2.

3 Carbohydrates and lipids

2.3 CARBOHYDRATES AND LIPIDS

CARBOHYDRATES
 There are just four main classes of large molecules in living things – carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and
nucleic acids.
→ Three (carbohydrates, proteins and amino acids) of these are huge and considered macromolecules (a
giant molecule form by the joining of smaller molecules, usually by a condensation reaction.)
→ Like water and simple organic molecules, these large molecules exhibit unique emergent properties due to
the arrangement of their atoms.
 The macromolecules in three of the four classes of life’s organic FORMATION OF POLYMERS
compounds –carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids– are
chain like structures called polymers (long molecule consisting of
many similar or identical building blocks linked by covalent bonds.
→ The repeating units that serve as the building blocks of a polymer
are smaller molecules called monomers
POLYMER MONOMER
Polycarbohydrates Monocarbohydrates
Proteins Amino acids
DNA Nucleotides

→ The classes of polymers differ in the nature of their monomers, but

the chemical mechanism by which cells http://2012books.lardbucket.org
make (condensation) and break down polymers are basically the same in all cases.
SYNTHESIS AND BREAK DOWN OF
POLYMERS → Condensation reaction: is a reaction in which two
molecules become covalently bonded to each other
though the loss of a small molecule, usually water, in
which case is also called dehydration reaction.
• When a bond forms between two monomers,
each monomer contributes part of the water
molecule that is lost. One of the molecules
provides the hydroxyl group (–OH) and the other
the hydrogen (–H)
• This reaction occurs as many times ad necessary
• This process is facilitated by specialized enzymes
that speed up the chemical reaction.
→ Hydrolysis: a chemical process that lyses, or splits,
molecules by the addition of water, functioning in
disassembly of polymers to monomers
• Means break using water
• A process that reverse dehydration
• A hydrogen of the water molecule attaches to one
monomer and the hydroxyl group to the adjacent
monomer,
e.g.
Digestion (hydrolysis of food molecules with the
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 2.3 Carbohydrates and lipids

 In the human body thousands of different monomers can be found; they might vary from cell to cell. In
siblings the variation of DNA a proteins is easily obseved.
→ The polymers are contructed from only 40 to 50 common monomers and some others that occur rarely (the
key is the arrangement)
e.g.
Proteins-Titin (makes muscles passively elastic) (C169723H270464N45688O52243S912) 189,819 letters long
They are built of 20 kinds of amino acids, arrnged in chains
 Dispite this inmense diversity, molecular structure and function can still be grouped roughly by class

STRUCTURE OF MONOSACHARIDES
 Compounds that
are form of
carbon,
hydrogen, and
oxygen. Provides
energy for the
cells. Their
structures are
related to their
functions.

→ They serve as
fuel and building
material of every
organism
→ The most
common
arrangements
are hexose (6
carbons) and
pentose (5
carbons)
→ Can be
monomers and
polymers
→ Most
carbohydrates
end in – OSE

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1. MONOSACHARIDES: (from the Greek monos, single, and sacchar, sugar) The simplest carbohydrate,
active along or serving as a monomer for disaccharides and polysaccharides.
• Generally, have the molecular formula that are multiples of CH2O

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 2.3 Carbohydrates and lipids

A. GLUCOSE (C6H12O6)
GLUCOSE ABREVIATED RING
STRUTURE
 The most common monosaccharide, major nutrient of the cell (for
cellular respiration)
 Central importance in the chemistry of life
 It has a carbonyl group (˃C=O) and multiple hydroxyl groups (-OH).
Depending on the location of the carbonyl group is either aldose
(aldehyde) or ketose (ketone)
 It is an aldose and have six carbons, so it is called hexoses.
 Its carbon skeleton also serves as raw material for the synthesis of other
type of small organic molecules, such as amino acids and fatty acids http://fig.cox.miami.edu/~cmallery/150/chemistry

FRUCTOSE ABREVIATED RING

B. FRUCTOSE (C6H12O6) STRUTURE

 It is a structural isomer of glucose, instead of being an aldose is a ketose

 It is a hexose.
 Is present naturally in fruits and vegetables, either as free fructose or
as part of the disaccharide sucrose and its polymer insulin.
 The metabolism of fructose from dietary sources is referred to as
FRUCTOLYSIS
https://chemistry.stackexchange.com
C. RIBOSE (C5H10O5)
RIBOSE ABREVIATED RING
 It is the most important monosaccharide in the life of living organisms STRUTURE
after glucose. It is importance because of its role in the structure of
nucleotides.
 It is present even in the smallest organisms like viruses and bacteria.
 It has five carbons, thus is called pentose, it is an aldose sugar (having
an aldehydic group)
 a structural isomer of glucose, instead of being an aldose is a ketose,
and is a hexose.
 Trioses have three carbons and pentoses have five carbons.
 It can have linear or closed rig structure
 It is present in ATP, ADP, NADH, NADPH, FADH2, and other nucleotides
present in living cells. https://coredifferences.com

 Is synthesized from glucose and other monosaccharide molecules in living cells by a process known as
PENTOSE PHOSPHATE PATHWAY
GALACTOSE ABREVIATED
D. GALACTOSE (C6H12O6) RING STRUTURE
 It is similar to glucose in its structure, differing only in the position of one
hydroxyl group. This difference, however, gives galactose different
chemical and biochemical properties to glucose
 Galactose is one of the products of lactose (milk sugar) hydrolysis in
the intestine.

https://cnx.org

2. DISACHARIDED: A double sugar, consisted of two monosaccharides joined by a GLYCOSIDIC LINKAGE

(a covalent bond formed between two monosaccharides) formed during dehydration synthesis.
• Generally, have the molecular formula that are multiples of CnH2n-2O2n-1
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 2.3 Carbohydrates and lipids

A. MALTOSE
 It is obtained as an intermediate in the hydrolysis of starch by enzymes known as amylases
 Its molecular formula C12H22O11
 In maltose, one molecule of glucose is linked through the hydrogen group on the C – 1 carbon atom in a
glycosidic bond to the hydroxyl group on the C– 4 of a second molecule of glucose
 It is also known as malt sugar, is an ingredient use in brewing beer.
DEHYDRATION REACTION IN THE SYNTHESIS OF MALTOSE

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B. SUCROSE
 It is a molecule composed of two monosaccharides, namely glucose and fructose. connected via a
glycosidic linkage.
 This non-reducing disaccharide has a chemical formula of C12H22O11
 It is the most abundant disaccharide and the major product of photosynthesis.
 Has a monoclinic crystal structure and is quite soluble in water
 Occurs naturally in every fruit and vegetable in a greater amount in sugar cane and sugar beets from
which it is separated for commercial use.

