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A11UAA31 Aircraft Maintenance & Crew Management

Bba (Bharathiar University)

Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university

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Aircraft Maintenance &

Crew Management

BBA
Airline & Airport Management
(Annual Pattern)
IIIrd Year
Paper No. 11

School of Distance Education

Bharathiar University, Coimbatore - 641 046

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Author: Mihir Babu

Copyright © 2014, Bharathiar University

All Rights Reserved

Produced and Printed

by
EXCEL BOOKS PRIVATE LIMITED
A-45, Naraina, Phase-I,
New Delhi-110028
for
SCHOOL OF DISTANCE EDUCATION
Bharathiar University
Coimbatore-641046

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CONTENTS

Page No.
UNIT I
Lesson 1 Maintenance 7
Lesson 2 Maintenance Steering Group 24

UNIT II
Lesson 3 PP&C 43
Lesson 4 Technical Publication 52

UNIT III
Lesson 5 Crew Resource Management 63

UNIT IV
Lesson 6 Incidents/Accidents 85
Lesson 7 Communication: A Relevant Factor in Aviation Safety 101

UNIT V
Lesson 8 Line Operations and Safety Audit 123
Lesson 9 Crew Resource Management Training 129
Lesson 10 Hangar 137
Model Question Paper 147

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AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE & CREW MANAGEMENT

SYLLABUS

UNIT I
Maintenance: Role of the Engineer & Mechanic – Two Types of Maintenance – Reliability Redesign – Failure
Rate Patterns – Establishing a Maintenance Program. Development of Maintenance Programs: Introduction –
Maintenance steering Group (MSG) approach – Process & Tasks – Oriented Maintenance – Maintenance
Program Documents – Maintenance Intervals defined

UNIT II
Production Planning and Control: Introduction – Forecasting – Production Planning & Control – Feedback for
Planning – Organization of PP & C. Technical Publications: Introduction – Functions of Technical Publications –
Airline Libraries – Control of Publications – Document Distribution. Technical Training: Computer Support:–
Airline uses of Computers – Computer Program Modules – Selecting a computer System

UNIT III
CRM: Evolution and Basics – Flight Control Crew Management – Maintenance Resource Management – Impact
of CRM in Aviation Safety – CRM Training Evolution and CRM Desired Skills – Performance Standards for
Instructors in CRM – CRM Standards and Training – CRIMs (CRM Instructors) and CRIMEs (CRM Instructor
Examiners)

UNIT IV
Data on Incidents/Accidents: Human Performance Analysis – Evaluation of Flight Crew CRM Skills –
Communication: A Relevant factor in Aviation Safety – Line Operations Safety Audit (LOSA) and CRM:
Relationship

UNIT V
Individual Performance: Relevant Factors – Automation and Upgradation of Skills – CRM: Training Methods
and Standardization – Competency Profile for Instructors of CRM – Maintenance Crew Skill Requirements –
Morning Meeting. Hanger Maintenance (On – Aircraft) – Introduction – Organization of Hanger Maintenance

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5
Maintenance

UNIT I

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6
Aircraft Maintenance &
Crew Management

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7
LESSON Maintenance

1
MAINTENANCE

CONTENTS
1.0 Aims and Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Role of the Engineers and Mechanics
1.2.1 Airframe Mechanics
1.2.2 Power Plant Mechanics
1.2.3 Avionics Technicians
1.3 Reactive Maintenance
1.4 Preventive Maintenance
1.5 Predictive Maintenance
1.6 Reliability Centered Maintenance (RCM)
1.7 Aircraft Integrated Maintenance
1.8 Aircraft Engine Maintenance
1.9 Aircraft Base Maintenance
1.10 Aircraft Line Maintenance
1.11 Aircraft Engineering and Planning Services
1.12 Quality Services
1.13 Aircraft System
1.14 Maintenance Scheduling
1.15 Let us Sum up
1.16 Lesson End Activity
1.17 Keywords
1.18 Questions for Discussion
1.19 Suggested Readings

1.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

After studying this lesson, you should be able to:
z Discuss the role of the engineers and mechanics
z Know the different types of maintenance
z Explain MSG – process and task
z Identify maintenance program documents

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8
Aircraft Maintenance & 1.1 INTRODUCTION
Crew Management
What is maintenance and why is it performed? Past and current maintenance practices
in both the private and Government sector would imply that maintenance is the actions
associated with equipment repair after it is broken. The dictionary defines
maintenances as follows: “the work of keeping something in proper condition;
upkeep.” This would imply that maintenance should be actions taken to prevent a
device or component from failing or to repair normal equipment degradation
experienced with the operation of the device to keep it in proper working order.
Unfortunately, data obtained in many studies over the past decade indicates that most
private and Government facilities do not expend the necessary resources to maintain
equipment in proper working order. Rather, they wait for equipment failure to occur and
then take whatever actions are necessary to repair or replace the equipment. Nothing
lasts forever and all equipment has associated with it some predefined life expectancy or
operational life. For example, equipment may be designed to operate at full design load
for 5,000 hours' and may be designed to go through 15,000 start and stop cycles.
The design life of most equipment requires periodic maintenance. Belts need
adjustment, alignment needs to be maintained, proper lubrication on rotating
equipment is required and so on. In some cases, certain components need replacement,
e.g. a wheel bearing on a motor vehicle, to ensure the main piece of equipment (in this
case a car) last for its design life. Anytime we fail to perform maintenance activities
intended by the equipment's designer, we shorten the operating life of the equipment.
But what options do we have? Over the last 30 years, different approaches to how
maintenance can be performed to ensure equipment reaches or exceeds its design life
have been developed in the United States. In addition to waiting for a piece of
equipment to fail (reactive maintenance), we can utilize preventive maintenance,
predictive maintenance or reliability centred maintenance.

1.2 ROLE OF THE ENGINEERS AND MECHANICS

Aircraft maintenance technicians install, maintain and repair aircraft engines,
airframes, airframe systems, electrical, instrument and radio systems and aircraft
structures and surface finishes.
Aircraft maintenance engineers may perform the following tasks:
z dismantle, inspect, repair and reassemble aircraft engines, airframe components
and systems, electrical components and systems, avionic components and systems
and aircraft structures
z test aircraft communication equipment, instruments and electronic systems
z conduct routine pre-flight inspections
Major aircraft manufacturers are predicting a need for thousands of aircraft
maintenance technicians each year over the next several years as more and more
airplanes are produced.
Depending on their area of specialization, mechanics perform inspections,
maintenance, structural repairs and alterations on a variety of different aviation
articles. The primary specialties are airframe, power plant (engines) and avionics.

1.2.1 Airframe Mechanics

They perform maintenance on airframe components, including the wings, fuselage,
tail section and landing gear. They are not allowed to work on engines unless they are
being supervised by a certificated and properly rated person.

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1.2.2 Power Plant Mechanics 9

Maintenance
They have the authority to service and maintain aircraft engines but are not allowed to
work on airframe components unless they are being supervised by a certificated and
properly rated person.
Most mechanics in the U.S. are certified for both airframe and power plant. Their
approval is in the form of a mechanics certificate with an airframe and power plant
rating (A&P).

1.2.3 Avionics Technicians

They require specialized training to perform maintenance on aircraft radios,
instruments and computer systems, including radar, radio communications and
autopilot systems.
They are usually employed by certificated repair stations that are authorized to
perform maintenance on aircraft avionics. The demand for skilled avionics technicians
is rising as aircraft are increasingly being fitted with state of the art instrumentation,
computers and navigation equipment.
Aircraft mechanics work in hangars operated by airlines, flight schools, corporations,
repair stations or Maintenance Repair and Overhaul (MRO) facilities, and often times
on the ramp where airplanes are parked.
Typically, schedules consist of 40-hour work weeks and 8-hour work days. Because
planes need constant servicing, mechanics can work night and weekend shifts as well
as overtime hours.
Mechanics need to work fast and efficiently, in order to adhere to high safety
standards and meet demanding flight schedules. They can be subject to high noise
levels and strenuous physical work.
Human factors in aircraft maintenance have become a much talked about issue. We
will have more information on that topic in another section of this website.

1.3 REACTIVE MAINTENANCE

Reactive maintenance is basically the “run it till it breaks” maintenance mode. No
actions or efforts are taken to maintain the equipment as the designer originally
intended to ensure design life is reached. Studies as recent as the winter of 2000
indicates this is still the predominant mode of maintenance in the United States. The
referenced study breaks down the average maintenance program as follows:
z >55% Reactive
z 31 % Preventive
z 12% Predictive
z 2% Other
Note that more than 55% of maintenance resources and activities of an average facility
are still reactive.
Advantages to reactive maintenance can be viewed as a double-edged sword. If we are
dealing with new equipment, we can expect minimal incidents of failure. If our
maintenance program is purely reactive, we will not expend manpower dollars or
incur capital cost until something breaks.
Since, we do not see any associated maintenance cost, we could view this period as
saving money. The downside is reality. In reality, during the time we believe we are

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10 saving maintenance and capital cost, we are really spending more dollars than we
Aircraft Maintenance &
Crew Management would have under a different maintenance approach. We are spending more dollars
associated with capital cost because, while waiting for the equipment to break, we are
shortening the life of the equipment resulting in more frequent replacement. We may
incur cost upon failure of the primary device associated with its failure causing the
failure of a secondary device. This is an increased cost we would not have experienced
if our maintenance program was more proactive. Our labour cost associated with
repair will probably be higher than normal because the failure will most likely require
more extensive repairs than would have been required if the piece of equipment had
not been run to failure. Chances are the piece of equipment will fail during off hours
or close to the end of the normal workday. If it is a critical piece of equipment that
needs to be back online quickly, we will have to pay maintenance overtime cost.
Since, we expect to run equipment to failure, we will require a large material
inventory of repair parts. This is a cost we could minimize under a different
maintenance strategy.

