnetic field lies in the magnetic meridian and may not be orizontal. Geographical meridian: The vertical plane passing through the true geographical North and South (or geographical axis of Earth) is called geographical meridian De tion: The angle between the magnetic meridian and the geographic meridian at a place is called declination at that place-uoqusod wnuqyenba ag u H Yu g afar ue eI wife 4 say yoe> 0} Sofue Bt eH uP J splay ay2uFeu wuotun om Aq uodn pase St spacu snoudew 2x9 smi “(PY Naueu §, ques yo wusuEdo> reuozuoH) H 1 seoxpuadsod 5} io a w 2uynoy | wauna 99 oF 2np pou neue oy ueIpaU nau pw PaDet [109 24 rer pa wisn 0 WoUIIEEAGmuna 20Nd yoo au yo praycaer sista Jom mp) gua fuoy xo low sede J 2un8q) | 6 “ais fame | 9m 30 200 aun | vo 2ypo0u ayy AMATO Yo weg | ll] | “SNOLLVAWaSaO ys ap wo poutngo ane 24 S39 oy oe pes spor pean 9 paseo 9 uo 09 2 ousayaD a, “ey10. S.No. Position _[Deflection in the needle when it is on other side of bench ef the 1 needle | ¥8Y | Current reversed on one of the | 9, 0: 8 a seale. Distance of i} Mean @ ‘Compass box tanO from degree center of | Eastend| West | East end) West coil) of end of | of end of x (em) needle | needle | needle | needle 1CALCULATION- Circumference of the coil as obtained by a thread and meter scale = MsCircumference Radius of the coil, as obtained from measurement = QnRadius of the coil, as obtained fiom the graph ~ disiance between the points A and 5, RESULT: - | “on in the magnetic field with distance, along the avis of the giver: coil as shown in the graph. 2. of the coil = ........+. €m, as obtained from the graph and... 3 votains from measurement PRECAUTIONS- 1. Connections should be clean and tight. 2. Circuit should be properly connected and checked before turning it “ON”. 3. Numbers of tums should be equal in both coils. 4, Plug key should be used in circuit and it should not be closed while making connections or taking reading. The coil should be adjusted properly in the magnetic meridian. 6. The apparatus should be at considerable distance from current carrying conductors and magnetic materials. 7. The positive marked terminal of the ammeter snould be always connected to positive terminal of battery. 8. While taking readings there can be error due to parallax which should be avoided. 9. Readings at both ends of the pointer should be taken. SOURCES OF ERROR 1. Connections might not be tight. 2. Magnetic needle might not be pivoted at center. APPLICATIONS: 1, Use to measure de current in circuit.EXPERIMENT NO. - 10 SOLAR CELL PLANCK’S CONSTANT ‘h’ ion in a fixed Object: Determination of Planck's constant *h’ by measuring "a spectral range. hown in figure (1) fitted on mint Apparatus used: The complete experimental arrangemen! as sl Jament current consists of filament bulb, its power supply (0-12 V dc.) » A solar cell optical bench, one Ammeter (0-2 A) and one volimeter (0-10 V) © ead 7 and voltage, one digital D.C. Microammeter (0-200 HA.) Solar Cell Filament Bulb Figure 1(a) Filament Current A ‘lament Power 7 Filament ‘Supply Current Voltage Control Figae iu) Theory: For a black body at temperature ‘T" the total radiations as well as the spectral distribution for this radiation are funccions of temperature T alone. The spectral distribution involves Planck's constant ‘h’. 8ahe he E,da= Se ew) - | da Working with visible light and temperature upto 2500 °K , we have, « >>I. Hence equation (1) simplifies to, Bahe he Edi = enpl-s dakIf the radiation is received throngh a filter on a photocell and galvanometer response 6 is measured, we get: B h 0 =BahcAf HF exol-sp- Mah fesctteesnseessesed Where A is a factor depending on geometry of the arrangement and sensitivity of the galvanometer and By is a function of & which includes (i) transmission characteristics of the filter and (ii) wavelength wise response of the photocell. The integral has to cover all range of A for which B, is non zero. If we have filter, which has, transmission characteristics schematically represented by figure 2 (a) and a photovolt: ic cell with response schema‘-ally represented in figure 2 (b) then the B, function is given by products of ordinates T and R plotted against respective values figure 2 (c). A A R a 1 ‘ i Bs ' ! : i 1 i toi t ; 5000 6000 7000 5000 6000 7000 5000 6000 ay LAY a (a) (b) (©) Figure 2 However, if the filter has a narrow transmission band, one may reduce equation (3) to , @=BAhcAC, exp(—TE)MAg vererrtrrrenenreeed 4 ‘Where o is some effective mean wavelength, A 2s is the effective band width and C 1 is a constant depending on ho. At two different temperatures, we get 9 8. a 9. 