138-147, 2020 RESEARCH ARTICLE

ISSN: 1727-8341
AER Journal Volume 4, Issue 1, pp.

Available Online at http://www.aer-journal.info

The Potential Use of Rabbit Urine as a Bio Fertilizer Foliar

Feed in Crop Production
P. A. Mutai
Department of Animal Science, School of Agriculture and Biotechnology, University of
Eldoret, P. O. Box 1125 - 30100, Eldoret; to [email protected]

Abstract
The study was conducted at CITC Kapsabet College in Nandi Central District-Nandi
County, Kenya. The objective was to determine the potential use of rabbit urine as a foliar
feed fertilizer in crops. Rabbit urine was collected from a gutter fitted to a slatted floor of
rabbit hutch and two replicate samples of concentrated urine 1000 ml each was collected and
taken to National Agricultural Research Laboratory (NARL) Kabete, for nutrient urinalysis.
Two samples of the control (commercial foliar feed fertilizer - CF) were also taken to NARL
for nutrient analysis. Other 50 ml. samples were collected in duplicate and diluted at 0%
(neat urine-F0%), 25%( F-25%) and 75% (F-75%). Undiluted urine and commercial
fertilizer (CF) 100 ml were diluted at the recommended rate of 5 ml per liter and collected
and taken to the same laboratory. The results of the rabbit urine laboratory nutrient analysis
indicated that rabbit urine had better nutrients than CF since rabbit urine had 1.05%
nitrogen, 0.01% phosphorus, 0.85% potassium and 0.12% calcium. Results also indicated
that sample extracts from the different proportion of rabbit urine was the same [F (3, 30)
=0.13, P>0.05]. The average yield per plot was highest for desmodium (2507 g), followed by
oats (1790 g) and finally spinach (620 g) at F50 concentration, respectively and there was no
significant difference of different proportions of rabbit urine on the biomass yield [F
(3,8)=0.24, p>0.05]. The commercial fertilizer had N, P, K and Ca percentages of 0.70, 0.02,
0.02 and 0.002, respectively. The rabbit urine was basic (pH 8.5) while CF was acidic (pH
5.0). Rabbit urine was therefore determined to have a better nutrient composition than
commercial foliar fed fertilizers. Desmodium had the highest yield of 2507 g. The urine was
basic and hence it be integrated with the use of chemical fertilizers to improve crop yield and
soil fertility by reducing soil acidity since it is a foliar feed. The study recommends that
farmers should use the right proportion of water and rabbit urine on plants to promote better
yield.
Keywords: Rabbit Urine Biomass Yield on Crops Rabbit urine, yield, CF, Bio-fertilizer
continually degraded soil from several
INTRODUCTION human activities. However, it is difficult to
The world’s population was projected to estimate exactly the contribution of mineral
increase to 9 billion in mid of this century fertilizers to the increase in agricultural
(Godfray et al., 2010). The increasing production due to the interactions of many
population leads to higher demand for food factors, but fertilizers will continue to play a
security globally. This has resulted in decisive role in food production irrespective
adoption of better farming methods as crops of which new technology may yet emerge. It
form part of the food security. Better is estimated that globally, about 40% (37-
farming methods involve the use of 43%) of the world’s dietary protein supply
fertilizers to improve the quality of the
 138
Mutai, P. A. The Potential Use of Rabbit Urine as a Bio Fertilizer …
(Huang et al., 2017).
in the mid 1990’s originated in the nitrogen Cobalt (CO) is essential for nitrogen
produced by the laboratory process of the fixation. It is important to know that all the
Haber, Bosch process for the synthesis of plant nutrients, be the Macro or Micro
ammonia (Wang et al., 2020). The use of nutrients fulfills a specific role in plant
rabbit urine as animal waste in form of a growth and food production and that one
bio-fertilizer in crop production is a nutrient cannot be substituted for another
relatively new venture. Rabbit production in one (Li et al., 2009).
Kenya is now an emerging livestock Historically farmers have alternated
enterprise and rabbit population is estimated cultivation with long fallow period or
at over 600,000 in Kenya (Serem et al., rotation with other crops to manage soil
2013). They are mainly kept in the rural fertility; however, in response to rising
areas and they supply good quality meat, fur, demand for food and reduced land for
rabbit skin, rabbit manure, feaces and rabbit agricultural production, farmers have
urine (Mutai et al., 2018). shortened or abandoned fallow period and
Macronutrients crop rotation in favour of continuous
Nitrogen (N) is the motor of plant growth cropping which has resulted in use of
and makes up to 1- 4% of dry matter of the fertilizers to improve soil fertility (Esilaba et
plant and taken up in the form of nitrate al., 2016). Early findings from another study
(NO3-) or ammonium (NH4+) and in the showed that one of the major causes of low
plants it combines with compounds maize yield in Western Kenya is soil acidity
produced by carbohydrate metabolism to precipitated by intensive use of chemical
form amino acids and proteins. It is also fertilizers (Ichami et al., 2020). Through soil
responsible for uptake of other nutrients sampling the KARI researchers found out
(Mengel et al., 2001; L'hirondel, 2002). that the average potential of Hydrogen (pH),
levels in soils in that region was 4.5, which
Phosphorous (P) makes up to 0.1 – 0.4% of is too acidic for maize production. This has
the dry matter of plants and plays a major impacted negatively on soil fertility
role in energy transfer and is responsible for (Wamalwa, 2018). An organization