DEHYDRATION REACTION IN THE SYNTHESIS OF SUCROSE

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LACTOSE ISOMERS
C. LACTOSE
 Is one of the main constituents of human and animal milk (energy-
carrier)
 Lactose is a disaccharide derived from the dehydration of galactose
and glucose, which form a β-1→4 glycosidic linkage.
 Its molecular formula C12H22O11
 Because of the anomeric carbon on the right side of the structure,
lactose can exist as two isomers, alpha or beta, in which the hydroxyl
on the anomeric carbon would point up on the ring structure.
 Infant mammals nurse on their mothers to drink milk, which is rich in
lactose.
 The intestinal villi secrete the enzyme lactase (β-D-galactosidase) to
digest it.
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 2.3 Carbohydrates and lipids

 This enzyme cleaves the lactose molecule into its two subunits, the simple sugars glucose and galactose,
which can be absorbed. Since lactose occurs mostly in milk, in most mammals, the production of lactase
gradually decreases with maturity due to a lack of continuing consumption

DEHYDRATION REACTION IN THE SYNTHESIS OF LACTOSE

http://bizplan-uz.com

Lactose, a byproduct of the dairy industry, can be hydrolyzed to produce LACTOSE CONTENT OF MILK
lactose hydrolysate syrup, which contains lactose, galactose, and AND DAIRY PRODUCTS
glucose. This syrup is used as a sweetener in biscuits, confectionery,
and some dairy desserts. Thus, small amounts of lactose and galactose
can appear in nondairy foods.
Apart from its presence in lactose hydrolysate syrup, the
monosaccharide galactose is seldom found in the diet, although it has
been identified as a trace component of some seeds and pulses.

LACTOSE INTOLERANCE
Lactose maldigestion and intolerance results from an inability to digest
https://www.sciencedirect.com
varying amounts of the milk sugar, lactose.
This is a result of an inadequate amount of the genetically regulated milk sugar enzyme commonly referred to
as LACTASE and more precisely identified as lactase-phlorizin hydrolase. The most common reason for lactose
maldigestion is a decline of lactase activity with increasing age. Lactose maldigestion may also occur secondary
to intestinal tract infection and diarrhea. A rare form of alactasia, an absence of the milk sugar enzyme, can
occur at birth. The symptoms associated with lactose maldigestion are a result of the incomplete hydrolysis, or
splitting, of the disaccharide lactose into its absorbable monosaccharide components, glucose, and galactose.
The most common form of lactose maldigestion observed in most of the world's adult population, is due to
genetically determined low lactase levels. Lactose maldigestion may result in abdominal bloating or pain,
flatulence, loose stools, and diarrhea, singly or in combination. The symptoms associated with lactose
maldigestion result in lactose intolerance.
Low lactase levels due to genetic no persistence is reported in approximately 70% of the world's adult population.
The prevalence is lowest in individuals of northern European descent (15%) and highest in many Asian
populations with reports approaching 100%. The prevalence of lactase no persistence in individuals of African
descent is approximately 70% to 80%. Similar levels are reported for Latinos and those of Eastern European
and South American ancestry. Not all individuals with a reduced level of the enzyme lactase experience
symptoms with the ingestion of dietary lactose. The presence or absence of symptoms varies with the amount
and type of food consumed, intestinal transit time and level of residual intestinal lactase. Individuals with low
lactase levels may tolerate a moderate intake of lactose.

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 2.3 Carbohydrates and lipids

It is possible to buy enzymes to help digest lactose. These are tablets to swallow or drops that are added to
foods and drinks. Nevertheless, lactase enzyme supplements may be very effective for some people.

SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF POLYSACCHARIDES

3. POLYSACCHARIDE: A polymer
of hundreds to thousand
monosaccharides, formed by
dehydration reactions joined
glycosidic linkage.

 Some polysaccharides serve as

storage material, hydrolyzed as
needed to provide sugar for cells
 Others,serve as building
materials for structures that
protect the cell or the whole
organism.
 the architecture and function of a
polysaccharide are determined
by its sugar monomers and by
the position of the glycosidic
linkages
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A. STORAGE STARCH: A PLANT MOLECULAR STRUCTURE OF STARCH

POLYSACCHARIDES POLYSACCHARIDE
 Both plants and Two forms of starch are amylose AMILOSE AMILOPECTIN
animals store sugars (unbranched) and amylopectin Helical chain (α- glucose) Branched chain (β- glucose)
for later use in the form (branched). The light ovals in the
of storage micrograph are granules of starch
within a chloroplast plant cell.
polysaccharide.

i. STARCH

 Storage in plants
 A polymer of glucose
monomers, as
granules within cellular
structures known as
plastids which include
chloroplasts.
 Synthesizing starch
enables the plant to
stockpile surplus
glucose. Because
glucose is a major http://www.sliderbase.com https://ib.bioninja.com.au/ https://ib.bioninja.com.au/

cellular fuel, starch represents stored energy. The sugar can later be withdrawn from this carbohydrate
bank, by hydrolysis, which breaks the bonds between the glucose monomers.