Advantages
z Low cost
z Less staff

Disadvantages
z Increased cost due to unplanned downtime of equipment
z Increased labour cost, especially if overtime is needed
z Cost involved with repair or replacement of equipment
z Possible secondary equipment or process damage from equipment failure
z Inefficient use of staff resources

1.4 PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE

Preventive maintenance can be defined as follows:
Actions performed on a time- or machine-run-based schedule that detect, preclude, or
mitigate degradation of a component or system with the aim of sustaining or extending
its useful life through controlling degradation to an acceptable level.
The U.S. Navy pioneered preventive maintenance as a means to increase the reliability
of their vessels. By simply expending, the necessary resources to conduct maintenance
activities intended by the equipment designer, equipment life is extended and its
reliability is increased. In addition to an increase in reliability, dollars are saved over
that of a program just using reactive maintenance. Studies indicate that this savings
can amount to as much as 12% to 18% on the average.
Depending on the facilities current maintenance practices, present equipment
reliability, and facility downtime, there is little doubt that many facilities purely reliant
on reactive maintenance could save much more than 18% by instituting a proper
preventive maintenance program.
While preventive maintenance is not the optimum maintenance program, it does have
several advantages over that of a purely reactive program. By performing, the
preventive maintenance as the equipment designer envisioned, we will extend the life
of the equipment closer to design. This translates into dollar savings. Preventive
maintenance (e.g. lubrication, filter change, etc.) will generally run the equipment
more efficiently resulting in dollar savings. While we will not prevent equipment

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catastrophic failures, we will decrease the number of failures. Minimizing failures 11

Maintenance
translate into maintenance and capital cost savings.

Advantages
z Cost effective in many capital intensive processes
z Flexibility allows for the adjustment of maintenance periodicity
z Increased component life cycle
z Energy savings
z Reduced equipment or process failure
z Estimated 12% to 18% cost savings over reactive maintenance program

Disadvantages
z Catastrophic failures still likely to occur
z Labour intensive
z Includes performance of unneeded maintenance
z Potential for incidental damage to components in conducting unneeded
maintenance

1.5 PREDICTIVE MAINTENANCE

Predictive maintenance can be defined as follows:
Measurements that detect the onset of a degradation mechanism, thereby allowing
causal stressors to be eliminated or controlled prior to any significant deterioration in
the component physical state. Results indicate current and future functional
capability.
Basically, predictive maintenance differs from preventive maintenance by basing
maintenance need on the actual condition of the machine rather than on some preset
schedule.
You will recall that preventive maintenance is time-based. Activities such as changing
lubricant are based on time, like calendar time or equipment run time. For example,
most people change the oil in their vehicles every 3,000 to 5,000 miles travelled. This
is effectively basing the oil change needs on equipment run time. No concern is given
to the actual condition and performance capability of the oil. It is changed because it is
time.
This methodology would be analogous to a preventive maintenance task. If, on the
other hand, the operator of the car discounted the vehicle run time and had the oil
analysed at some periodicity to determine its actual condition and lubrication
properties, he/she may be able to extend the oil change until the vehicle had travelled
10,000 miles. This is the fundamental difference between predictive maintenance and
preventive maintenance, whereby predictive maintenance is used to define needed
maintenance task based on quantified material/equipment condition.
The advantages of predictive maintenance are many. A well-orchestrated predictive
maintenance program will all but eliminate catastrophic equipment failures. We will
be able to schedule maintenance activities to minimize or delete overtime cost. We
will be able to minimize inventory and order parts, as required, well ahead of time to
support the downstream maintenance needs. We can optimize the operation of the
equipment, saving energy cost and increasing plant reliability. Past studies have
estimated that a properly functioning predictive maintenance program can provide a

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12 savings of 8% to 12% over a program utilizing preventive maintenance alone.

Aircraft Maintenance &
Crew Management Depending on a facility's reliance on reactive maintenance and material condition, it
could easily recognize savings opportunities exceeding 30% to 40%. In fact,
independent surveys indicate the following industrial average savings resultant from
initiation of a functional predictive maintenance program:
z Return on investment: 10 times
z Reduction in maintenance costs: 25% to 30%
z Elimination of breakdowns: 70% to 75%
z Reduction in downtime: 35% to 45%
z Increase in production: 20% to 25%
On the down side, to initially start into the predictive maintenance world is not
inexpensive. Much of the equipment requires cost in excess of $50,000. Training of
in-plant personnel to effectively utilize predictive maintenance technologies will
require considerable funding. Program development will require an understanding of
predictive maintenance and a firm commitment to make the program work by all
facility organizations and management.

Advantages
z Increased component operational life/availability
z Allows for pre-emptive corrective actions
z Decrease in equipment or process downtime
z Decrease in costs for parts and labour
z Better product quality
z Improved worker and environmental safety
z Improved worker moral
z Energy savings
z Estimated 8% to 12% cost savings over preventive maintenance program

Disadvantages
z Increased investment in diagnostic equipment
z Increased investment in staff training
z Savings potential not readily seen by management

1.6 RELIABILITY CENTERED MAINTENANCE (RCM)

Reliability centred maintenance magazine provides the following definition of RCM:
"a process used to determine the maintenance requirements of any physical asset in its
operating context."
Basically, RCM methodology deals with some key issues not dealt with by other
maintenance programs.
It recognizes that all equipment in a facility is not of equal importance to either the
process or facility safety. It recognizes that equipment design and operation differs
and that different equipment will have a higher probability to undergo failures from
different degradation mechanisms than others. It also approaches the structuring of a
maintenance program recognizing that a facility does not have unlimited financial and
personnel resources and that the use of both need to be prioritized and optimized. In a

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nutshell, RCM is a systematic approach to evaluate a facility's equipment and 13

Maintenance
resources to best mate the two and result in a high degree of facility reliability and
cost-effectiveness. RCM is highly reliant on predictive maintenance but also
recognizes that maintenance activities on equipment that is inexpensive and
unimportant to facility reliability may best be left to a reactive maintenance approach.
The following maintenance program breakdowns of continually top-performing
facilities would echo the RCM approach to utilize all available maintenance
approaches with the predominant methodology being predictive.
z <10% Reactive
z 25% to 35% Preventive
z 45% to 55% Predictive
Because RCM is so heavily weighted in utilization of predictive maintenance
technologies, its program advantages and disadvantages mirror those of predictive
maintenance. In addition to these advantages, RCM will allow a facility to more
closely match resources to needs while improving reliability and decreasing cost.

How to Initiate Reliability Centred Maintenance

The road from a purely reactive program to a RCM program is not an easy one. The
following is a list of some basic steps that will help to get moving down this path.
z Develop a Master equipment list identifying the equipment in your facility
z Prioritize the listed components based on importance to process
z Assign components into logical groupings
z Determine the type and number of maintenance activities required and periodicity
using:
™ Manufacturer technical manuals
™ Machinery history
™ Root cause analysis findings – Why did it fail?
™ Good engineering judgment
z Assess the size of maintenance staff
z Identify tasks that may be performed by operations maintenance personnel
z Analyse equipment failure modes and effects
z Identify effective maintenance tasks or mitigation strategies
The references and resources provided below are by no means all-inclusive. The listed
organizations are not endorsed by the authors of this guide and are provided for your
information only. To locate additional resources, the authors of this guide recommend
contacting relevant trade groups, databases and the World Wide Web.
Aircraft maintenance checks: Aircraft maintenance checks are periodic checks that
have to be done on all aircraft after a certain amount of time or usage. Airlines
casually refer to these checks as one of the following:
A check, B check, C check or D check. A and B checks are lighter checks, while C
and D are considered.

A Check
This is performed approximately every month or 500 Flight Hours (FH). This check is
usually done overnight at an airport gate. The actual occurrence of this check varies by

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14 aircraft type, the cycle count (takeoff and landing is considered an aircraft "cycle"), or
Aircraft Maintenance &
Crew Management the number of hours flown since the last check. The occurrence can be delayed by the
airline if certain predetermined conditions are met.

B Check
This is performed approximately every 3 months. This check is also usually done
overnight at an airport gate. A similar occurrence schedule applies to the B check as to
the A check.

C Check
This is performed approximately every 12–18 months or a specific amount of actual
Flight Hours (FH) as defined by the manufacturer. This maintenance check puts the
aircraft out of service and requires plenty of space – usually at a hangar at a
maintenance base. The schedule of occurrence has many factors and components as
has been described, and thus varies by aircraft category and type.

D Check
This is the heaviest check for the airplane, also known as a Heavy Maintenance visit
(HMV). This check occurs approximately every 4–5 years. This is the check that,
more or less, takes the entire airplane apart for inspection. This requires even more
space and time than all other checks, and must be performed at a maintenance base.
Often, older aircraft being phased out of a particular airlines' fleet are stored or
scrapped upon reaching their next check.
Modern transport category airplanes with MSG-3 derived maintenance programs
employ usage parameters for each maintenance requirement such as flight hours,
calendar time or flight cycles. Maintenance intervals based on usage parameters allow
more flexibility in scheduling the maintenance program to optimize aircraft utilization
and minimize aircraft downtime.

