Antenna Fundamentals

1 Retarded Potential

Time varying fields, produced by time varying sources, propagate

point to point from source towards field point at a finite velocity. The
velocity of propagation of time varying fields in free space is 3 ×108
m/s.
r
Therefore time varying fields take a time δt = sec to propagate
v
from souce to field point. Therefore the fields at instant t at the field
point corresponds to the source at instant t − δt at the source point.
For the source at instant t, the corresponding field at the field point
is obtained at instant t + δt. Therefore the fields at the field point
lag their sources in time, by an amount of the propagation delay time
δt = vr seconds.
These time lagging fields at the field point are called as retarded fields.
Therefore the time varying potentials at the field point are called as
retarded potentials.
For the practical distribution of a charge in a volume, the potential
at a field point is obtained as -
Z
ρv dv
V = volts (1)
vol 4πϵ 0 r

The retarded potential at field point P due to the time varying source

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is obtained as -
ρv (t − r/v)
Z
V (t) = dv Volts (2)
vol 4πϵ0 r

2 Antenna Terminologies

2.1 Radiation Intensity

• Radiation intensity is defined as power per unit solid angle.

• Radiation intensity is denoted by capital letter U or ϕ.
• Radiation intensity does not depend on distance from radiator.

2.2 Directive Gain

• Directive gain is extent to which a test antenna concentrates its

relative energy relative to that of reference antenna.
• Directive gain of antennna in given direction is defined as ratio of
radiation intensity in that direction to average radiated power.
• In ternms of expression it is given as -
Radiation Intensity in particular direction
Gd = (3)
Average Radiated Power

2.3 Power Gain

• Power gain is defined as ratio of power density of actual antenna

in particular direction to power density of reference antenna in
the same direction.

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 • In terms of expression, it is given as :
Power density of actual antenna in particular direction
GP =
Power density of test antenna in that direction
(4)
• It is generally expressed in dB (decibels).

2.4 Directivity

• Directivity D of antenna is defined as ratio of maximum radation

intensity of test antenna to average radiation intensity of test
antenna.
• In terms of expression, it is given as :
Maximum Radiation intensity of test antenna
D= (5)
Average radiation intensity of test antenna
• Directivity is also defined as maximum directive gain.
• The maximum directive gain of antenna for particular direction
is constant.

2.5 Antenna Beamwidth

• Antenna beamwidth is a measure of directivity of an antenna.

• It is angular width measured in degrees.
• Antenna beamwidth is measured from radiation pattern of the
antenna, where the radiated power is half of its maximum value.
• In other words, it is also defined as the angle between two half
power points in a radition pattern.
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 Figure 1: Radiation Pattern

2.6 Radiation Resistance

• Radiation resistance is defined as fictitious resistance which when

inserted in series with an antenna will consume the same amount
of power as is actually radiated by antenna.
• In terms of expression, radiation resistance can be given as :
W Power Radiated
Rr = 2 = 2
(6)
Irms Irms
• In numerical terms it can be expressed as :
 
dl
Rr = 80π 2 ohm (7)
λ

2.7 Radiation Pattern

• Radiation pattern is a graph which shows variation in actual field

strength of electromagnetic fields at all points which are at equal
distance from antenna.
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 • The graphical representation of radiation of an antenna as a func-
tion of direction is called as radiation pattern.

Figure 2: Radiation pattern showing main lobe, back lobe and side lobes

2.8 Front to Back Ratio

• Front to back ratio is defined as ratio of power radiated in desired

direction to power radiated in back or opposite direction.
• In terms of expression, it is given as :
Power radiated in desired direction
A= (8)
radiated in back or opposite direction

• Higher the value of front to back ratio, better it is.

• It is generally desired to have higher front to back ratio as com-
pared to gain.

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2.9 Effective Length

• Effective length of an antenna represents effectiveness of antenna

as radiator or collector of electromagnetic energy.
• For receiving antenna, effective length is defined as the ratio of
open circuit voltage at antenna terminals to the incident electric
field intensity.
Voc Open Circuit Voltage
Ief f = = (9)
Eo incident electric field intensity

• For transmitting antenna, it is the length of antenna which has

same current at all points on it.

2.10 Effective Aperture/Aperture of Antenna

• Effective area of antenna is defined as ratio of power received at

the load terminal to Poynting vector of incident wave.
• In terms of expression it is given as :
Power received at load antenna
A= (10)
Poynting vector of incident wave

• Transmitting antenna transmits EM waves and receiving antenna

receives only a part of it.
• The effective area of antenna helps in determining the amount of
electromagnetic energy received by it.