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 2.3 Carbohydrates and lipids

 Most animals, including humans, have enzymes that can hydrolyze plant starch, making glucose available
as a nutrient for cells. Potato tubers, and grains (fruits of wheat, maize (corn), rice) are the major sources
of starch in human diet.
 Most of the glucose monomers in starch are joined by 1-4 linkages, like glucose units in maltose. The
angles of these bonds make the polymer helical.
 The simplest form of starch, amylose, is unbranched while amylopectin is more complex being a branched
polymer with 1-6 linkages at the branch points.
→ Both kinds of starch are useful for human nutrition. But for the processing industry, a mixture of different
starches is a problem. Industry must separate the two kinds of starch using expensive processes that take
a toll on the environment. Therefore, plant breeders are working hard to develop potatoes that produce
only one type of starch. Right now, emphasis has been placed upon developing potatoes containing only
amylopectin, due to its diverse applications.

GLYCOGEN: AN ANIMAL MOLECULAR STRUCTURE

POLYSACCHARIDE OF GLYCOGEN
ii. GLYCOGEN Is more branched than amylopectin. Animal Branched chain (α- glucose)
cells stockpile glycogen as dense clusters of Energy storage in animals
 Store polysaccharide of animals granules within liver and muscle cells. (the
 Polymer of glucose that us like micrograph shows part of a liver cell;
mitochondria are organelles that help break
amylopectin but more extensively
down sugar)
branched
 Humans and other vertebrates
store glycogen mainly in liver and
muscle cells
 Hydrolysis of glycogen in cells
releases glucose when demand
for sugar increases.
 This store fuel cannot sustain an
animal for long.
• In humans, glycogen
stores are depleted in
about a day unless they
are replenished by
consumption of food.
• This is an issue of concern
in lo-carbohydrates diets.
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α AND β GLUCOSE RING STRUCTURE STARCH: 1-4 LINKAGE OF α -GLUCOSE

These two interconvertible forms of glucose differ in the placement of MONOMERS
the hydroxyl group (highlighted in blue) attached to the number 1 All monomers are in the same orientation. Compare the position of the
carbon. -OH groups highlighted in yellow with those in cellulose

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http://logyofbio.blogspot.com

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 2.3 Carbohydrates and lipids

CELLULOSE: 1-4 LINKAGE OF β -GLUCOSE

B. STRUCTURAL POLYSACCHARIDES MONOMERS
 Organisms build strong materials from structural In cellulose, every β glucose is upside down with respect to its
polysaccharides neighbors. (highlighted -OH groups)

i. CELLULOSE

 Is the major component of the tough walls that

enclose the plant cell. http://logyofbio.blogspot.com
 Plants produce almost 1014kg (100 billion tons) of cellulose per year; it is the most abundant organic
compound on Earth.
 Is a polymer of glucose, but the glycosidic linkages differ from the one in starch. The difference is based on
the fact that there are actually two slightly different ring structures for glucose.

 When glucose forms a

ring, the hydroxyl THE ARRANGEMENT OF CELLULOSE IN PLANT CELL WALLS
group attached to the
number 1 carbon is
positioned either below
or above the plane of
the ring. These two
rings forms of glucose
are called (α) and beta
(β)

MOLECULAR
STRUCTURE OF
CELLULOSE
Linear chains of β -glucose

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 In starch, all glucose monomers are in the α configuration, in contrast, the glucose monomers in cellulose
are all in β configuration making every other glucose monomer upside down with respect to its neighbors.
 The differing glycosidic linkages in starch and cellulose give the two molecules distinct three-dimensional
shape. The starch molecule is mostly helical, a cellulose molecule is straight.

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 2.3 Carbohydrates and lipids

 Cellulose is never branched, and some hydroxyl groups on its glucose monomers are free to hydrogen-bond
with the hydroxyls of other cellulose molecules held together in this way are grouped into units called
MICROFIBRILS
CELLULOS-DIGESTING PROKARYOTES ARE
 Enzymes that digest starch by hydrolyzing its FOUND IN GRAZING ANIMALS SUCH AS COWS
α linkages are unable to hydrolyze β linkages
of cellulose because of the distinctly different
shapes of these two molecules, moreover few
organism possess enzymes that can digest
cellulose
• Most fresh fruit, vegetables, and whole grains
are rich in cellulose
• On food packages, “insoluble fiber” refers
https://slideplayer.com
mainly to cellulose
• Some prokaryotes can digest cellulose, breaking it down into glucose monomers (cows harbor cellulose-
digesting prokaryotes in it rumen (first compartment in the stomach) and this organisms hydrolyze the
cellulose in hay and grass and convert the glucose to other nutrients that nourish the cows, just like termites
do (have prokaryotes that help them digest wood)
• Some fungi can also digest cellulose, thereby helping recycle chemical elements within Earth’s ecosystems
• Humans do not digest the cellulose, it
passes through the digestive system tract FOODS WITH THE HIGHEST FIBER
and is eliminated with the feces, however, 25g of fiber = 100% of daily value (%DV)
is not a nutrient it is important part of
healthful diet
► Dietary fiber includes the components
of foods which cannot be digested by
the human body. This is largely
cellulose, a structural component of
the plant cell wall.
► Although it cannot be digested an
absorbed into the blood, dietary fiber
plays an important role in human
health.
✓ Provides bulk in food, allowing
one to feel full when eating
✓ Helps regulate blood sugar
✓ Reduces blood cholesterol
✓ Strengthens action of peristalsis
in the intestine
✓ Reduces constipation

► Dietary fiber is sourced from

vegetables, nuts, wholegrain and
some fruits.

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 2.3 Carbohydrates and lipids

EGESTION DYGESTIVE PROCESS

(Materials not absorbed are egested.)