1.7 AIRCRAFT INTEGRATED MAINTENANCE

Repair and Overhaul Shops undertakes to carry out maintenance and repair work on
the Customer's aircraft or its components and to procure spare parts and equipment
required for the execution of maintenance and repair orders.
z Engine maintenance
z Aircraft maintenance (base and line)
z Components maintenance
z Engineering and planning services
z Material services
z Quality services

1.8 AIRCRAFT ENGINE MAINTENANCE

Maintenance and Engineering's Engine shop is a fully established MRO centre, will
have accumulated experience in commercial aircraft engine maintenance. The
company will integrates high-quality engineers and technicians with an excellent
operational, troubleshooting and repair/overhaul background in several types of
engines.
The MRO services vary from test cell runs, borescope inspections, end-of-lease
inspections, performance restoration and refurbishment to full overhaul of complete
engines as well as single modules. In addition, it provides a broad range of

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maintenance-related services covering customised workscoping, Engine Condition 15

Maintenance
Monitoring (ECM), engine leasing (e.g. pool services) and Total Engine Care (TEC)
including engine fleet management. Further, Maintenance Shops offer many high-tech
piece part, component and accessory repairs.
For example, TAP M&E provides repair and overhaul for CFM56-3, CFM56-5A,
CFM56-5B, CFM56-5C, CFM56-7B, JT3D, JT8D (standard), RB211-524B4 and
RB211-524D4 engines. We also offer engineering services, fleet management service,
engine lease support, field team services, technical training, logistic assistance, and
engine removal and installation services.

1.9 AIRCRAFT BASE MAINTENANCE

Base maintenance in vast span of services including A, B, C, and D checks;
modifications; structural repairs; ageing programmes; cabin refurbishment; and
stripping and painting. Three fully equipped hangars allow us to simultaneously
accommodate up to eight narrow-body aircraft, or four wide-body and four narrow-
body aircraft.

1.10 AIRCRAFT LINE MAINTENANCE

Our aircraft line maintenance department operates in international airports as well
as in some other foreign locations. It offers a vast span of services such as pre-flight,
transit and daily checks, troubleshooting and malfunction corrections, engine trend
monitoring and pool agreements.
z Aircraft Component Maintenance
™ Landing Gears Overhaul Shops
™ Mechanical shops
™ Air and Conditioning System
™ Repairs of the mechanical aircraft parts, repairs of the containers, trolleys,
passenger and crew
™ seats
™ NC fire extinguisher shop
™ Emergency equipment shop
™ Machinery shops (production of small parts and tools)
™ Composite material shop
™ Repair of all kinds of composite (one or multidirectional, hybrid method RT
and HT)
™ Repairs of sandwich materials (composite – sandwich – composite or metal –
sandwich – metal and their combination)
™ Repairs of the honeycomb materials (paper, glass, metal incl. aluminium and
nomex)
™ Repairs and production of floor panels and interior parts
z Special shops
™ Upholstery shop (seats, carpets, etc.)
™ Oxygen shop and oxygen filling station
™ Welding shop (CAA approval)
™ Chemical plating (chrome, cadmium, etc.)
™ Parts painting shop

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16 z Brakes & wheels

Aircraft Maintenance &
Crew Management ™ Change of the tires, non-destructive testing of the wheel discs, repair of brakes
B737, ATR42/72, etc.

Check Your Progress 1

Fill in the blanks:
1. ……………… test aircraft communication equipment, instruments and
electronic systems.
2. Mechanics need to work fast and efficiently, in order to adhere to high
safety standards and meet ………………
3. ……………… failures translate into maintenance and capital cost
savings.
4. Activities such as changing lubricant are based on time, like ……………
5. ……………… deals with some key issues not dealt with by other
maintenance programs.

1.11 AIRCRAFT ENGINEERING AND PLANNING

SERVICES
Over haul shops also offer engineering services including engineering support during
selection, specification and evaluation of used and new aircraft; technical support
during pre-delivery preparation and documentation verification and acceptance for the
issuance of a certificate of airworthiness; condition assessment of the airframe,
landing gear and engines; analysis of airworthiness requirements and technical and
documental support for ADs and SBs and other documentation.
Other services include:
z Maintenance programme development and approval support (based on MRB and
manufacturers': MPD)
z Reliability analysis and development of reports according to the operator's aircraft
and systems configuration
z Design and approval of changes and minor repairs in avionics, structures, hydro-
mechanical systems, electrical systems, cabin interiors, power plant, non-critical
engine parts, thrust reversers and nacelles
z Maintenance programme control
z Inspection planning and control
z Work package preparation
z Material Support
TAP M&E can provide material support in fields such as initial procurement advice;
procurement and purchasing of material; access to a stock of consumables comprising
more than 200,000 part numbers; material pooling; sale of certified material and AOG
desk service.
Other services include:
z Creation and management of consignment stocks at customers' locations
z Exchange or loan of LRUs

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z Rotable control, including tracking 17

Maintenance
z Maintenance programme management
z Modification status control

1.12 QUALITY SERVICES

Quality services include: quality audits; calibration of standards, equipment’s and
tools in electrical, electronic and mechanical units; non-destructive testing; physical
and chemical laboratory analysis and environmental control.
EASA, FAA and ISO 9001:2000 Certifications
Maintenance & Engineering should hold the certifications to perform the repairs.

1.13 AIRCRAFT SYSTEM

An aircraft is a complex system. In the design stage and in the flight and maintenance
manuals (used by pilot and maintenance technicians) it is broken down into simpler
systems that carry out homogeneous functions. Some examples include but are not
limited to:
z Electrical
z Hydraulics
z Oxygen
z Fuel
z Propulsion
z Navigation
z Flight controls
z Ice protection (anti-icing and de-icing)
z Bird avoidance
Controls and displays in the cockpit panels are usually grouped by system.

1.14 MAINTENANCE SCHEDULING

Aircraft maintenance scheduling consists of deciding the journey of each aircraft. In
this journey an aircraft should periodically visit maintenance stations in order to
undertake maintenance as dictated by regulations. The objective of maintenance
scheduling is to minimize the costs of maintenance, while maximizing the revenue
from through flights.

Aircraft Inspections
Learning Objective: Define the types of Aircraft Inspections required for proper
maintenance and safety of naval aircraft.
Aircraft are subject to a variety of stresses, strains, vibrations and detrimental
environments. If not inspected regularly, the aircraft would soon become inoperable.
Maintenance is performed in conjunction with inspections. This enables the aircraft to
be flown safely until the next inspection. The types of inspections that are performed
by activities responsible for the maintenance of naval aircraft are defined in the
following paragraphs.

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18 Acceptance Inspection
Aircraft Maintenance &
Crew Management This inspection is performed at the time a reporting custodian accepts a newly
assigned aircraft, and upon receipt of or return of an aircraft from Standard Depot
Level Maintenance (SDLM) or other major depot level work. It includes an inventory
of all equipment listed in the Aircraft Inventory Record (AIR), a configuration
verification, hydraulic fluid sampling, and a full system Functional Check Flight
(FCF). It also includes an inspection of emergency systems and egress equipment.
This should include functionally checking such items as fuel, oil. hydraulic shutoff
valves, and prop feathering, as well as the verification of Cartridge-actuated Devices
(CADS) and Aircrew Escape Propulsion Systems (AEPSs). In addition, a daily
inspection, as required by the applicable Planned Maintenance System (PMS)
publication, should also be done. Activities may elect to increase the depth of
inspection if the equipment condition indicates such action is warranted.

Transfer Inspection
This inspection is performed at the time a reporting custodian transfers an aircraft,
including transfers to SDLM. It includes an inventory of all equipment listed in the
AIR, verification of CADS and AEPS, configuration verification, hydraulic fluid
sampling, and a daily inspection as required by the applicable PMS publication.
Activities may elect to increase the depth of inspection if the equipment condition
indicates such action is warranted.

Daily Inspection
Daily inspections are accomplished between the last flight of the day and the next
scheduled flight. The daily inspection is valid for a period of 72 hours, provided no
flight occurs during this period and no maintenance other than servicing has been
performed. If more than 72 hours elapse between the inspection and the next flight,
the inspection must be repeated. This inspection is performed to check equipment that
requires a daily verification of satisfactory functioning. It also involves the search for
and correction of relatively minor problems to prevent their progressing to a state that
would require major work to remedy the problems.
Other items that require inspection at intervals more frequent than prescribed for
calendar inspections are also included on the daily inspection, and thus are done along
with the daily inspection on the day they become due.

Conditional Inspection
Conditional maintenance requirements are unscheduled events required as the result of
a specific overlimit condition, or as a result of circumstances or events that create an
administrative requirement for an inspection. A logbook entry IS required for a
conditional maintenance requirement that prescribes inspections to determine
equipment condition; for example, airframe hard landing, pre-carrier/pre-deployment,
aircraft ferry, acceptance/transfer, or engine over speed/over temperature inspections.
Those conditional requirements that specify servicing or fluid sampling need not be
logged.

Pre-flight Inspection
The pre-flight inspection consists of checking the aircraft for flight readiness by
performing visual examinations and operational tests to discover defects and
maladjustments that, if not corrected, would cause accidents or aborted missions. This
inspection is conducted before each flight to ensure the integrity of the aircraft for
flight and to verify proper servicing. It is valid for a period of 24 hours, provided no
flight and no maintenance other than servicing occurs during this period. When all

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pre-flight requirements are contained within the daily card set, accomplishment of the 19
Maintenance
daily requirements before the first flight of the day satisfies the pre-flight inspection
requirements. When all pre-flight requirements are not included in the daily card set,
the pre-flight inspection must be performed before flight. The application statement
contained on the applicable model weapons system MRC introduction card states
specific requirements.

Post-flight Inspection
The post-flight inspection is accomplished after each flight or ground operation of the
aircraft. The post-flight inspection is mainly a check for obvious defects (hydraulic,
fuel, and oil leakage or structural damage) and the installation of the necessary safety
locks and pins.