photosynthesis and other chemico sponsored by the USAID supports the
physiological processes in the plant. It is application of integrated soil fertility
indispensable for cell differentiation and management systems (ISFM); by
tissue development forming the growing emphasizing site-specific soil analysis and
points of plants (Chaudhary et al., 2008; Wu fertilizer selection; precision fertilizer
et al., 2013). application and increased use of lime
Potassium (K) makes up to 1- 4% of the blended and customized fertilizer (Vanlauwe
plant dry matter and activates more than 60 et al., 2017).
enzymes hence it plays a vital role in protein There is therefore need to improve soil
and carbohydrate synthesis and improve the fertility through strategic interventions e.g.,
water regime of the plant and increase its through optimization and balancing of use
tolerance to drought, frost, salinity and of chemicals and organic fertilizers through
disease resistance (Zahedi, 2016). fertilizer application techniques, e.g. foliar
Micronutrients feeds; increasing the number of bio
Calcium (Ca) is essential for root growth fertilizers policy supplies and support by the
and as a constituent of cell wall material Kenya Government. The national average
(structural role) and deficiency may occur maize yield has declined over the years from
on strongly calcium depleted tropical soils 2.2 metric tons (MT) per hectare in the
and hence the aim of calcium application is 1990’s to 1.73MT in 2013 (Onono et al.,
that of soil-liming to reduce soil acidity
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 Mutai, P. A. The Potential Use of Rabbit Urine as a Bio Fertilizer …
soil fertility by improving such parameters
as soil pH, potassium; calcium and
2013). Also, a value chain study revealed magnesium bioavailability as compared to
that aggregated demand for maize is conventional use of mineral (chemical
expected to increase from 3.21 million (MT) fertilizers (Studer et al., 2014). A senior
to 3.48 million (MT) in the next decade scientist at Farming Systems – India, reports
mainly aggravated by population growth that a parallel study in India and Bolivia on
(Mumo et al., 2018). However, in the high cotton and coffee production indicated
potential (Kenya’s grain basket) areas of the positive results in organic farming (Forster
North and South Rift Valley regions, soils et al., 2013).
are becoming more acidic due to prolonged
use of inorganic (chemical) fertilizers, On the other hand, another study states that
especially ammonium phosphate (DAP) there is no difference between organic and
(Makone et al., 2015). conventional farming methods with respect
to diseases e.g. Maize-streak virus and
Kenya in the pursuit to meet the national Turcicum leaf blight (Ayiga-Aluba et al.,
food security has embarked on the 2015). In another report it is stated that
construction of a first chemical fertilizer organic farming can contribute to Africa’s
factory in Ngeria-Eldoret in Uasin-Gishu food security but unfortunately has not been
County as was reported by Kenya’s embraced fully in Africa because many
Standard Newspaper of 1.8.2016 (Silah, fertilizers’ manufactures that happens to be
2016). In this publication the Kenya multinationals have powers to influence
government has embarked on a multi-billion agricultural policies which are in their
fertilizer processing plant which is expected favors (Adamtey, 2016).
to churn out an average of 20,000 kg of
fertilizer per day. The national government In another study, addition of different
is said to work in collaboration with the organic manures in addition to
respective county governments in verifying recommended rates of inorganic fertilizer
soil samples for pH analysis especially in resulted in the higher organic carbon content
regions where farmers have exhausted soil and available nutrients status of the soil
fertility through the use of persistent tillage compared to chemical fertilizers alone, the
and chemical fertilizers that lead to soil study which was done on sugar cane
acidity and poor crop productivity. In order production in India also recorded a better
to integrate the use of chemical fertilizers sugarcane juice quality in manure treated
and bio fertilizers the following organic plots than those on recommended chemical
manures can be considered: Cow dung, pig fertilizer rates only. The study concluded
and poultry wastes and lately the use of that integrating use of organic manures and
rabbit urine. The use of rabbit urine as a chemical fertilizers produced higher and
bio-fertilizer as was the objective in this sustainable cane yields and maintained the
research study is an idea whose time has soil fertility (Rama et al., 2011). The
come to reduce the use of chemical continuous addition of organic manures
fertilizers in an integrated interventional along with chemical fertilizers may
approach to improve soil fertility and to stimulate mineralization and immobilization
meet specific customer demand in of plant nutrients hence affecting their
agricultural products. amounts in different organic and inorganic
forms in the soil (Bedada et al., 2014).
Researchers now recommend farming with Combined application of organic manure
less use of chemicals fertilizers (Zhou et al., with inorganic fertilizers significantly
2010; Savari & Gharechaee, 2020; Morris et increased the soil organic carbon content
al., 2007). It is also reported by the research due to addition of organic matter through
institute of organic agriculture (FIBL) that manures than chemical fertilizers alone.
organic farming is viable strategy in the
tropics due to its significance in improving