Dietary fiber is the edible parts of plants

that are resistant to being digested and are
not absorbed from the small intestine.
Examples include cellulose and lignin.
Consequently, there is a fraction of
ingested food which never leaves the
digestive tube. In addition, secretion into
the digestive tube occurs. Some of what is
added is excretory products such as
bilirubin from the breakdown of red blood
cells. A large volume of water is added to
the tube in the process of digestion by
secretions in the mouth, stomach and small
intestine, and has to be reclaimed in the Allot and Mindorff; Biology, course
large intestine. The excretory products, the companion,. 1st edition.
unabsorbed water and undigested dietary
fiber are egested as feces.

The role of dietary fiber

The rate of transit of materials through the large intestine is positively correlated with their fiber
content. Dietary fiber is material such as cellulose, lignin and pectin that cannot be readily
digested. There are two categories of dietary fiber: soluble and insoluble. A healthy balanced
diet contains fiber as it increases the bulk of material passing through the intestines and helps
to prevent constipation as it draws water into the intestine. The higher the water content of the
intestine, the faster the movement of fecal matter. There are other possible benefits of fiber in
the diet. The risk of various diseases of the large intestine may be reduced, including bowel
cancer, hemorrhoids and appendicitis. The presence of bulky material in the stomach and
intestines may increase feelings of satiety, reducing the desire to eat and the risk of obesity.
Absorption of sugars may be slowed down, helping to prevent the development of type II
diabetes. Foods of plant origin contain dietary fiber, especially whole-grain bread and cereals,
vegetables such as cabbage and salads such as celery. Foods made from cultured fungi
(mycoprotein) also contain dietary fiber.

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 2.3 Carbohydrates and lipids

STRUCTURE OF CHITIN-EXOSKELETON
ii. CHITIN CHITIN MONOMER The cicada is molting, shedding its
Chitin with α configuration old exoskeleton, and emerging in
→ Structural polysaccharide, the carbohydrates adult form
used by arthropods (insects, spiders
crustaceous, and related animals) to build their
exoskeleton

CHITIN STRUCTURAL POLYSACCHARID

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https://www.chegg.com

https://ibiologia.com → An exoskeleton is a hard case that surrounds the soft

parts of animals
→ Pure chitin is leathery and flexible, but it becomes hardened when encrusted with calcium carbonate and
salt.
→ It is also found in many fungi, which use polysaccharide rather than cellulose as the building material of their
cell wall.
→ It is like cellulose, except that the glucose monomer of chitin has a nitrogen containing appendage.

COMMON USES AND STRUCTURE OF POLYSACCHARIDES

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 2.3 Carbohydrates and lipids

LIPIDS (diverse group of hydrophobic molecules)

 Are the one class of biological molecules that does not include true polymers and they are generally not big
enough to be considered a macromolecule.
 The compounds called LIPIDS are group together because they share one important trait: they mix poorly, if
at all, in water (hydrophobic).
→ The hydrophobic behavior is based in their molecular behavior
→ They have some polar bonds associated with oxygen; they consist mostly of hydrocarbon regions.
 Lipids are varied in form and function, moreover, they include waxes, certain pigments and the most
biological important types are fats, phospholipids, steroids and waxes.

A. FATS
→ Although fats are not polymers, they are large molecules assembled from a few smaller molecules by
dehydration reactions.

THE SYNTHESIS AND STRUCTURE OF A FAT OR TRIACYGLYCEROL

The molecular building blocks of a fat are one molecules of glycerol and three molecules of fatty acids. One water molecule is removed for each
fatty acid joined to the glycerol. A fat molecule with three identical fatty acids unit.

https://chromoscience.com
ESTHER LINKAGE

→ A FAT is constructed from two kinds of smaller SATURATED FAT

molecules: glycerol and fatty acids. At room temperature, the molecules of a saturated fat such as this
• GLYCEROL is an alcohol with three carbons, butter packed closely together, forming a solid.
each having a hydroxyl group
• FATTY ACID has a long carbon skeleton,
usually 16 or 18 carbon atoms in length, the
carbon at one end of the fatty acid is part of a
carboxyl group, from which it receives the name
“fatty acid”. Attached to the carboxyl group is a
long hydrocarbon chain. The relatively
nonpolar C-H bonds in the hydrocarbon chain
of the fatty acid are the reason fats are
hydrophobic.
• Fats separate from water because the water
molecules because water molecules hydrogen
-bond to one another and exclude the fats, this
is the reason that vegetable oil (a liquid fat) https://www.slideshare.net
separates from aqueous solutions.
→ In making a fat, three fatty acid molecules each join to a glycerol by an ester linkage, a bond between a
hydroxyl group and a carboxyl group. The resulting fat is called a (three fatty acids linked to one molecule of
glycerol)

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 2.3 Carbohydrates and lipids

UNSATURATED FAT
→ The fatty acids in a fat can be the same, or they At room temperature, the molecules of a saturated fat such as this olive
can be of two or three different kinds. oil cannot pack together closely enough to solidify because of the kinks
• Fatty acids vary in length and in the number of in some of their fatty acid hydrocarbon chains.
double bonds
• The terms saturated fats and unsaturated fats
are commonly use in the context of nutrition.
► The terms refers to the structure of the
hydrocarbon chains of the fatty acids,
a. SATURATED FATTY ACID →if
there are no double bonds between the
carbon atoms composing the chain,
then as many hydrogen atoms a
possible are bonded to the carbon
skeleton
b. UNSATURATED FATTY ACID→
has one or more double bonds, formed
by the removal of hydrogen atoms from
the carbon skeleton, causing the fatty
acid chain to kink in its hydrocarbon
chain wherever a cis- double bond
occurs. https://www.slideshare.net
FATTY ACIDS ► Most animal fats are saturated, their hydrocarbon
chains lack of double bonds, and their flexibility
allows the fat molecules to pack together tightly,
making them solid at room temperature. (e.g. lard)
► The fats from plants or fishes are generally
unsaturated, having one or more double bond, the
kinks where the cis- double bond/s is/are located
prevent the molecule to be packed closely together,
making them liquid at room temperature and
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referred as oils (e.g. olive oil, cod oil).
► HYDROGENATED
VEGETABLE OILS
are unsaturated fats COMPARISON OF THREE CATEGORIES OF FATTY ACIDS
have been CH3(CH2)nCOOH
synthetically
converted to
saturated fats by
adding hydrogen
(e.g. peanut butter,
margarine)
► The process of
hydrogenating
vegetable oils
produce not only
saturated but also
unsaturated fats with
trans- double bonds
known as: https://www.creative-proteomics.com
TRANS FATS, that