Turnaround Inspection
Turnaround inspections are conducted between flights to ensure the integrity of the
aircraft for flight, verify proper servicing, and to detect degradation that may have
occurred during the previous flight. The turnaround inspection is valid for a period of
24 hours, provided that no flight and no maintenance other than servicing occur during
this period. The accomplishment of the daily inspection does not satisfy the
turnaround requirements. On aircraft that are furnished turnaround inspection
requirements, the pre-flight and post-flight requirements do not apply.

Phase Inspection
The phase maintenance concept divides the total scheduled maintenance requirements
into small packages or phases of approximately the same work content. These are
done sequentially at specified intervals. Completion of all required phases at their
specified intervals completes the phase inspection cycle. The cycle is repetitive for the
service life of the aircraft and is not interrupted during SDLM. Phase inspections are
not included in the SDLM specifications, and are not done during the SDLM process.
Aircraft returning from SDLM/special rework have the next phase due upon
expiration of the authorized interval from the last phase inspection completed.

Special Inspection
A special inspection is a scheduled inspection with a prescribed interval other than
daily or phase. These intervals are specified in the applicable PMS publication and are
based on elapsed calendar time, flight hours, operating hours, or number of
cycles/events; for example, 7, 28 days; 50, 100, 200 hours; 10, 100 arrestments; or
5,000 rounds fired.

Zonal Inspection
A zonal inspection is a general inspection of a specific area of an aircraft. These
inspections are for obvious defects, such as leaks, frayed cables, cracks, corrosion or
physical damage.
Zonal inspections are normally performed in conjunction with other scheduled
maintenance tasks by the rating assigned, such as an Aviation Electronics Technician
(AT) rating assigned to perform an inspection on a radar antenna may also be assigned
a zonal inspection of the compartment for obvious defects.
Question: What type inspection is performed at the time a reporting custodian accepts
a newly assigned aircraft?
Question: What type inspection is performed to check equipment that requires a daily
verification of satisfactory functioning?

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20 Question: What type inspection is required as the result of a specific overlimit

Aircraft Maintenance &
Crew Management condition? A pre-flight inspection is valid for a period of how many hours?
Question: What type inspection consists of checking the aircraft for fright readiness
by performing visual examinations and operational tests to discover defects and
maladjustments that, if not corrected, would cause accidents or aborted missions?
Question: What type inspections are normally performed in conjunction with other
scheduled maintenance tasks by the rating assigned?
For aircraft maintenance, please explain the difference between service checks and a
maintenance check.
The Maintenance Check flight hour or calendar time intervals are set by the
manufacturer and the FAA when the airplane is certified. An airplane operator may
petition the FAA for a change in these intervals when it achieves an acceptable level
of experience flying the airplane. Accordingly, the maintenance checks for Airline A
may not be the same as for Airline B flying the same aircraft type.
The Service Check is written by the manufacturer, and administered by the operator
(airline). In our case, it's completed at 72 clock hour intervals (3 days). During a
Service Check, the technicians check all the fluid levels, tire pressures, landing gear
strut inflation, interior and external lights, and confirm the status of all inoperative
(deferred maintenance) items.
Reconditioning: It is the situation when the aircraft is brought back to its
original/newest condition.
Airworthiness is a term used to dictate whether an aircraft is worthy of safe flight. It is
illegal in most countries to fly an aircraft without first obtaining an airworthiness
certificate from the responsible government agency. The airworthiness usually must
be maintained by a program of inspections by an authorized Aircraft Maintenance
Technician, typically performed annually, or after a fixed elapsed flight time, such as
every 100 hours.
One notable example of an aircraft that was not legally airworthy is Larry Walters
"Lawn chair flight." on July 2, 1982 in a homemade "aircraft" he called Inspiration 1.
In the U.S., Title 14, Code of Federal Regulations, Subchapter F, Part 91.7 states: "a)
No person may operate an aircraft unless it is in an airworthy condition. b) The pilot in
command of a civil aircraft is responsible for determining whether that aircraft is in
condition for safe flight. The pilot in command shall discontinue the flight when
unairworthy mechanical, electrical, or structural conditions occur."
The ability of an aircraft or other airborne equipment or system to operate without
significant hazard to aircrew, ground crew, passengers (where relevant) or to the
general public over which such airborne systems are flown.
An example of a method used to delineate "significant hazard" is a risk reduction
technique used by the military and used widely throughout engineering known as
ALARP (As Low As Reasonably Practicable). This is defined as:
The principal, used in the application of the Health and Safety at Work Act, that safety
should be improved beyond the baseline criteria so far as is reasonably practicable. A
risk is ALARP when it has been demonstrated that the cost of any further Risk
reduction, where cost includes the loss of capability as well as financial or other
resource costs, is grossly disproportionate to the benefit obtained from that Risk
reduction.
The amount of air that is bypassed relation to the air that passes through the core
engine is termed the bypass-ratio. A distinction is made between low and high bypass-
ratio engines, the former being employed with supersonic combat aircraft and the
latter with high-subsonic military and commercial transport aircraft.

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Low Bypass-ratio Turbofan Engines 21

Maintenance
In terms of performance, the bottom line today is fuel efficiency. Through bypassing,
modern engines use less fuel than earlier engines of comparable thrust, but without
this technology.
A bypass ratio in the range of 0.2:1 to 1:1 is classified a low bypass-ratio. This means
the amount of airflow bypassed around the core engine is of the order of 20 to 100 per
cent of that which passes through the core. Or if referenced to the total ingested air
mass, 5 to 50 per cent of the intake airflow is bypassed around the core.
Bypass-ratio of I were utilized with early turbofan equipped airliners of the sixties
such as the Boeing 727, which had three Pratt & Whitney JT&D turbofans of bypass-
ratio one. The relatively high exhaust velocities of these engines generate noise levels
which nowadays are intolerable for civil application, thus precluding the low bypass-
ratio turbofan from further use with commercial airlines. However, this class of
engines is widely used with modern combat aircraft, and due to its fuel economy at
high-subsonic flight speeds, the low bypass-ratio turbofan provides the fighter with
increased radius-of-action.

High Bypass-ratio Turbofans

The economy of transport aircraft was greatly improved with the advent of the high
bypass-ratio turbofan. First introduced with the Lockheed C5-A military transport, this
technology was quickly adopted for civil use.
Engines of bypass-ratio 5:1 and more are classified as high bypass-ratio engineers.
These found their first civilian use in the late sixties with high-capacity wide-body
airliners such as the Boeing 747, Lockheed L-1011 TriStar and McDonnell Douglas
DC-10.
A typical feature of this type of engine is the large single-stage fan operating upstream
of the basic of core engine from which it is directly driven. The core engine primarily
acts as a gas generator which provides a high-energy gas flow to drive the fan turbine,
additionally to the turbine of the core engine. The major advantage of the high bypass-
ratio turbofan is its high thrust level, especially at take-off, which results largely from
accelerating a large air mass bypassing the core, whereas thrust from the core engine
is only about 15% of total engine thrust. In addition, the high bypass-ratio turbofan
burns fuel very economically by comparison with the low BPR engine, or even the
pure jet at the same flight speed; but not, however, as economically as the turboprop.
Also, noise emission from the high BPR turbofan is relatively low due to the low
exhaust velocities of the propulsive jet.
Check Your Progress 2
Fill in the blanks:
1. …………….. can provide material support in fields such as initial
procurement advice, procurement and purchasing of material.
2. …………….. quality audits, calibration of standards, equipment’s and
tools in electrical, electronic and mechanical units.
3. The objective of …………….. is to minimize the costs of maintenance,
while maximizing the revenue from through flights.
4. …………….. are subject to a variety of stresses, strains, vibrations and
detrimental environments.
5. …………….. includes an inventory of all equipment listed in the Aircraft
Inventory Record.

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22
Aircraft Maintenance & 1.15 LET US SUM UP
Crew Management
The design life of most equipment requires periodic maintenance. The maintenance is
segregated into several forms such as Reactive Maintenance, Preventive Maintenance,
Predictive Maintenance or Reliability Centred Maintenance. Reactive maintenance is
basically the “run it till it breaks” maintenance mode. Preventive maintenance can be
described as Actions performed on a time- or machine-run-based schedule that detect,
preclude, or mitigate degradation of a component or system with the aim of sustaining
or extending its useful life through controlling degradation to an acceptable level.
Predictive maintenance is explained as Measurements that detect the onset of a
degradation mechanism, thereby allowing causal stressors to be eliminated or
controlled prior to any significant deterioration in the component physical state.
Reliability centred maintenance is a process used to determine the maintenance
requirements of any physical asset in its operating context. Aircraft maintenance
checks are periodic checks that have to be done on all aircraft after a certain amount of
time or usage. Airlines casually refer to these checks as one of the following: A check,
B check, C check or D check. Aircraft Integrated Maintenance includes Engine
maintenance, Aircraft maintenance (base and line), Components maintenance,
Engineering and planning services, Material services and Quality services The
different types of Aircraft inspections include Acceptance inspection, Transfer
inspection, Daily inspection, Conditional inspection, Pre-flight inspection, Post flight
inspection, Turnaround inspection, Phase inspection, Special inspection and Zonal
inspection.

1.16 LESSON END ACTIVITY

For aircraft maintenance, please explain the difference between service checks and a
maintenance check.

1.17 KEYWORDS
Airworthiness: It is a term used to dictate whether an aircraft is worthy of safe flight.
Bypass-ratio: The amount of air that is bypassed relation to the air that passes through
the core engine.
D Check: This is the heaviest check for the airplane, also known as a Heavy
Maintenance Visit (HMV). This check occurs approximately every 4–5 years.
Reconditioning: It is the situation when the aircraft is brought back to its
original/newest condition.
Zonal Inspection: A zonal inspection is a general inspection of a specific area of an
aircraft. These inspections are for obvious defects, such as leaks, frayed cables, cracks,
corrosion or physical damage.