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Mutai, P. A. The Potential Use of Rabbit Urine as a Bio Fertilizer …
 production and this can set new trends in the
field of organic fertilizers and organic
Also, the increase in organic carbon content products.
without a reduction in yield on combined
use of organic and inorganic nitrogen Study Hypotheses
fertilizers indicated the sustainability of the HO1 Sample extracts are not different in
practice (Muhati et al., 2018). different proportion of rabbit urine
Problem Statement HO2 There is no significant difference
A lot of work has not been done on the use between different proportion of rabbit
of rabbit urine as a bio-fertilizer and yet urine and water on biomass yield.
rabbit keeping is an emerging livestock
enterprise in Kenya producing rabbit meat, MATERIALS AND METHODS This study
skin, fur, rabbit feaces and urine as potential was done at Christian Intermediate Training
organic manure. Rabbit urine is a byproduct College (CITC) Kapsabet College situated
of rabbit keeping considered a livestock in Nandi Central District, Nandi County. It
waste but whose potential as a bio-fertilizer is bound by the Equator to the south and
has not been fully tapped and embraced by extends northwards to latitude 00 34’ N.
most crop farmers.
A rabbit hutch was constructed on the
There is also an increased awareness locally research site using sawn timber as side walls
and globally on the dangers of using and the roof was covered with iron sheets. It
agricultural products fertilized with was raised 1m high to have a wire-mesh
chemical fertilizers. slatted floor to enable urine to be collected
The declining crop yields due to prolonged on gutter fitted below with a plastic urine
and persistent use of chemical fertilizers collection container. Twenty rabbits were
calls for an integrated interventional provided with watering and feeding troughs
approach to correct soil acidity and boost and were fed on rabbit pellets and given
crop yield. Researchers have attributed water.
declining crop yield to increased soil acidity The rabbit urine samples were collected into
making nutrients unavailable for plant use. 100 ml clean and sterile containers. The
Justification rabbit urine was stored for around 4 months
There is need to look into the possibility of without expiring; rabbit urine has no expiry
integrating the use of chemical fertilizers so long as it is tightly closed to avoid the
with bio-fertilizers so as to improve on soil loss of nitrogen through evaporation of the
fertility by correcting soil acidity. This will ammonia gas (NH+4) (Vennen & Mitchelle,
improve on nutrients availability to crops. 2009). However, its expiration is determined
by the amount of nitrogen in it; very little or
There is need to reduce cost of crop no nitrogen means it is expired.
production by use of organic manures e.g.
rabbit urine which is cheap to obtain through They were diluted with water to make 0%,
rabbit keeping (cunniculture) (Mutai et al., 50%, 75% and undiluted urine sample, i.e.
2018). 100% concentration. There was a sample of
a commercial fertilizer mixed at 5 ml per
There is increasing local and global liter of water (control sample), at
awareness of the dangers of using chemical manufacturer’s recommended rate. Eight
fertilizers and hence the new demand for samples representing all the 4 treatments
organic products both from crops. were then taken to the Kenya Agricultural &
It was therefore one of the objectives of this Livestock Research Organization
study to investigate the potential use of Laboratories (KALRO), Kabete- Nairobi for
rabbits’ urine as a bio-fertilizer in crop nutrient analysis.