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 2.3 Carbohydrates and lipids

COMPARING cis- AND trans- FATS contribute more

The omega-number indicates the position of the first double bond, from the CH3 group. An omega-3 fatty acid has than saturated
the C=C double bond at the third bond along the chain. fats to
Oleic acid (CH3(CH2)7CH=CH(CH2)7COOH) is an omega-9 fatty acid. It is a component of olive oil in its cis- form. Its atherosclerosis
isomer, elaidic acid (trans-oleic acid) is found in hydrogenated vegetable oil. and other
problem.
► A diet rich in
saturated fats is
one of several
factors that
may contribute
to
cardiovascular
disease known
as
atherosclerosis
(deposits,
called plaques
develop within
the walls of
blood vessels,
causing inward
bulges that
impede blood
flow and reduce
the resilience
https://www.creative-proteomics.com of vessels)

HEALTH CONSEQUENCES OF DIETS RICH IN THE VARIOUS TYPES OF FATTY ACID

SATURATED FATS Cis- FATTY ACIDS Trans- FATTY ACIDS

Sources: Animal fats (butter, Sources: Vegetable oils (olive Sources: Hydrogenated
milk, cheese, red and white oil, fish oils) vegetable (oils, margarine,
meat, eggs, palm oil) some natural sources)

All contribute to dietary intake and excess consumption is related to weight gain and coronary heart
disease. Fat contains more energy per gram than carbohydrates or proteins.

► Can raise harmful

LDL ► May promote beneficial HDL ► May have a greater negative
cholesterol cholesterol and inhibit effect on LDL cholesterol
► Lead to atherosclerosis and harmful LDL. and increased risk of
coronary heart disease ► Omega 3 fatty acids linked to atherosclerosis and CHD
brain development than saturated fats
► Some natural trans- fats may
have less harmful impacts

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 2.3 Carbohydrates and lipids

Evaluation of evidence for health claims made

about lipids.
ARTERY SHOWING FATTY
There have been many claims about the effects of PLAQUE
different types of fat on human health. The main
concern is coronary heart disease (CHD). In this
disease the coronary arteries become partially
blocked by fatty deposits, leading to blood clot
formation and heart attacks.

There are two main health claims made about lipids

in the diet:
► Diets rich in saturated fats and trans fats
increase the risk of CHD
► Diets rich in monounsaturated and
polyunsaturated (cis) fats decrease the risk of
CHD

These health claims are made based on evidence

collected in a number of ways:
Allot and Mindorff; Biology, course
► Epidemiological studies comparing different
companion,. 1st edition.
population groups (between the intake of
saturated fats and the incidence of CHD in
human populations)
► Intervention studies that monitor cohorts following dietary modifications (lowering
dietary intakes of saturated fats reduces factors associated with the development of
CHD)
► Experimental designs utilizing animal models or data based on autopsies (patients who
died from CHD, fatty deposits in diseased arteries were found to contain high
concentrations of trans fats)

A positive correlation has been found between saturated fatty acid intake and rates of CHD in
many research programs. However, finding a correlation does not prove that saturated fats
cause the disease. It could be another factor correlated with saturated fat intake, such as low
amounts of dietary fiber, that causes CHD. There are populations that do not fit the correlation.
The Maasai of Kenya for example has a diet that is rich in meat, fat, blood, and milk. They
therefore have a high consumption of saturated fats, yet CHD is almost unknown among the
Maasai.

Diets rich in olive oil, which contains cis-monounsaturated fatty acids, are traditionally eaten in
countries around the Mediterranean. The populations of these countries typically have low rates
of CHD and it has been claimed that this is due to the intake of cis-monounsaturated fatty acids.

15 María Gabriela Macz Quevedo -2020

 2.3 Carbohydrates and lipids

However, genetic factors in these populations, or other aspects of the diet such as the use of
tomatoes in many dishes could explain the CHD rates.

There is also a positive correlation between amounts of trans-fat consumed and rates of CHD.
Other risk factors have been tested, to see if they can account for the correlation, but none did.
Trans-fats therefore probably do cause CHD. In patients who had died from CHD, fatty deposits
in the diseased arteries have been found to contain high concentrations of trans-fats, which
gives more evidence of a causal link.

• The major function of fats is energy storage (hydrocarbon chains are rich in energy), a gram of fat stores
more than twice as much energy as a gram of a polysaccharide, such as starch.
• Plant, remember they are relatively immobile, function with bulky energy storage in the form of starch,
however, animals must carry their energy stores with them, so there is an advantage to having a more
compact reservoir—fat. Humans and other mammal stock their long term reservoir in adipose cells, which
swell and shrink as fat is deposited and withdrawn from storage.
► In addition to storing energy, adipose tissue also cushions such vital organs as the kidneys, and a
layer of fat beneath the skin insulates the body. (The subcutaneous layer is especially thick in whales,
seals, and most other marine mammals, protecting them from cold ocean water.)

B. STEROIDS
→ Steroids are a family of lipids that have quite a different structure CHOLESTEROL, A STEROID
compared to fats and phospholipids. (although they do not Cholesterol is the molecule from which other
resemble the other lipids, they are grouped with them because steroids, including sex hormones, are synthesized.
they are also hydrophobic and insoluble in water) They vary in the chemical groups attached to their
→ They have four fused hydrocarbon rings with various chemical four interconnected rings.
attached to them that determine which specific steroid it is.
• Many of them also have the -OH functional group, which puts
them in the alcohol classification STEROLS
→ Many hormones, as well as cholesterol are steroids.