1.18 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. What type of inspection is performed at the time a reporting custodian accepts a
newly assigned aircraft?
2. What type of inspection is performed to check equipment that requires a daily
verification of satisfactory functioning?
3. What type of inspection is required as the result of a specific over limit condition?
For a period of how many hours, a pre-flight inspection is valid?

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4. What type of inspection consists of checking the aircraft for fright readiness by 23
Maintenance
performing visual examinations and operational tests to discover defects and
maladjustments that, if not corrected, would cause accidents or aborted missions?
5. What type of inspections is normally performed in conjunction with other
scheduled maintenance tasks by the rating assigned?

Check Your Progress: Model Answers

CYP 1
1. Aircraft maintenance engineers
2. demanding flight schedules
3. Minimizing
4. calendar time or equipment run time
5. RCM methodology

CYP 2
1. TAP M&E
2. Quality services include
3. maintenance scheduling
4. Aircraft
5. Acceptance inspection

1.19 SUGGESTED READINGS

Federal Aviation Administration, Aircraft Inspection, Repair & Alterations:
Acceptable Methods, Techniques, & Practices (FAA Handbooks), Aviation Supplies
& Academics, Inc. (August 1, 2008)
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), FAR/AMT 2011: Federal Aviation
Regulations for Aviation Maintenance Technicians (FAR/AIM series), Aviation
Supplies & Academics, Inc.; 2011 Edition
Dale Crane , General Test Guide 2011: The Fast-Track to Study for and Pass the FAA
Aviation Maintenance Technician (AMT) General Knowledge Exam (Fast Track
series), Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. (September 1, 2010)
Dale Crane, Aviation Mechanic Handbook: The Aviation Standard, Aviation Supplies
& Academics, Inc.; 5th edition (September 1, 2006)
Icon Group International, The 2010-2015 World Outlook for Aircraft Maintenance,
Repair, and Overhaul (MRO) Services, ICON Group International, Inc. (July 7, 2009)

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24
Aircraft Maintenance &
Crew Management
LESSON

2
MAINTENANCE STEERING GROUP

CONTENTS
2.0 Aims and Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Maintenance Program Perspective
2.2.1 Maintenance Program History
2.2.2 Maintenance Steering Group (MSG) Processes
2.3 Maintenance Task Development
2.4 Maintenance Program Groupings
2.5 Maintenance Program Development
2.5.1 Maintenance Review Board Report (MRBR)
2.5.2 Maintenance Review Board
2.5.3 Industry Steering Committee
2.5.4 Establishing a Maintenance Program
2.5.5 Maintenance Working Groups
2.6 Policy and Procedures Handbook (PPH)
2.7 Maintenance Planning Document (MPD)
2.7.1 Certification Maintenance Requirements (CMR)
2.7.2 Airworthiness Limitations (AL)
2.7.3 Operators Approved Maintenance Program (OAMP)
2.8 Maintenance Program Supporting Documents
2.9 Maintenance Program Enhancement Process
2.10 Generic vs. Customized Maintenance Program
2.11 Maintenance Storage Program
2.12 Maintenance Program Bridging
2.13 Maintenance Program – Valuation Perspective
2.14 Let us Sum up
2.15 Lesson End Activity
2.16 Keywords
2.17 Questions for Discussion
2.18 Suggested Readings

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25
2.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES Maintenance Steering
Group
After studying this lesson, you should be able to:
z Discuss the maintenance program perspective
z Describe the role of MSG 2
z Identify the importance of MSG 3
z Explain the importance of MRBR

2.1 INTRODUCTION
The industry definition of maintenance generally includes those tasks required to
restore or maintain an aircraft’s systems, components, and structures in an airworthy
condition. Maintenance is required for three principal reasons:
z Operational: To keep the aircraft in a serviceable and reliable condition so as to
generate revenue.
z Value Retention: To maintain the current and future value of the aircraft by
minimizing the physical deterioration of the aircraft throughout its life.
z Regulatory Requirements: The condition and the maintenance of aircraft are
regulated by the aviation authorities of the jurisdiction in which the aircraft is
registered. Such requirements establish standards for repair, periodic overhauls,
and alteration by requiring that the owner or operator establish an airworthiness
maintenance and inspection program to be carried out by certified individuals
qualified to issue an airworthiness certificate.

2.2 MAINTENANCE PROGRAM PERSPECTIVE

2.2.1 Maintenance Program History
In the early days of aviation maintenance programs were developed primarily by
pilots and mechanics. They assessed an aircraft’s needs for maintenance based on their
individual experiences and created programs that were simple and devoid of analysis.
The introduction of the airlines as a new method of transport demanded new
regulations and broader involvement of the Regulatory Authorities in maintenance
requirements. During this era not only were regulations put in place but programs
were started to monitor reliability and safety. The entry of the large jet aircraft (B707
and DC-8) in the fifties focused public attention on the need for safer and more
reliable aircraft. The aircraft manufacturer became the source of maintenance program
development. Time limitations were established for maintenance and the entire aircraft
was periodically disassembled, overhauled and reassembled in an effort to maintain
the highest level of safety. This was the origin of the first primary maintenance
process referred to as:

Hard-time (HT)
Hard-time processes mandated that all components be taken out of service when they
reached a specified age, expressed as the number of operating flight hours, flight
cycles, calendar time, or other stress units since new or since last shop visit. Removed
units were routed to repair centres and effectively zero-timed, whereby the operating
age was restored to a unity of zero by means of an overhaul. In 1960, representatives
from both the FAA and the airlines formed a task force to investigate the capabilities
of preventive maintenance.

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26 Two major discoveries resulted from their investigation:

Aircraft Maintenance &
Crew Management 1. Scheduled overhaul has little effect on the overall reliability of a complex
equipment unless the equipment has a dominant failure mode, and
2. There are many items for which there is no effective application for scheduled
hard-time maintenance.
The findings of the task force led to the development of a second primary maintenance
process defined as:

On-condition (OC)
On-Condition requires that an appliance or part be periodically inspected or checked
against some appropriate physical standard to determine whether it can continue in
service. The purpose of the standard is to remove the unit from service before failure
during normal operation occurs. Example of an OC process is measurement of brake
wear indicator pins; compare brake wear condition against a specified standard or
limit. Brake wear will vary considerably among operators due to operational
conditions, however the wear indicator pin on-condition check will help attain near
maximum usage out of each set of brakes.

2.2.2 Maintenance Steering Group (MSG) Processes

In 1968, the Maintenance Steering Group was created with a mandate to formulate a
decision logic process used for development of the initial scheduled maintenance
requirements for new aircraft. The group was composed of participants from various
aviation bodies, including the Air Transport Association (ATA), airlines, aircraft
manufacturers, suppliers, and FAA representatives. That same year representatives of
the steering group developed “MSG-1 – Maintenance Evaluation and Program
Development”, which for the first time used a decision-logic diagram to develop the
scheduled maintenance program for the new Boeing 747 aircraft. Both hard-time and
on-condition processes were used for development of the aircraft’s routine
maintenance tasks.

Figure 2.1: MSG-1 Decision Logic

In 1970, MSG-1 is updated to MSG-2 to make it applicable for later generation
aircraft (L-1011 and DC-10), and at the same time the methodology introduces a third
primary maintenance process defined as Condition-Monitoring (CM). Under
Condition-Monitoring no services or inspections are scheduled to determine integrity
or serviceability, however the mechanical performance is monitored and analysed. For
example, a given operating characteristic of the equipment (e.g. vibration, oil
consumption, EGT margin deterioration, etc.) is trended and compared with known
“normal” operating levels. An acceptable range is established with either upper and/or
lower limits, or some maximum or minimum level. As long as the trend data remain

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inside the acceptable level, any variation is considered to be normal. When the trend 27
Maintenance Steering
line intersects the “unacceptable” limit, removal of the unit is required to prevent a Group
failure in the future. A characteristic of CM is that it is not considered a preventive
maintenance process; the process allows failures to occur, and the failure modes of
conditioned-monitored items are considered not to have a direct adverse effect on
operating safety. MSG-2 decision logic was subsequently used to develop scheduled
maintenance programs for the aircraft of the 1970s. Maintenance tasks were derived
from one of three processes:
1. Hard Time
2. On-condition
3. Condition-monitoring or some combination of the three processes.

Figure 2.2: MSG-2 Decision Logic

In 1979, the Air Transport Association (ATA) task force sought to improve on MSG-2
to address a new generation of advanced technology aircraft (B757 & B767).
Additionally, the task force identified a number of shortcomings in MSG-2 decision
logic, key among them:
z MSG-2 did not differentiate between maintenance being done for safety reasons
versus economic reasons.
z An MSG-2 program became very unwieldy and difficult to manage because it
required so many components to be individually tracked.
z MSG-2 did not effectively deal with the increased complexity of aircraft systems.
z MSG-2 did not address regulations related to damage tolerance and fatigue
evaluation of structures; these are currently accounted for in Corrosion Prevention
and Control Programs (CPCP) and requirements mandated through an Aging
Aircraft maintenance program.
The work of the ATA task force led to the development of a new, task-oriented,
maintenance process defined as MSG-3. The process adopted a decision tree
methodology with the primary purpose of: (a) separating safety-related items from
economic and (b) defining adequate treatment of hidden functional failures.
Under MSG-3 logic, activities are assessed at the system level rather than the
component level – see Figure 2.3. In other words, if it can be demonstrated that the
functional failure of a particular system had no effect on operational safety, or that the
economic repercussions were not significant, there was no need for a routine
maintenance activity.