10. | J J 3 9 Calculations: a . ? From equation (7) 5 2 “ 29jy = 23034, Alo J \ N ‘ (1 erg =10° Joule) | Where 2,= 6000 A” (mean wavelength of light) k= 1.38 x 10% erg/kelvin (Boltzmann's constant) c= 3x10 " meter/sec. (velocity of light) Adog,, 8) 1 A PP. Slope of the curve. MAXIMUM PROBABLE ERROR: Sh _Alogo , aT ne TT Results: 1 ‘The experimentally observed values of Planck’s constant * h 2 ‘The standard value of Planck’s constant ‘h’ = h=6.625x10-* J /sec ‘The experimentally observed value of h is always with in 10 to 15% of the standard value. Must Read: a) Solar Cell (working & applications) b) Black body radiation. ©) Rayleigh Jean's Law 4) Planck’s radiation formula ©) Wien's displacement lawTable -11 [Tee 0273 02, 0300 03. 0400 04. 0500 05. 0600 06. 9700 07. 0800 08. 0s00 09. 1000 1.29 2 1100 1.45 11. 1200 1.61 12. 1300 1.79 13. 1400 1.95 14, 1500 2.14 15. 1600 2.30 16. 1700 2.46 17. 1800 2.65 18. 1900 2.85 19. 2000 3.05 20 2100 3.26 241. 2200 3.46 22. 2300 3.66 23. 2400 3.85-7- Study Notes: Solar cell; Solar cells represent the They are made fr electronic devic, Operation, solar fundamental power conversion unit of a photovoltaic system. ‘om semiconductors, and have much in common with other solid-state 8, such as diodes, transistors and integrated circuits. For practical Cells are usually assembled into modules, deny iferen Solar cells are now available on the market, and yet more are under the quest ny TNE Fange of solar cells spans different materials and different structures in minitnue, (2 &X'2Ct maximum power from the device while keeping the cost 10 a these am: LF¥stalline silicon cells hold the largest part of the market. To reduce the cost, Pe ls are now often made from multicrystalline material, rather than from the more the ve Single crystals. A cheaper (but also less efficient type of silicoa cells, made in si or™ oF amorphous thin films, ae used to power a variety of consumer products. You w it be familiar with the solar-powered watches end calculators, but larger amorphous Silicon solar modules are also available A particular class of high-efficiency solar cells from single crystal silicon or compound semiconductors (for example, gallium arsenide or indium phosphide) are used in Specialised applications, for example, to power satellites or in systems which operate under high-intensity concentrated sunlight. The solar cell operation is based on the ability of semiconductors to convert sunlight directly into electricity by exploiting the photovoltaic effect. In the conversion process, the incident energy of light creates mobile charged particles in the semiconductor which are then separated by the device structure and produce electrical current. To help us understand how solar cells work, we shall first examine the following elements of semiconductor physics: * the characteristic distribution of electron energies within the semiconductor, + how the electrical properties of semiconductors can be controlled by the addition of impurities; * how illumination creates mobile charged particles called electrons and holes at the semiconductor junction; Band structure and Doping The principles of semiconductor physics are best illustrated using the example of silicon, a group 4 elemental semiconductor. The silicon crystal forms the so-called diamond lattice where each atom has four nearest neighbours at the vertices of a tetrahedron. The four-fold tetrahedral co-ordination is the result of the bonding arrangement which uses the four outer (valence) electrons of each silicon atom . Each bond contains two electrons, and you can easily see that all the valence electrons are taken up by the bonds.