CHOLESTEROL
• Is an organic compound belonging to the steroid family; its
molecular formula is C27H46O, in its pure state it is a white,
crystalline substance that is odorless and tasteless.
• Is a common component of animal cell membrane (it helps
keep membranes flexible and fluid) and is also the precursor
from which other steroids are synthesized as the sex
hormones testosterone, estradiol, and progesterone, which
are secreted by the gonads and endocrine glands.
• Cholesterol circulates in the bloodstream and is synthesized
by the liver and several other organs.
https://www.britannica.com
• It is also a precursor of vitamin D and bile salts which help
in the emulsification of fats and their subsequent absorption
by cells.

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 2.3 Carbohydrates and lipids

• Human beings also ROLE OF LIPOPROTEINS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF

ingest considerable ATHEROSCLEROSIS
amounts of cholesterol
in the course of a
normal diet. A
compensatory system
regulates the amount of
cholesterol synthesized
by the liver, with the
increased dietary intake
of cholesterol resulting
in the liver’s decreased
synthesis of the
compound. https://ib.bioninja.com.au

• Cholesterol is insoluble in the blood; it must be attached to certain protein complexes called lipoproteins
in order to be transported through the bloodstream.
► LOW-DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS (LDLs) transport cholesterol from its site of synthesis in the liver to
the various tissues and body cells, where it is separated from the lipoprotein and is used by the cell.
Cholesterol attached to LDLs is primarily that which builds up in atherosclerotic deposits in the blood
vessels.
► HIGH-DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS (HDLs) may possibly transport excess or unused cholesterol from
the tissues back to the liver, where it is broken down to bile acids and is then excreted. HDLs, may
actually serve to retard or reduce atherosclerotic buildup.

CHOLESTEROL PLAQUE IN ARTERY CHOLESTEROL IS A CRUTIAL MOLECULE IN THE CELL

(atherosclerosis) MEMBRANE

https://www.britannica.com

https://www.britannica.com

• High levels of cholesterol in the bloodstream are an extremely important cause of atherosclerosis. In this
disorder, deposits of cholesterol and other fatty substances circulating in the blood accumulate in the interior
walls of the blood vessels. These fatty deposits build up, thicken, and become calcified, eventually converting
the vessel walls to scar tissue. The deposits narrow the channels of the blood vessels and thus can constrict
17 María Gabriela Macz Quevedo -2020
 2.3 Carbohydrates and lipids

the blood flow, causing heart attacks and strokes. High levels of cholesterol in the blood (more than 240 mg
of cholesterol per 100 cc of blood plasma) accelerate the buildup of cholesterol deposits in the vessel walls;
people with high cholesterol levels thus eventually become more susceptible to coronary heart disease.

REGULATING BLOOD CHOLESTEROL LEVELS

High intakes of certain types of fats will differentially affect cholesterol levels in the blood
► Saturated fats increase LDL levels within the body, raising blood cholesterol levels
► Trans fats increase LDL levels and decrease HDL levels within the body, significantly raising blood cholesterol levels
► Unsaturated (cis) fats increase HDL levels within the body, lowering blood cholesterol levels

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CONVERTION OF COLESTEROL TO BILE SALTS

Surplus cholesterol is converted to bile salts. Although cholesterol is absorbed from food in the
intestine, a large quantity is synthesized each day by hepatocytes (liver cells). Cholesterol is a
raw material needed for the synthesis of vitamin D as well as for the synthesis of steroid
hormones. It is a structural component of membranes and it is used in the production of bile.
The liver regulates the amount of circulating lipids such as cholesterol and lipoproteins, either
synthesizing them as required, or breaking them down and secreting cholesterol and
phospholipids in the bile. The amount of cholesterol synthesized by the body varies to some
degree with diet. Excess saturated fat in the diet increases the production of cholesterol.

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 2.3 Carbohydrates and lipids

C. PHOSPHOLIPIDS THE STRUCTURE OF A PHOSPHOLIPID

A phospholipid has a Hydrophilic (polar) head and two hydrophobic (nonpolar) tails. Its
→ Phospholipids are essential for cells diversity is based on the difference in the two fatty acids and in the groups attached to
because they make up cell the phosphate group of the head. This particular phospholipid, called
membrane. phosphatidylcholine, has an attached chlorine group. the kink in one of its tails is due to
a cis double bond
→ Their structure provides a classic
example of how form fits function at a
molecular level.
→ A phospholipid is similar to a fat
molecule but it has only two fatty acids
(a) The structural formula
attached to a glycerol rather than (b) The space-filling
three. The third hydroxyl group of model
glycerol is joined to a phosphate (yellow=phosphorus,
group, which has a negative electrical blue=nitrogen)
(c) Phospholipid symbol
charge. Additional small molecules,
which are usually charged or polar,
can be linked to the phosphate group
to form a variety of phospholipids.
→ The two ends of phospholipids show
different behavior toward water.
• The hydrocarbon tails are
hydrophobic and are excluded from
water
• The phosphate group and its https://alevelbiology.co.uk
attachments form a hydrophilic head
that has an affinity to water
→ When phospholipids are added to BILAYER STRUCTURE FORMED BY SELF-ASSEMBLY OF
water, they self-assemble into double- PHOSPHOLIPIDS IN AN AQUOUS ENVIRONMENT
layered (bilayer) that shields they The phospholipid bilayer shown is the main fabric of biological membranes. The
hydrophobic portions from water. hydrophilic heads of the phospholipids are in contact with water in this structure,
• At the surface of the cell, phospholipids whereas the hydrophobic tails are in contact with each other and remote from water.
are arranged in a similar bilayer, the
hydrophilic heads of the molecules are
on the outside of the bilayer, in contact
with the aqueous solution inside and
outside of the cell. The hydrophilic tails
point ward the interior of the bilayer
away from the water.
• The phospholipid bilayer forms a
boundary between the cell and its
external environment; in fact cells could
not exist without phospholipids.