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28 Although, there is no actual in-service operational data available when the MSG-3
Aircraft Maintenance &
Crew Management process begins for a new aircraft, there is much historical data on the performance of
similar components and systems used in earlier designs, as well as test data from the
manufacturer and component vendors. It’s the actual in-service reliability data of
similar components and systems that drives the task and interval decisions.
Another principal benefit from the MSG-3 process is that it generally produces higher
safety standards. This is primarily due to the greater degree of intelligent approach to
maintenance in terms of selecting tasks that are effective. The approach results in far
less maintenance tasks, which minimizes the infant mortality effect associated with
excessive maintenance. Studies in Human Factors clearly identified correlation
between excessive maintenance and induced incidents, or accidents, resulting from
preventive maintenance through replacement and overhaul of components.
Today, MSG-3 is the only game in town for commercial airplane manufacturers.
According to Advisory Circular AC-121-22A, FAA policy states that the latest MSG
analysis procedures must be used for the development of routine scheduled
maintenance tasks for all new or derivative [Part 121] aircraft. It is the only
methodology accepted by the airworthiness authorities. MSG-3 has also been adopted
by most major business jet manufacturers, with the encouragement of the National
Business Aviation Association (NBAA).

Check Your Progress 1

Fill in the blanks:
1. The ………… became the source of maintenance program development.
2. ………………. mandated that all components be taken out of service
when they reached a specified age, expressed as the number of operating
flight hours, flight cycles, calendar time, or other stress units since new or
since last shop visit.
3. When the trend line intersects the ………………. removal of the unit is
required to prevent a failure in the future.
4. ………………. program became very unwieldy and difficult to manage
because it required so many components to be individually tracked.
5. ………………. states that the latest MSG analysis procedures must be
used for the development of routine scheduled maintenance tasks for all
new or derivative aircraft.

2.3 MAINTENANCE TASK DEVELOPMENT

MSG-3 is the current method used for developing the scheduled maintenance tasks
and intervals which will be acceptable to the: (a) Regulatory authorities, (b) Operators,
and (c) Manufacturers. The remaining maintenance, that is non-scheduled or
non-routine maintenance, consists of maintenance actions to correct discrepancies
noted during scheduled maintenance tasks.
Figure 2.3 illustrates the differences between the scheduled task development
processes employed using MSG-3 versus MSG-2. For each potential failure cause, the
MSG-3 guidelines provide task oriented logic to determine the appropriate scheduled
maintenance tasks. A Task Oriented Program consists of specific tasks, selected for a
given functional failure consequence based on actual reliability characteristics of the
equipment they are designed to protect.

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29
Maintenance Steering
Group

Figure 2.3: MSG-2 vs MSG-3

Tasks are selected in a hierarchy of difficulty and cost, from lowest to highest.
Depending on the on the consequence of failure (safety, operational, economic, hidden
safety and hidden non-safety) a single or combination of tasks will be selected. The
following is the generic list of tasks to be selected:
1. Lubrication/Servicing (LU/SV or LUB/SVC) – for the purpose of maintaining
inherent design capabilities.
2. Operational/Visual Check (OP/VC or OPC/VCK) – a failure finding task to
determine if an item is fulfilling its intended purpose.
3. Functional Check/Inspection (FC/IN* or */FNC) – functional checks are a
quantitative checks to determine if one or more functions of an item perform
within specified limits. There are three levels of inspections to determine if an
item is fulfilling its intended purpose.
(i) General Visual Inspection (GV or GVI)
(ii) Detailed Inspection (DI or DET)
(iii) Special Detailed Inspection (SI or SDI)
4. Restoration (RS or RST) – reworking, replacement of parts or cleaning necessary
to return an item to a specified standard.
5. Discard (DS or DIS) – the removal from service of an item at a specified life limit.

2.4 MAINTENANCE PROGRAM GROUPINGS

Under the MSG-3, maintenance tasks are categorized into three program groupings
(see Figure 2.4) consisting of:

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30 (a) Systems and Power plant

Aircraft Maintenance &
Crew Management (b) Structural
(c) Zonal
The purpose of the systems and power plant program is to perform functional and/or
operational checks on typical airplane systems, i.e. flight controls, pneumatics,
electrical power, etc.
The purpose of the zonal inspection program is to assess the general condition of
attachment of all systems and structures items contained in each zone by use of
defined zonal inspection tasks. The zonal inspection tasks include visual checks of
electrical wiring, hydraulic tubing, water/waste plumbing, pneumatic ducting,
components, fittings, brackets, etc. associated with the systems which are included
within the zone boundaries.
The structural inspection program is designed to provide timely detection and repair of
structural damage during commercial operations. Detection of corrosion, stress
corrosion, minor damage and fatigue cracking by visual and/or NDT procedures are
considered.

Figure 2.4: Zonal Inspection Program

2.5 MAINTENANCE PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT

2.5.1 Maintenance Review Board Report (MRBR)
Before introduction of a new aircraft, the aircraft manufacturer – the Type Certificate
(TC) holder – must prepare and submit for approval to the relevant airworthiness
authorities the initial minimum scheduled maintenance requirements. These minimum
scheduled requirements are outlined in the Maintenance Review Board Report
(MRBR) – Figure 2.5.

Figure 2.5: MRBR

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After approval by the local regulatory authorities, the MRBR is used as a framework 31
Maintenance Steering
around which each air carrier develops its own individual maintenance program. Group
Although maintenance programs may vary widely, the initial requirements for a
particular aircraft will be the same for all.
The tasks detailed in the MRBR cannot be deleted nor can the task content be changed
without approval of the MRB Chairman or appropriate national regulatory authority.
However, individual task intervals may be escalated based on satisfactory
substantiation by the operator, and review and approval by the local regulatory
authority. Task interval parameters expressed in the MRB Report can also be
converted to an individual operator’s desired units, provided this conversion does no
result in the operator exceeding the initial requirements of the MRB Report.
The process used by aircraft manufacturers in creating and updating the MRBR is
outlined in Federal Aviation Administration Advisory Circular 121-22A (Maintenance
Review Board Procedures) – see Figure 2.6. The process involves the establishment of
a Maintenance Review Board (MRB), Industry Steering Committee (ISC) and
Maintenance Working Groups (MWG). Each of these groups is composed of
representatives from the participating operators, the aircraft manufacturer and the
regulatory authorities. A description of each of these organizations follows.

Figure 2.6: Maintenance Review Board Procedure

2.5.2 Maintenance Review Board

The MRB organization has oversight responsibility for final approval of the initial
scheduled maintenance tasks for a specific aircraft type. The board is staffed by
representatives of the airline operators purchasing the equipment, the manufacturers of
the airframe and engine, and the Regulatory Authorities whom generally have MRB
chairperson duties.

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32 2.5.3 Industry Steering Committee

Aircraft Maintenance &
Crew Management The management of the scheduled maintenance development activities shall be
accomplished by an ISC composed of members from a select number of operators,
and representatives of the airframe and engine manufacturers. It shall be the
responsibility of this committee to establish policy, set initial goals for scheduled
maintenance check intervals, direct the activities of the working groups, and prepare
the final recommendations to the MRB organization.

2.5.4 Establishing a Maintenance Program

Effective Aircraft Maintenance Program strategically aligns business requirements
and orchestrates operational processes and resources that maximize reliability
performance at the lowest possible cost.
Effective aircraft maintenance planning and scheduling must:
z Align A check packages to enhance station productivity and task yield while
reducing planning and aircraft routing constraints.
z Evaluate and redesign maintenance programs and fleet schedules to optimize
ground time and eliminate wasted effort arising from poorly sequenced tasks.
z Evaluate performance measures to ensure processes and operational execution is
being managed.
z Optimally balance Marketing’s desire for schedule flexibility with Operations
reliability focus and maintain workable fleet routing schedules through established
Minimum Maintenance Requirements.
z Plan an evolving, operationally sound maintenance strategy, with clear
expectations and processes to manage scheduled and unscheduled requirements.
z Refine and utilize planning and scheduling tools that provided visibility of
maintenance requirements, station capabilities and capacity, nightly station
workload assignment, task prioritization of work packages, and real time task
completion accountability reporting.
z Strategically aligned and continuously coordinated efforts between Maintenance
Programs, Engineering, Inspection, Technical Training, Engine Planning, Heavy
Maintenance Planning, and Line Operations to ensure timely and accurate
completion of maintenance activities.

2.5.5 Maintenance Working Groups

MWGs are composed of maintenance specialists primarily from the regulatory
authorities, operators, and equipment manufacturers. The purpose of the working
groups is to apply MSG-3 logic to develop and propose both maintenance tasks and
intervals for a specific aircraft type.

2.6 POLICY AND PROCEDURES HANDBOOK (PPH)

The Policy and Procedures Handbook sets forth the policies and procedures that are to
be followed by the ISC, MRB and the various MWGs to ensure consistency during
analysis of the design. It is to be used by all of the participants as the standard to
which the MRB process will be conducted for a particular aircraft model.

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33
2.7 MAINTENANCE PLANNING DOCUMENT (MPD) Maintenance Steering
Group
The MRB Report outlines the initial minimum scheduled maintenance/inspection
requirements to be used in the development of an approved continuous airworthiness
maintenance program. The Maintenance Planning Document document contains all
the MRB requirements plus mandatory scheduled maintenance requirements that may
only be changed with the permission of the applicable airworthiness authority. These
supplemental inspection tasks are detailed in the aircraft’s Certification Maintenance
Requirement (CMR) and Airworthiness Limitation (AWL) documents – Figure 2.7.

Figure 2.7: Supplemental Inspection Tasks

2.7.1 Certification Maintenance Requirements (CMR)

A CMR is a required periodic task established during the design certification of the
airplane as an operating limitation of the Type Certificate (TC). CMRs usually result
from a formal, numerical analysis conducted to show compliance with catastrophic
and hazardous failure conditions. A CMR is intended to detect safety significant latent
failures that would, in combination with one or more other specific failures or events,
result in a hazardous or catastrophic failure condition. Example of a CMR task is
performing a visual inspection of the elevator tab rods and mechanism every 2,000
flight cycles.