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3 Antenna Arrays

• The field radiated by a small linear antenna is not distributed

uniformly in direction perpendicular to the axis of antenna.
• These non-uniform radiation characteristics may be used for many
broadcast services.
• But for point to point communication, it is desired to have most
of the energy radiated in one particular direction. This means, it
requires greater directivity in particular direction in case of point
to point communication.
• Thus to increase field strength in desired direction, group of an-
tennas are excited simultaneously.Such group of antennas is called
as ’Antenna Array’.
• Thus, antenna array is defined as system of similar antennas ar-
ranged to get required high directivity in desired direction.
• The individual antenna in antenna array is called as element of
an antenna array.
• The antenna array is said to be linear if all the elements of an
antenna are equally spaced along the straight line.
• Also antenna array is said to be uniform linear array if all elements
are fed with a current of equal magnitude and with progressive
uniform phase shift.
• Various types of arrays are :
1. Broadside Array

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 2. Endfire Array
3. Collinear Array
4. Parasitic Array

3.1 Broadside Array

• This is one of the important arrays used in practice.

• Broadside array is one in which a number of identical parallel
antennas are set up along a line drawn perpendicular to their
respective axes as shown in figure below :

Figure 3: Broadside Array

• The axis of individual antenna is perpendicular to line drawn.

• In broadside arrays, antennas (or elements) are equally spaced
along a line and each element is fed with current of equal magni-
tude, all in the same phase.
• Due to this, arrangment fires in broadside direction and thus there

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 are maximum radiations in one direction and relatively less radia-
tion in other directions. Hence radiation pattern is bidirectional.
• The broadside array is bidirectional which radiates equally well
in either direction of maximum radiations.
• It may also be defined as arrangement which has principle direc-
tion of radiation which is perpendicular to array axis and also to
the plane containing the array element.
• If two radiators operate in phase, broadside couplet is formed.
• Radiation pattern is shown in figure below :

Figure 4: Radiation Pattern of broadside array

3.2 Endfire Array

• The endfire array is nothing but broadside array except that in-
dividual elements are fed with currents out of phase.
• This phase difference increases progressively, so that arrangement
becomes unidirectional. Phase difference is 180o.
• Individual elements are excited in such a manner that progressive
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 phase difference between adjacent elements becomes equal to the
spacing between the elements.
• Thus endfire array is defined as arrangement in which principle
(maximum) direction of radiation coincides with direction of ar-
ray axis.
• If two radiators operate in phase quadrature at a distance of λ
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end fire couplet is formed.
• It may be noted that an endfire array may be bidirectional also.
One such example is a two elements array fed with equal current,
180 degree out of phase.

Figure 5: Endfire Array

3.3 Collinear Array

• As the name indicates, in the collinear array the antennas are

arranged co-axially i.e. the antennas are arranged end to end
along a single line as shown in figure below :
• Each element in collinear arrays is fed with currents of equal
magnitude and phase. This condition is similar to the broadside
array.

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• In this type of array, direction of maximum radiation is perpen-
dicular to axis ofarray.
• Radiation pattern of collinear array and broadside array is very
similar. The only difference is radiation pattern of collinear array
has circular symmetry with main lobe perpendicular to princi-
ple axis. Thus collinear array is also called as ’Omnidirectional
array’.
• The gain of collinear array is maximum if spacing between ele-
ment is 0.3λ to 0.5. But this small spacing causes problem for
construction and current feeding.
• To overcome this difficulty, the elements of an array are oper-
ated with their ends very close to each other and there ends are
connected by insulator.
• Also power gain of this array does increases in proportion to
number of elements in array.

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 Figure 6: Collinear Arrays

3.4 Parasitic Arrays

• In order to overcome feeding problems of antenna, sometimes

lements of antenna are fed through radiation of nearby elements.
• The antenna which gets the power through electromagnetic cou-
pling of the driven antenna is called as ’Parasitic Elements’ and
the array of antennas which has parasitic antenna and driven
antenna is called as parasitic array.
• The simplest form of parasitic array consists of one driven element
and one parasitic element.
• In multi element parasitic array, there may be one or more driven
element and one or more parasitic element.

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• The common example of parasitic array is Yagi Uda array.
• The amplitude and phase of current induced in parasitic element
depends upon the spacing between the driven element and para-
sitic element.
• To make radiation pattern unidirectional, relative phases of cur-
rents are changed by adjusting the spacing between the elements.
This is called as tuning of antenna.
• Figure below shows an example of parasitic array.

Figure 7: Parasitic Array

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