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Mutai, P. A. The Potential Use of Rabbit Urine as a Bio Fertilizer …
(a) Green leaf desmodium (Desmodium
intortum)
Crops Selected for Field Trials It is high in crude protein with 21% CP
hence good protein supplement for both replicated three times. Establishment was
ruminants and rabbits (non- ruminants) and done by seed drilling in four rows at 30 cm
it is also low in toxicity compared to other between rows for all the crops. Each plot
legumes, e.g. Lucerne Vetch, and Beans was treated with rabbit urine with different
(Mutai et al., 2018). It is also versatile in dilution rates, i.e. 100% (undiluted rabbit
terms of soil acidity unlike Lucerne and urine,) 75% dilution, 50% dilution and
gives better vegetative growth than the commercial fertilizer (CF) diluted at
silver leaf desmodium (D. incanum). It manufacturers rate of 5 ml of the
grows satisfactorily on acidic soil which is commercial fertilizer per 1 liter of water.
the case in most Kenyan soils and can
The bio-fertilizer (rabbit urine) and 2 l of
tolerate soil acidity to a large extent
each dilution were sprayed on all the plots
compared to Lucerne.
with the respective crops in each plot of
(b) Oats (Avina sativa) Desmodium, oats and spinach, respectively,
Oats is a member of the graminea family every fortnight to runoff for a period of 6
and a good forage for livestock. It has no months both at top and bottom of leaves.
human –animal nutritional competition
The following were observed and recorded
unlike wheat or maize, hence appropriate for
in terms of ability of the crop to withstand
sustainable livestock nutritional regime. It
lodging around maturity time, early
also has a short growth period of four
flowering and tasseling for desmodium and
months hence can be used to mitigate the
oats. Observation on the greening effects on
adverse effect of climate change, i.e. short
the different treatments on crops was also
rainy season and prolonged draught. It is
done. At the end of the study period, i.e. 6
rich in carbohydrates and proteins hence
months, all the crops were cut with a sickle
support livestock growth and development.
and weighed on a scale of the range 1 gm-5
(c) Spinach (Brassica family) kg and recorded as the biomass yield of each
It is a nutritious vegetable with good treatment and each crop.
vegetative growth and a short maturity
The research design was a complete random
period and can be used by both human and
design (CRD) and data analysis was done
livestock. It is more tolerant to fungal
using ANOVA and Sum of error mean
infections than most cereals and legumes.
(SEM).
However, a withdrawal period of about two
weeks to reduce the smell of rabbit urine Data Analysis
will have to be observed just like in other Data on biomass yield (vegetative growth)
chemical compounds. was collected and analyzed using ANOVA
and SEM.
Four Field Trial Experiments
(Treatments) Conducted
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The three crops were planted in a clean, fine
Parameter 1-Rabbit urine –Nutrient
and firm seed bed that ensures good
composition
germination. They were planted in three
plots measuring 2×2 m in each plot and each

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Mutai, P. A. The Potential Use of Rabbit Urine as a Bio Fertilizer …

Table 1: Nutrient composition of rabbit urine and commercial foliar feed fertilizer at
different dilution rates
 Nitro Phosphor Potassi Calcium Magnesi pH
gen ous (%) um (%) um (%)
(%) (%)