2.7.2 Airworthiness Limitations (AL)

Airworthiness Limitations are a regulatory approved means of introducing inspections
or maintenance practices to prevent problems with certain systems. Mandatory
replacement times, inspection intervals and related inspection procedures for structural
safe-life parts are included in the AL document, and are required by the regulatory
authorities as part of the Instructions for Continued Airworthiness. Example of an AL
task is performing a detailed inspection of the fuel tank wire bundles to prevent
potential wire chafing and arcing to the fuel tank.

2.7.3 Operators Approved Maintenance Program (OAMP)

The MPD scheduled maintenance tasks should not be considered as all-inclusive.
Each individual airline has final responsibility to decide what to do and when to do it,
except for those maintenance requirements identified as "Airworthiness Limitations"
(AL) or "Certification Maintenance Requirements" (CMR). Additional requirements
in the form of Service Letters, Service Bulletins and Airworthiness Directives are the
responsibility of the individual airline to incorporate. Maintenance tasks
recommended in engine, APU, and vendor manuals should also be considered. Figure
2.8 illustrates the most common requirements that make up an Operators Approved
Maintenance Program.

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34
Aircraft Maintenance &
Crew Management

Figure 2.8: Operators Approved Maintenance Program

2.8 MAINTENANCE PROGRAM SUPPORTING

DOCUMENTS
The OAMP outlines an air carrier’s routine, scheduled maintenance tasks required to
provide instructions for continued airworthiness. Each scheduled task in turn will need
to be converted to procedures that will be used by airline mechanics to fulfil the
intended requirement. The manual containing these procedures is defined as the
Aircraft Maintenance Manual (AMM). The AMM is organized by Air Transport
Association (ATA) chapterization system – the ATA Chapter numbers provide a
common referencing standard for all commercial aircraft documentation including the
MPD, AMM, Illustrated Parts Catalog (IPC), etc.
Most air carrier’s maintenance departments will use the OAMP in conjunction with
extracted procedures from an aircraft’s AMM to generate the task cards. The tasks
cards are used as a simple means of complying with regulations for performing
maintenance, as well as maintenance recordkeeping. Task cards provide detailed,
concise procedural instructions that organize and control maintenance activities while
providing a means to ensure compliance with their maintenance manual. Task cards
are an easy ways to ensure maintenance personnel are following proper procedures.
During the course of normal operation an aircraft will require unscheduled,
non-routine maintenance to make repairs of discrepancies, or to remove and restore
defective components. A need for unscheduled maintenance may result from
scheduled maintenance tasks, pilot reports, or unforeseen events, such as high-load
events, hard or overweight landings, tail strikes, ground damage, lightning strikes, or
an engine over-temperature.
The documents required to support rectification of discovered problems generally
consists of:
(a) Aircraft Maintenance Manual (AMM)
(b) Structural Repair Manual (SRM)
(c) Wiring Diagram Manual (WDM)
(d) System Schematic Manual (SSM)

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(e) Fault Reporting and Fault Isolation Manuals (FRM & FIM) 35
Maintenance Steering
(f) Illustrated Parts Catalog (IPC) Group

(g) Dispatch Deviation Guide (DDG).

Figure 2.9 illustrates the supporting documents for both routine and non-routine
scheduled maintenance.

Figure 2.9: Routine and Non-routine Scheduled Maintenance

2.9 MAINTENANCE PROGRAM ENHANCEMENT

PROCESS
Following entry into service, the aircraft manufacturer’s regularly works with the
Industry Steering Committee to improve the efficiency of the maintenance tasks that
operators use to create their scheduled maintenance programs. Improvements are
based on the aircraft manufacturer’s analysis of in-service data collected from the
worldwide fleet.

Figure 2.10: Maintenance Program Enhancement Process

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36 The maintenance program enhancement process (Figure 2.10) requires that the aircraft
Aircraft Maintenance &
Crew Management manufacturer and operators work together to identify tasks within the MRBR that can
be optimized. For each identified maintenance task, the aircraft manufacturer reviews
the data and analyses the positive and negative in-service results.
Once the analysis is complete, the aircraft manufacturer makes a recommendation for
each individual task under review and presents to the ISC. Accepted changes are
submitted for regulatory approval and incorporated into both the MRBR and the MPD,
which are issued to the operators for inclusion in their own scheduled maintenance
program.

2.10 GENERIC VS. CUSTOMIZED MAINTENANCE

PROGRAM
An aircraft’s Maintenance Planning Data (MPD) document provides planning
information necessary for each operator to develop a customized scheduled
maintenance program. However, the choice of an operator’s maintenance program is
predicated on many variables, key among them is cost, technical knowledge and skill,
and operational profile. In general, operators have the option of choosing between a
generic scheduled maintenance program and or a fully-fledged customized
maintenance program.
A generic maintenance program is a program reflecting all applicable scheduled
maintenance tasks valid for the particular fleet of the operator, based upon the latest
revision of the MPD. Moreover, it contains a baseline maintenance schedule whereby
tasks are clustered into dedicated checks providing operators a ready to use
maintenance program and schedule.
Often the scope and frequency of the generic maintenance program is seldom in line
with an airline’s operation, and therefore not cost-effective. A customized
maintenance program takes into account the actual aircraft usage, for example the
number of cycles and average flight duration per day. One of the primary objectives of
a customized maintenance program is to achieve maximum utilization of task
intervals. This planning process minimizes the cost of each check and often extends
the intervals between maintenance events to the benefit of the customer, improving
operational reliability. Figure 2.11 illustrates the differences between a generic and
customized maintenance program.

Figure 2.11: Differences between a Generic and Customized Maintenance Program

2.11 MAINTENANCE STORAGE PROGRAM

On occasion it is necessary to deactivate or remove an aircraft from operations for
indefinite lengths of time. When this occurs, certain storage and/or preservation
procedures must be accomplished to prevent unwarranted deterioration and maintain
the aircraft in condition so that a minimum of time and work will enable the aircraft to
be returned to service in an airworthy condition.

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The level of preservation depends on variables such as the planned length of storage 37
Maintenance Steering
and the storage environment. For example, a large transport category aircraft taken out Group
of service due to excess capacity and stored for an indefinite period outside on the
ramp at San Francisco International Airport should have a more comprehensive level
of preservation than an identical aircraft taken out of service for storage and placed in
a desert climate like Roswell, New Mexico.
An air carrier’s aircraft is considered stored when it is removed from active
operational status for any reason. The level of preservation depends on the length of
storage, the aircraft design features and the storage environment (inside/outside, etc.).
There are generally three types of storage programs:
A. Short-term storage: An aircraft is subject to short-term preservation procedures
when it is removed from operational status for less than 60 days.
B. Intermediate-term Storage: An aircraft is subject to intermediate-term
preservation procedures when it is removed from operational status for more than
60 days but less than 120 days.
C. Long-term Storage: An aircraft is subject to long-term preservation procedures
when it is removed from operational status for 120 days or more.

2.12 MAINTENANCE PROGRAM BRIDGING

On occasions an operator may require changing an aircraft, or fleet of aircraft, to a
new maintenance program for the purpose of increasing efficiency and reducing costs.
Aircraft lessors are routinely required to transition aircraft from one maintenance
program to another in order to meet specified delivery requirements.
When an aircraft transitions from one inspection program to another, the time in
service, calendar times, or cycles of operation accumulated under the previous
program must be applied in determining inspection due times under the new program.
Developing solutions for bridging maintenance requirements takes specialized skills
and knowledge, often requiring the assistance of the aircraft manufacturer or specialist
third-party Maintenance Repair and Overhaul (MROs) companies. Bridging involves
reviewing the task requirements of two maintenance programs and developing a “task
differences” list. The bridging process will normally consider the following factors as
a precursor to determining the appropriate task requirements:
z Program differences
z Systems and Power plant program
z Zonal program
z Structures program
z Age of the aircraft: calendar, total flight hours and flight cycles
z Configuration differences
z Next due heavy maintenance check
z Systems/Structures C-Check
z D-Check
z Aircraft utilization
z Operating environment
z Phased and block maintenance programs

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38 z Airworthiness Directive/CMR/AL status

Aircraft Maintenance &
Crew Management z Service bulletin/modification incorporation
z Applicable regulatory authority requirements

2.13 MAINTENANCE PROGRAM – VALUATION

PERSPECTIVE
Appraisers develop an assessment of an aircraft’s Current Market Value (CMV)
assuming that the airframe, engines (modules and LLPs), landing gear, and other
major maintenance events are in half-life status. To arrive at a maintenance adjusted
CMV assessment, appraisers will use reported maintenance status information to
compute deviations (up or down) from half-life for each major maintenance event. For
example, if the aircraft has had a recent airframe heavy check, the appraisers will add
value to the half-life CMV.
The key maintenance events influencing airframe valuation are the C-checks and D-
checks (Heavy Structural Inspections). Generally speaking, it’s a fairly
straightforward process for an appraiser to calculate the deviations from half-life if the
aircraft’s maintenance program falls under a generic blocked program. That is because
under these programs airframe checks follow a conventional saw tooth curve whereby
one can expect 100% of its maintenance utility to be recovered following each event –
see Figure 2.12. The adjustment process simply entails quantifying the value of
maintenance remaining with respect to its last and next event.