-8- Most other industrially Inttices. and have # simi semiconductors for solar-cell applications. Material Energy gap (eV) Type of gap crystalline Si Liz indirect amorphous Si 1.15 direct CulnSe, 1.05 direct CaTe 145 direct GaAs 1.42 direct InP. 1.34 direct important semiconductors crystallise in this or closely related lar arrangement of the bonding orbitals. This crystal structure has a profound effect on the electronic and optical properties of the semiconductor. According to the quantum theory, the energy of an electron in the crystal must fall within well-defined bands. The energies of valence orbitals which form bonds between the atoms represent just such a band of states, the valence band. The next higher band is the conduction band which is serarated from the valence band by the enecgy gap, or band gap. The width of the band gap Ec - Ev is a very important characteristic of the semiconductor and is usually denoted by Eg. This table gives the band gaps of the most imnortant A pure semiconductor (which is cailea intrinsic comains just the rgni numbe. of electrons to fill the valence band, and the conduction band is therefore empty Electrons in the full valence band cannot move - just as, for example, marbles in a full Lox with a lid on top. For practical purposes, a puie semiconductcr is therefore an insulztor. Band diagram and the electron-hole distribution in semiconductors. Semiconductors can only conduct electricity if carriers are introduced into the conduction band or removed from the valence band. One way of doing this is by alloying the semiconductor with an impurity. This process is called doping. As we shall see, doping makes it possible to exert a great deal of control over the electronic properties of a semiconductor, and lies in the heart of the manufacturing Process of all semiconductor devices.subpase that Some group 5 impurity atoms (for example, phosphorus) are added to used to fll ret fom whick the crysta! is grown. Four of the five outer electrons are | therefore mine valence band and the one extra electron from each impurity atom is | called donee Oed 10 the conduction band. For this reason, these impurity atoms are | onors. The electrons in the conduction band are mobile, and the crystal ‘omes a cond 7 n | this t ductor. Since the current is carried by negatively charged electrons, A ane of semiconductor is called n type. similar situati example, boron’ | ion occurs when silicon is doped with group 3 impurity atoms (for | heed ) which are called acceptors. Since four electrons per atoms are | ceded to fill the valence band completely, this doping creates electron deficiency in this band. The missing electrons — called holes - behave as positively charged | | Particles which are mobile, and carry current. A semiconductor where the electric | fent is catvied predominantly by holvs is called p-type. Semiconductor iusctions The Operation of solar cells is based on the formation of a junction. The important | this Kets tl! junctions is that they contain a strong electric field. To illustrate how his fi . icld comes about, let us imagine the hypothetical situation where the p-n \ Junction is formed by joining together two pieces of semiconductor, one p-type and the other n-type. In separation, there is electron surplus in the n-type material and hole surplus in the P-type. When the two pieces are brought into contact, electrons from the n region near the interface diffuse into the p side, leaving behind a layer which is positively charged by the donors. Similarly, holes diffuse in the opposite direction, leaving behind a negatively charged layer stripped of holes. The resulting junction region then contains practically no mobile charge carriers, and the fixed charges of the dopant atoms create a potential barrier acting against a further flow of electrons and holes. Note that the electric field in the junction pulls the electrons and holes in opposite directions. Ape mie reesei nee ae potential barrier of a Himetion Pamits the Mest 5 of electric current in only one direction - the and the resulting band structure junction acts as a rectifier, or diode. This can be seen in our example where electrons can only flow from the p region to the n region, and holes can only flow in the opposite direction. Electric current, which is the sum of the two, can therefore flow only from the p-side to the n-side of the junction (remember that it is defined as the direction of flow of the positive carriers!). How solar cells work: | This diagram shows a typical crystalline silicon solar