T1(F100) 1.05 0.01 0.85 0.12 0.65 8.5

T2 (F50) 0.70 0.02 0.62 0.06 0.57 8

T3 (F75) 1.05 0.02 0.55 0.01 0.51 8.5

T4 (CF) 5ML/Ltr 0.70 0.02 0.02 0.002 0.56 5

SEM(+) (+)0.09 (+)0.002 (+)0.47 (+)0.02 (+)0.03 (+)0.73

Table 2: ANOVA Results showing nutrient composition on treatment effect

Using Stata software, the results of rabbit shows that by diluting rabbit urine by 50%
urine nutrient analysis are shown above. with water, it brings the nitrogen
concentration to the figure of 0.70 which
The p value is 0.9413 which is greater than actually is equal to that in the commercial
0.05. Therefore, the null hypothesis is not fertilizer (CF), which is diluted at a
rejected meaning sample extracts are the recommended rate of 5 ml. per liter of water.
same for all treatments and hence means These findings disagree with findings of
there is no significant difference [F(3,20) Sunandra et al. (2019) who found out that
=0.13, p>0.05] in all treatments. melon plant grows faster with addition of
The macronutrients, i.e. Nitrogen (N), 300 cc of rabbit urine diluted in 1 liter of
Phosphorous (P) and Potassium (K) for both water.
samples taken from each treatment (dilution The rabbit urine can be collected easily with
rate) shows no significant difference no extra expense by rabbit farmers meaning
(p>0.05), with the F100% (undiluted urine) it can be sustainable and cost-effective
and F75% dilutions recording the highest method of improving crop yield and soil
N% of 1.05, and the F50% and CF having fertility. The percentage levels of
the same % Nitrogen of 0.70. In spite of the phosphorous (P) at 0.01 for F 100%
dilution of 25% water for the F75% (control-untreated), 0.02, 0.02 and 0.02 for
fertilizer, the nitrogen concentration still F50%, F75%, and CF, respectively had
remained the same as with the F100% insignificant difference as shown by the p
fertilizer. This shows that rabbit urine is a value which is greater than 0.05, and that the
very concentrated solution and has been F50 fertilizer had same percentage
supported by Wandita & Fitriyanto (2016) phosphorous as the commercial fertilizer
who reported that rabbit urine has a very
high concentration of nitrogen. The study
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Mutai, P. A. The Potential Use of Rabbit Urine as a Bio Fertilizer …
were also insignificant meaning there was
no significant difference between the
(CF) while potassium percentage levels
proportion of potassium in rabbit urine and
Rabbit urine is alkaline (pH 8.5) as shown in
CF when different percentage of water was
Table 1 and in spite of a 25% dilution with
added to them. For calcium it is the same for
water, the pH of the 75% concentrated urine
F50%, F75% and CF at percentage of 0.02
is similar to that of the 100% concentration.
but F100% had slightly more calcium
However, the pH of 50% concentrated urine
percentage of 0.05 since it was undiluted.
is 8.0 which is still alkaline as compared to a
Calcium is essential for cell wall
pH of 5.0 of the commercial foliar feed
development in plants hence good for
fertilizers- acidic.
structural and textural development and
helps mainly cereals crops to stand firm and The Alkaline pH in concentrated urine may
prevent lodging towards maturity stage or explain why the low phosphorous levels in
incase of strong winds. Rabbit urine has the two solutions occurs since phosphorous
enough calcium for this purpose and can be (P) and Calcium (Ca) have inhibitory
used in an integrated approach with nutrient element availability when the ratio
chemical fertilizers. Similarly, the of the two elements is not that of 2:1 (P and
magnesium contents of 0.57 in F50%, and Ca, respectively). This is also supported by
0.65 in CF indicates that the same mixing the fact that once the 100% urine was
levels of fertilizers can replace each other. diluted to be 50% the phosphorous pH level
The same case as can be seen with respect to was 8.0 and available phosphorous
NPK levels in F50% and CF. increased to 0.02.

Table 3: Biomass Yield of the Three Crops after a Growth Period of 6 Months
Treatments

Crop F 0% F50% F100% CF

Weight (g)

Desmodium 1587 2507 1775 1673

Oats 1320 1790 1778 1850

Spinach 402 620 450 531

KEY:
F50%=50 percent diluted rabbit urine fertilizer
F75%- 75 Percent dilution rate of rabbit urine fertilizer.
F100%=100% Rabbit urine fertilizer (undiluted)
CF=Commercial fertilizer (Foliar feed diluted at manufactures rate of 5 ml. Mixed with 1 lt. of water)