https://slideplayer.com/

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 2.3 Carbohydrates and lipids

D. WAXES Waxing covering in some leaves are made of

→ Wax covers the feathers of some aquatic birds and the lipids
leaf surfaces of some plants. Because of the
hydrophobic nature of waxes, they prevent water from
sticking on the surface.
→ Waxes are made up of long fatty chains esterified to
long chain alcohols.

https://openstax.or

TO SUMMARIZE
Function of lipids Types of Lipids

► Storage of energy for long-term use (e.g. ► Triglycerides: Function as a long-term energy source in animals (fats) and
triglycerides) plants (oils)
► Hormonal roles (e.g. steroids such as ► Phospholipids: Structural component of cell membranes
estrogen and testosterone) ► Steroids: Act as hormones in plants and animals, and is a structural component
► Insulation – both thermal (triglycerides) and of animal cell membranes (cholesterol)
electrical (sphingolipids) ► Waxes: Act as a protective layer against water loss in plant leaves and animal
► Protection of internal organs (e.g. skin
triglycerides and waxes) ► Carotenoids: Light-absorbing accessory pigment in plants (involved in
► Structural components of cells (e.g. photosynthesis)
phospholipids and cholesterol ► Glycolipids: Complexes of carbohydrate and lipid that function as cell receptor
and cell recognition molecules

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CARBOHYDRATES vrs. LIPIDS

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 2.3 Carbohydrates and lipids

OBESITY
GUATEMALA- MORTALITY
→ Overweight and obesity are defined as abnormal or
excessive fat accumulation that presents a risk to
health.
→ They are major risk factors for a number of chronic
diseases, including diabetes, cardiovascular diseases
and cancer. Unhealthy diets with excess fat and
refined carbohydrates have health consequences
→ Once considered a problem only in high income
countries, overweight and obesity are now https://www.who.in
dramatically on the rise in low- and middle-income
countries, particularly in urban settings.
“In 2016, female obesity prevalence for Guatemala was 26.4 %. Female obesity prevalence increased from
15.8 % in 1997 to 26.4 % in 2016 growing at an average annual rate of 2.74%.” (https://knoema.com)
→ Obesity is generally caused by consuming more
calories, particularly those in fatty and sugary foods, these
are commonly burn in daily activities, however if they are
not used, the excess energy is stored by the body as fat.
→ Obesity is an increasingly common problem, because
many modern lifestyles often promote eating excessive
amounts of cheap, high-calorie food and spending a lot of
time sitting at desks, on sofas or in cars.
https://www.who.in
→ There are also some underlying health conditions PROPORTIONAL MORTALITY (% of total
that can occasionally contribute to weight gain, death, all ages) IN GUATEMALA 2016
such as an underactive thyroid gland
(hypothyroidism), although conditions such as this
don’t usually cause weight problems if they are
effectively controlled with medication

Risks of obesity:

a. DIABETES TYPE II

► Type 2 diabetes is a chronic condition that

affects the way the body metabolizes sugar
(glucose, an important source of fuel for it)
► With type 2 diabetes, the body either resists
the effects of insulin (hormone that regulates
the movement of sugar into your cells) or
https://www.who.in
doesn't produce enough insulin to maintain
normal glucose levels.
► Type 2 diabetes used to be known as adult-onset diabetes, but today more children are being diagnosed
with the disorder, probably due to the rise in childhood obesity.
► There is no cure for type 2 diabetes, but losing weight, eating well and exercising can help manage the
disease. If diet and exercise are not enough to manage the blood sugar well, a diabetes medications or
insulin therapy may be needed
► Epidemiological studies (EPIDEMIOLOGY: study of the rates and distribution of a disease.) of type II
diabetes have implicated increased blood concentrations of fatty acids, linked to the following risk factors:
21 María Gabriela Macz Quevedo -2020
 2.3 Carbohydrates and lipids

diets rich in fat and low in fiber, obesity due to overeating and lack of exercise, or genetic factors which
affect fat metabolism.

► There is huge variation between ethnic groups in rates of SYMPTOMS DIABETES TYPE II
type II diabetes, from less than two per cent in China to fifty • Increased thirst
per cent among the Pima Indians. • Frequent urination
► The symptoms are not always recognized, so not all people • Glucose in the urine (detected by a
with diabetes are diagnosed. simple test)
► Unless carefully managed, diabetes can cause other health • Increased hunger
problems to develop, several of which relate to the • Unintended weight loss
cardiovascular system: atherosclerosis (narrowing of
• Fatigue
arteries by fatty deposits), hypertension (raised blood
• Blurred vision
pressure, discussed below), coronary heart disease
(narrowing of the coronary arteries with the associated risk • Slow-healing sores
of heart attacks). • Frequent infections
• Areas of darkened skin, usually in
b. CARDIOVASCULAR PROBLEMS the armpits and neck

► There also seems to be a link between these cardiovascular problems and blood lipid concentrations.
► Links have been suggested between high concentrations of cholesterol, high concentrations of LDL
and low concentrations of HDL. There has been much controversy about the role of cholesterol, in
particular in the development of coronary heart disease (CHD). There is a clear correlation between
excessive weight gain and hypertension, though the relationship is complex.
► Weight gain can increase the release of several hormones as well as cause changes in body
physiology and anatomy all of which can lead to hypertension:
• weight gain leads to higher cardiac (heart) output which can raise blood pressure
• abdominal obesity can increase vascular resistance which can raise blood pressure
• weight gain is associated with arteries becoming stiffer and narrower which can raise blood
pressure.
► Hypertension can also be caused by high salt intake. Circulating salt has an osmotic effect.