cell. The electrical current generated in the semiconductor is extracted by contacts to the front and rear of the cell. The top contact structure which must allow light to pass through is made in the-10- form of widely-spaced thin metal Strips (usually called in Wiha hin yer oh ise light reflection from the top A larger bus bar. The cell is covere ARC - to minim; reflection coating, ; are essenti MWrstions under ittummn aly tlectronhole Uses of Solar Cells : The use of solar cells has hee inaccessible and isolated plac very effective in providing electric power to remote €s. The important uses of solar cells are given below cricity in artificial satellites and space. Probes. In fact, all the arti i “probes depend mainly on the electricity generated by solar panels (i) In India, solar cells are beit np vsed for streetlichting; for operating w and for running radio and teley ater-pimns ision sets ir: remote areas iil) Solar cells are used for providing electricity to "light houses" situated in the sca and to the off-shore oil drilling rig platforms, (iv) Solar cells are used for operating electronic watches and calculatorsCTuwu ye YyeU€Y,lUU - ait an or surrounding 3 Bluck-body radiation i the type of electromagnetic radiation oY black body (en body in Thermodynamic equilibrium with is environmen temperature. THE radiation ay ‘opaque and non-reflective body) held at constant, UNIO temperature of tl oi a specific spectrum and intensity that depends only all radiation incidents por x Generally, Blackbody is a body whose surface absorbs ter and radiation insi Thermodynamical equilibrium describes the state of mat isolated constant-temperature enclosure. ; black body at room ‘Te term blackbody was introduced by Gustav Kirchhoft 186 vated ‘and cannot be temperature appears black, as most of the energy it rod ies plow with increasing, perceived by the human eye. At higher temperatures, blacl brilliant blue-white as the intensity and colors that range from dull red io blindingly br roximation for the temperature increases. black body radiation is used as first eke ‘or temperature energy they emit. Black-body ra ‘also is called complete radia radiation or thermal radiation. depends Black body radiation has a characteristic, continuous frequency spectrum ee peetrum only on the body's temperature, called the Planck spectrum or Planck's laws. Ate is peaked at a characteristic frequency that shifts 0 higher frequencies WV TTT temperature, and at room temperature most of the emission is in the infrar gi electromagnetic spectrum. uA) (ki/nm) & 4b c ‘500 1000 1500 2000 (nm) Fig. Black body radiation curve-12- Wien's displacement law: Wien's displacement law shows how the spectrum of black body radiation at any temperature is related to the spectrum at any other temperature. If we know the shape of the spectrum at one temperature, we can calculate the shape at any other temperature. | Spectral intensity can be expressed as a function of wavelength or of frequency. \ A consequence of Wien's displacement law is that the wavelength at which the intensity, | as a function of wavelength, of the radiation producea by a black body is at a maximum, Amax is a function only of the temperature Amax = 7 where the constant, b, known as Wien's displacement constant, is equal to 2.8977721(26)x10-3 K m. Planck's Law was also state? above as a function of frequency. The intensity maximum for this is given by Umax = T x 58.8 GHz K7! Stefan-Ee!n.nane law: The Stefan—Boltzmann law states that the power emitted per unit area of the surface of a black body is directly propor al to the fourth power of its absolute temperature: 7 =oT", where jtis the total power radiated per unit area, T is the absolute temperature and 6 = 5.67x10-8 W m-2 K-4 is the Stefan—Boltzmann constant. Rayleigh-Jeans Law: The Rayleigh—Jeans Law, first proposed in the early 20th century, attempts to describe the spectral radiance of electromagnetic radiation at all wavelengths from a black body at a given temperature through classical arguments, For wavelength A itis; BT) = where ¢ is the speed of light, kis Boltzmann's constant and T is the wmperature in kelvins For. frequency v, it is; WRT vk BT) = a The Rayleigh-Jeans expression agrees with experimental results at large