Table 4: ANOVA Results showing treatment effects

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Mutai, P. A. The Potential Use of Rabbit Urine as a Bio Fertilizer …
 The serious scalding on the leaves of the
plants treated with the neat urine caused leaf
Since the p value is 0.8649 which is greater chlorosis which affected the photosynthetic
than 0.05, the Ho is not rejected meaning process in plants resulting in poor growth
there is no significant difference (p>0.05) performance. The performance of the plants
for all treatments on biomass yield, that is, under CF (commercial fertilizer) plots was
the biomass yield for all treatments are the dismal in all the three plant species except in
same. oats compared to those of F50% and F
Parameter 2-Biomass Yield 100% treatments and can be attributed to a
The plots under Desmodium (Desmodium less nutrient utilization efficiency on the part
intortum) plants had an average biomass of the commercial fertilizer. It can also be
yield of 1587 g, 2507 g, 1775 gm and 1673 attributed to the absence of the glycoprotein
g for treatments F0 (control- no fertilizer referred to as the (Tamm Horsfall
added), F50 (50% diluted rabbit urine), F glycoprotein) which has been found to be
100 (undiluted rabbit urine) and CF present in rabbit urine and plays an
(commercial fertilizer), respectively. important role in plant nutrient metabolism
However, the 75% concentration was not (Fletcher et al., 1970). However, a different
used because it had the same concentration scenario was observed on the yield
as 100% dilution. The average yield (g) for performance of oats at the best yield of 1850
the plants in plots under oats (Avina sativa) gm on the plants treated with the CF
was 1320 gm,1790 gm,1775 gm and 1850 (commercial fertilizer), followed by the oat
gm, for treatments F0 (control- no fertilizer those treated with 50%and 100% dilutions,
added), F50 (50% diluted rabbit urine), F respectively. This could have been due to the
100 (undiluted rabbit urine) and CF vulnerability of oats plants to the rabbit
(commercial fertilizer), respectively. While urine scalding effect which was not very
the average yield (gm) for the plants in plots adverse on the oat plants treated with the CF
under Spinach (Brassica family) was 402 (commercial fertilizer). The Spinach plants
gm, 620 gm, 450 gm and 531 gm for recorded the highest biomass yield of 620
treatments F0 (control- no fertilizer added), gm. on those plants treated with F50%
F50 (50% diluted rabbit urine), F 100 fertilizer, CF with 531 gm and F 100% with
(undiluted rabbit urine) and CF (commercial 450 g, respectively.
fertilizer), respectively.
CONCLUSION
Biomass Yields Analysis From the results of the study, it can be
Null Hypothesis Ho: Biomass yields of crops concluded that rabbit urine had better
are same for all treatments nutrient composition than some of the
commercial foliar fed fertilizers. Rabbit
Alternative Hypothesis H1: Biomass yields
urine has sufficient levels of NPK and can
of crops are not same for all treatments.
be used to support increased yields in crop
There was no significant difference [F (3, 8) production and can be integrated with the
=0.24, p>0.05] between biomass yield in all use of chemical fertilizers to improve crop
treatments as shown in the ANOVA table yield and soil fertility by reducing soil
above in all the treatments which was acidity, since it is a foliar feed only absorbed
observed in the three different crops under through leaves of plants unlike chemical
the applied treatments. It was noted that the fertilizers. The effect of scalding by rabbit
plants under 100% Rabbit urine in urine was gradually observed to diminish as
desmodium, oats and spinach plots did not the plants grows. Also, it can be concluded
perform better than the ones under 50% that rabbit urine diluted with water at 50%
rabbit urine dilution and these could be concentration provides the best biomass
attributed to the observed leaf scalding yield when used as a foliar feed fertilizer on
effect of the basic nature of rabbit urine pH. field crops.

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Mutai, P. A. The Potential Use of Rabbit Urine as a Bio Fertilizer …
Rabbit urine is recommended for use at a
mixing rate of 50:50 for better crop
RECOMMENDATION
performance and due to its basic nature can Vetarans Disability and Rehabilitation
be used for soil acidity amendments to Research
correct low soil pH. which is causing low Doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0081039.
Godfray, C., Pretty, J., Muir, F. J. and Robinson,
crop yields in most parts of the country, and
S. (2010). Food Security: The Challenge of
it is environmentally friendly. From the
Feeding 9 Billion People, Science 327, 812
findings, it has been shown that there is a
(2010); Doi.1126/science 1185383.
proportion of water that should be used in
Huang, D., Gong, X., Liu, Y., Zeng, G., Lai, C.,
rabbit urine to ensure improved biomass
Bashir, H. and Wan, J. (2017). Effects of
yield and therefore it is recommended that calcium at toxic concentrations of cadmium
farmers should seek use the right proportion in plants. Planta, 245 (5), 863-873.
of water and rabbit urine for effective Ichami, M. S., Keith, D. S., Hoffland, E.,
results. Karuku, N. G. and Stoorvoget, J. J. (2020).
Soil Spatial Variation to guide the
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