→ The best way to treat obesity is to eat healthy, reduced-calorie diet and to exercise regularly. To achieve
this it requires:
► eat a balanced, calorie-controlled diet as recommended by your GP or weight loss management health
professional (such as a dietitian)
► join a local weight loss group
► take up activities such as fast walking, jogging, swimming or tennis for 150-300 minutes a week
► eat slowly and avoid situations where you know you could be tempted to overeat

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 2.3 Carbohydrates and lipids

BODY MASS INDEX Adolph Quetelet

Adolphe Jacques Quetelet
→ A crude population measure of obesity is the body (born February 22, 1796,
mass index (BMI). Ghent-Belgium- dies in
→ The body mass index was developed by a Belgian February 17, 1874
statistician, Adolphe Quetelet. Two measurements are Brussels) Belgian
needed to calculate it: the mass of the person in mathematician,
kilograms and their height in meters. astronomer, statistician,
→ BMI is calculate using this formula: (Units for BMI are and sociologist known for
kgm-2) his application of statistics
and probability theory to
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑠 social phenomena.
BMI =
((ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠)2 http://www.britannica.com

NOMOGRAM BMI
BMI can also be found using a type of chart called a nomogram. → BMI is used to assess
A straight line between the heights on the left hand scale ant the mass on the right hand scale whether a person’s body
intersects the BMI nomogram mass is at a healthy level, or
Weight / kg Height / cm
it too high or too low.
150
140 125
Body Mass Index
130
130
120
110 135
100
95 50 140
Very Obese
90
85 40 145
80 → BMI is not used to
75 Obese 150 definitively diagnose
70 30 obesity as people who are
155
65 Overweight very muscular sometimes
160 have a high BMI, without
60
Normal excess fat, but for most
55 20 165 people, it can be a useful
indication of whether they
50 Underweight 170
may be overweight.
45 175 → Limitations of the BMI using
180
this table:
40 • Race, gender and age
185 are not considered
35 10
190 • No distinction is made
on body fat/ water/
195
30 muscle composition
200
205
25 210

American College of Neuropschopharmacology

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 2.3 Carbohydrates and lipids

MEASURING BODY FAT WITH SKINFOLD → Obesity is an increasing problem in some

CALIPERS countries. Excessive food intake and insufficient
exercise cause an accumulation of fat in adipose
tissue.
→ To estimate body fat percentage, measure the
thickness of a skinfold in millimeters using
calipers in these four places:
• Front of upper arm
• Back of upper arm
• Below scapula Side of waist
→ The measurements are added and then analysis
tools available on the internet can be used to
calculate the estimate.

http://www.leehayward.com
Determine the body mass index of the following a. 180cm height and 132.28 pounds of weight
persons 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑠
BMI =
((ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠)2

1 × 10−2
180𝑐𝑚 × = 1.8𝑚
1𝑐𝑚
1𝑘𝑔
132.28 𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑠 × = 60.12 ≈ 60𝑘𝑔
2.20𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑠

60𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
BMI = 2
= 18.51 ≈ 18.6 2
(1.8) 𝑚

b. 6.232feet height and 5662.624slugs weight

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑠
BMI =
((ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠)2

1𝑚
6.232𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑡 × = 1.9𝑚
3.28𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑡

32.174 𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑠 1𝑘𝑔

5.47slugs × ×
1 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔 2.20𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑠
American College of Neuropschopharmacology = 79.99 ≈ 80𝑘𝑔

80𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
BMI = 2
= 22.16 ≈ 22.2 2
(1.9) 𝑚

c. 5.576feet height and 198pounds weight

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 2.3 Carbohydrates and lipids

MARASMUS
The child is suffering from marasmus. His thin limbs
STARVATION indicate that muscle tissue has been broken down as
an energy source by his body.

Starvation can lead to breakdown of body tissue. It occurs due to

the severe lack of intake of essential and nonessential nutrients. In
the absence of dietary intake of energy sources, the body will burst
access glycogen stores. However, if no glucose is available, the
body will break down its own muscle tissue to utilize the resulting
amino acids as energy sources. The amino acids are sent to the
liver where they are converted to glucose. This results in a loss of
muscle mass. Starvation can lead to breakdown of body tissue
(tissues are digested when a person is starving)
What happens when almost no nutrients are available? The answer
is that the body begins to make use of its own stored nutrients.
When people are experiencing starvation conditions, they often
appear as if they have very little to no muscle. This is because they
have used their own skeletal muscle as a source of amino acids to
make other proteins. The muscle is still there but has become so
thin that it is hardly noticeable

https://bodyofnaturenutrition.wordpress.com
ANOREXIA
ANOREXIA NERVOSA The medical term anorexia means reduced appetite.
People with anorexia usually do this by restricting the amount Anorexia nervosa is a psychiatric illness, with causes that
of food they eat, making themselves vomit and exercising are complex. It involves voluntary starvation and loss of body
excessively. The condition often develops out of an anxiety mass. The amounts of carbohydrate and fat consumed are
about body shape and weight that originates from a fear of too small to satisfy the body’s energy requirements, so
being fat or a desire to be thin. Many people with anorexia
protein and other chemicals in the body are broken down.
have a distorted image of themselves, thinking that they are
fat when they are not. Many systems of the body are negatively affected. There is
wasting of muscles, resulting in loss of strength, the heart
muscle is no exception. Hair becomes thinner and can drop
out. The skin becomes dry and bruises easily. A fine growth
of body hair tends to develop. Blood pressure is reduced, with
slow heart rate and poor circulation. In females, infertility is
another common consequence, with no ovulation or
menstrual cycles. As body weight in a person with anorexia
falls, not only is skeletal muscle digested, but heart muscle
deteriorates. To some degree, the skeletal muscle mass
reduces disproportionately faster than the cardiac mass. Lack
of protein, electrolytes and micronutrients may result in the
deterioration of muscle fibers. The lack of dietary intake also
alters the electrolyte balance; i.e., concentrations of calcium,
potassium and sodium. Both skeletal muscle and cardiac
muscle do not contract normally under these circumstances.
There is often reduced blood pressure, a slower heart rate
and reduced heart output in patients.

ttps://imgur.com

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