wavelengths (or, equivalently, short frequencies) but strongly disagrees at short wavelengths (or large frequencies). Planck's law: Planck's law of black-body radiation Planck's law states that-13- 2Qhv' 1 Mu, T) = wher NR lt) “TY is the energy ype ‘ ; ‘ iM the normal dee eet Uti time (or the power) radiated per unit area of emitting surface temperature T: Airection per unit solid angle per unt frequency by a black body at h is the Planck constant; C8 the speed of light i ; ight in a vacuum; s the Boltzmann constants Ie fre 7 he te ‘quency of the clectromagnetic radiation; and "Mperature of the body in kelvins Tisd Derivation of Planck's law: The Photoelectric efflect demonstrates that light waves have particle properties and that the light quanta, or photons, ofa particular fequency v each have energy hv. We found "T Recessary to impose the constraint that only certain modes are permitted by the boundary conditions -the waves are constrained to fit into the box with whole numbers of half wavelengths in the x; y; z directions. We now consider all the modes (and photons) to be in thermal equilibrium at temperature T. In order to establish equilibrium, there must be ways of ex-changing energy between the modes (and photons) and this can oceur through interactions with any Particles or oscillators within the volume or with the walls ofthe enclosure We now use the Boltzmann distribution to deter-mine the expected occupancy of the modes in ther-mal equilibrium. The probability that a single modehas energy En = nhv is given by the usual Boltz-mann factor p(n) =exp (EVKT)/ E,°-0 exp (-EvKT) Where the denominator ensures that the total prob-ability is unity, the usual normalization procedure. In the language of photons, ths is the probability that the state contains n photons of frequency. ‘The mean energy of the mode of frequency is therefore we > En exp (—En/KT) Ey => Eup(n) = 5 i= Y exp (— B/D) n=0-14- Conv kT DS exp (nv kr) no To simplify the calculation, let us substitute c= O8P(—hv /AT) Then above equation becomes p (E+ 2x? + B04 + (+2424 0 (1+ 22 4 32? (1424224. Now, we remember the following series expansions: 1 Sl+atae? gate... = 14204327 +... a-x Hence, the mean energy of the mode is _ lw = wit This is the result we have been seeking. To find the classical limit, we allow the energy quanta to tend to zero or very small. 1445 vn SO" RP Nr hw puke _ e l= hy | tee ~ RT ~-1S- the average Thus, if we take the classical imi, we recover exactly the EXPFES.O” for energy of a harmonic oscillator in thermal equilibrium. E=kT We can now complete the determination of Pianck's radiation formula. We have ov +4 vis (BTThv Ve" ¥ shown that the number of modes in the frequency interval v aiready per unit volume. The energy density of radiation in this frequency range is 1 E(y) dv = mth’ we Gedy This is well known Plank* law of radiation in terms of frequency: In term of wave length 2 it becomes vel Land dv=-e dN Putting these values in above equation then * EQ) d= 8ilbe / (ap lay ey) a. This is well known Plank" law of radiation in terms of wavelength. ‘The laws of photoelectric emission are given as follows:- 1. For a given metal and frequency of incident radiation, the number of photoelectrons emitted per second is directly proportional to the intensity of incident light. 2. For every metal, there exists a certain minimum frequency or threshold frequency of incident radiation, below which no emission of photoelectrons takes place. 3. Photoelectric emission is an instantaneous process. 4. The maximum kinetic energy of emitted photoelectrons is directly proportional to the frequency of incident radiation.| Corres- Current voltage RVR fey TAmp. | Vvolt | tables. 1 068 Taq ae 2 |07% |39 1.78 3. 080/42 1.82 4 [ose lag 1.86 5. 0.88 5.0 1.97 6. 094 | 54 1.99 7. 096 | 56 2.02 e 1.02 62 2" 9. 1.04 64 2.14 lo. | 1.08 67 2.15 MW. /ia0 J 69 2.17 CALCULATIONS: From graph,-WTe loge 1 = Slope ofthe curve. = 230344, logo © WTx10) he I sSO0OIO- E410 x09I0"/ . h=5.975x10™y /sec RESULT:-Planck’s constant by soar cells 5 97510 usec Standard value of h=6.625%10>* J /sec - 0 FERCENTAGE ERKGK=Standard value-observed vaiue/standard valuex 10 = 6625-5979 100 =9.8% MAXIMUM PROBABLE ERROR: Ah _ Alogo | ar ho 6 T 3010 ase =3.320776 Slop= ABA Slop = 094