Figure 2.12: Adjustment Process

Example Calculation: D-Check Interval = 10 Years (120 Months), Time Remaining =
96 Months, Cost of D-Check = $3.0MM:
z Time Remaining to D-Check = 96/120 = 75%,
z Time Remaining Above Half-Time = 25% (75%-50%)
z Adjustment From Half-Time = $3.0MM * 25% = $750,000
Under a customized (phased and/or segmented) maintenance program, the position of
an airframe in its saw-tooth utility cycle can be difficult to assess. An aircraft can
potentially have a unique collection of scheduled tasks falling due at different stages
of their useful life. In effect, the airframe may have several maintenance cycles that
lay over each other. Therefore, the associated maintenance value does not simply
decline to the lowest level and then get conveniently raised to full value after each
check. In these circumstances, the best an appraiser can do is value the event relative
to a baseline maintenance program derived by the manufacturer, or alternatively,
relative to a phased program where the majority of zonal and structural tasks fall due.

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Check Your Progress 2 39

Maintenance Steering
Fill in the blanks: Group

1. ……………. document provides planning information necessary for each

operator to develop a customized scheduled maintenance program.
2. ……………. program is a program reflecting all applicable scheduled
maintenance tasks valid for the particular fleet of the operator, based upon
the latest revision of the MPD.
3. ……………. is considered stored when it is removed from active
operational status for any reason.
4. The key maintenance events influencing airframe valuation are the -
…………….
5. ……………. involves reviewing the task requirements of two
maintenance programs and developing a “task differences” list.

2.14 LET US SUM UP

The introduction of the airlines as a new method of transport demanded new
regulations and broader involvement of the Regulatory Authorities in maintenance
requirements. During this era not only were regulations put in place but programs
were started to monitor reliability and safety. Time limitations were established for
maintenance and the entire aircraft was periodically disassembled, overhauled, and
reassembled in an effort to maintain the highest level of safety. The maintenance
steering group was composed of participants from various aviation bodies, including
the Air Transport Association (ATA), airlines, aircraft manufacturers, suppliers, and
FAA representatives. The work of the ATA task force led to the development of a
new, task-oriented, maintenance process defined as MSG-3. MSG-3 is the current
method used for developing the scheduled maintenance tasks and intervals which will
be acceptable to the: (a) Regulatory authorities, (b) Operators and (c) Manufacturers.
The tasks detailed in the MRBR cannot be deleted nor can the task content be
changed without approval of the MRB Chairman or appropriate national
regulatory authority.
Developing solutions for bridging maintenance requirements takes specialized skills
and knowledge, often requiring the assistance of the aircraft manufacturer or specialist
third-party Maintenance Repair and Overhaul (MROs) companies.

2.15 LESSON END ACTIVITY

Prepare maintenance requirement planning for an airline.

2.16 KEYWORDS
Correlation: A mutual relationship or connection between two or more things.
Inspected: To examine carefully and critically, especially for flaws.
Mechanical: Working or produced by machines or machinery.
Overhaul: Take apart (a piece of machinery or equipment) in order to examine it and
repair it if necessary.
Pneumatics: The branch of physics or technology concerned with the mechanical
properties of gases.

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40 Variation: A change or difference in condition, amount, or level, typically with

Aircraft Maintenance &
Crew Management certain limits.
Vendors: Person or company offering something for sale, esp. a trader in the street.

2.17 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. Explain the maintenance program as per the valuation perspective.
2. Discuss maintenance program and differentiate between generic and customised
maintenance.
3. Describe maintenance planning document.
4. Explain Maintenance Steering Group (MSG) processes.
5. What is maintenance program history? Describe maintenance task development.

Check Your Progress: Model Answers

CYP 1
1. aircraft manufacturer
2. Hard-time processes
3. “unacceptable” limit
4. An MSG-2
5. FAA

CYP 2
1. An aircraft’s Maintenance Planning Data (MPD)
2. A generic maintenance
3. An air carrier’s aircraft
4. C-checks and D-checks
5. Bridging

2.18 SUGGESTED READINGS

Dale Crane , General Test Guide 2011: The Fast-Track to Study for and Pass the FAA
Aviation Maintenance Technician (AMT) General Knowledge Exam (Fast Track
series), Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. (September 1, 2010)
Dale Crane, Aviation Mechanic Handbook: The Aviation Standard, Aviation Supplies
& Academics, Inc.; 5th edition (September 1, 2006)
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), FAR/AMT 2011: Federal Aviation
Regulations for Aviation Maintenance Technicians (FAR/AIM series), Aviation
Supplies & Academics, Inc.; 2011 Edition
Icon Group International, The 2010-2015 World Outlook for Aircraft Maintenance,
Repair, and Overhaul (MRO) Services, ICON Group International, Inc. (July 7, 2009)

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41
PP&C

UNIT II

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42
Aircraft Maintenance &
Crew Management

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43
LESSON PP&C

3
PP&C

CONTENTS
3.0 Aims and Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Forecasting
3.3 What is Production Planning?
3.4 What is Production Control?
3.5 Integrative Nature of Production Plans
3.6 Feedback for Planning
3.7 Organization of PP&C
3.8 Let us Sum up
3.9 Lesson End Activities
3.10 Keywords
3.11 Questions for Discussion
3.12 Suggested Readings

3.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

After studying this lesson, you should be able to:
z Discuss the role of the production and planning
z Understand the differences between forecasting and planning
z Explain the organization of PP&C

3.1 INTRODUCTION
The conversion of an order to a finished product needs generally the organisation and
planning of the manufacturing process. The overall objective of any organisation is to
improve its profitability through productivity i.e. by employing various inputs (Such
as Men, Machines, Materials, Money and Management) effectively so as to bring
about the desired manufacturing results in terms of quality, time and place.
Production Management is concerned with basically the two important functions of
Production: Production Planning and Production Control. Production Planning is
concerned with the planning of various inputs (include Men, Machines, Materials,
etc.) for a given period of time so that the customer could get the right quality of
products at right place, price and in time. Production Planning alone is not sufficient
to achieve the objective of any organisation.

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44 Production Control measures the actual performance of the production units and
Aircraft Maintenance &
Crew Management taking remedial action called for to see that the production actually achieved is not
less than the target or standard set in advance. Thus Production Planning and Control
is to set the realization targets in terms of Standard Output, measure the actual
production performance against the target set in advance and take remedial action as
and when necessary.
PPC is one of the key organizations within M&E. This organization is responsible for
planning and scheduling all aircraft maintenance activity within the airlines. PP&C is
responsible for three main functions: forecasting, planning and control. Forecasting
activities include the maintenance workload for the long term and the short term based
on the existing fleet. Planning involves the scheduling of upcoming maintenance and
includes the planning and scheduling maintenance of all manpower, parts, facilities
and time frame requirements. There is an old saying “plan your work and work your
plan.” The control phase starts soon after that.

3.2 FORECASTING
Forecasting is concerned with the workload of M&E organization. It is concerned with
routine maintenance and all planned changes in the future operations. All the changes
like in fleet size and make up, changes in route structure etc. must be tracked. It also
includes changes in facilities. Forecasting plan also includes replacement of
equipment, adding new equipment, and the planned incorporation of ADs and SBs.
The forecast function to make sure that M&E is up to date on these changes and is
ready to adjust their processes. It is generally made for both long and short term.
Sometimes it is also made for intermediate term.
The long term is for 5 to 10 years. The changes that are planned are impact
scheduling, budgeting, training, manpower, and facilities within M&E. All the
adjustments are made to meet M&E goals and objectives. These plans require yearly
revision as per the requirement of the airlines.
Short term forecasts are made detailed and usually cover 1 to 2 years. The plans are
meant for manpower and budget numbers. Schedules for checks and known
modifications are finalized in the short term plans.
The intermediate plans are for 2 to 5 years but are generally maintained by larger
airlines. M&E has three forecasts to follow as per the requirement. These plans help in
achieving their goals and objectives effectively

3.3 WHAT IS PRODUCTION PLANNING?

Planning and control are the two important components of the management process.
Planning involves the consideration of all input variables to achieve defined output
goals. Control involves the corrective actions taken when the actual output varies from
the desired one by bringing the actual output in line with the planned output.
Production planning, in particular, would therefore consist mainly of the evaluation
and determination of production-inputs such as labour (manpower), machinery and
equipment, materials, and utilities to achieve the desired goals. The definition of the
goals is also, of course, a part of the production planning process. It deals with day to
day activities of M&E. The main aim of M&E is to deliver airworthy vehicles on time
with all the maintenance activities properly done. These activities include line, hangar
and shop maintenance. MRB and Ops Specs documents developed the maintenance
plan for Engineering. Here the work is divided into number of work packages,
identifying the tasks to be done, the intervals at which they will be done and the
manpower requirement for each task. Planning ensures the engineering package and

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plan, schedule, and adjusts the work for each check and for each aircraft, adding any 45
PP&C
additional tasks as necessary. Production planning involves the following:
z Daily, 48-hour and transit checks are usually standardized and require little or no
effort on the part of PP&C other than scheduling.
z All “A” checks and higher are planned, scheduled, and coordinated by PP&C and
their content varies from check to check. These activities take more than 48 hours
so it is started in advance.
z For “A” checks, the planning starts 1 to 2 week before the scheduled check.
z For the “C” check, the planning begins 4 weeks in advance.
We may break down the planning process into various stages as follows:
(i) Defining objectives and setting priorities to attain these.
(ii) Studying the environment external to the system being planned.
(iii) Studying the internal environment of the system being planned.
(iv) Determining realizable targets (quantified as far as possible).
(v) Gearing the inputs to achieve these targets.
Planning and control is concerned with the reconciliation between what the market
requires and what the operation’s resources can deliver. Planning and control
activities provide the systems, procedures and decisions which bring different aspects
of supply and demand together. The purpose is always the same – to make a
connection between supply and demand that will ensure that the operation’s processes
run effectively and efficiently and produce products and services as required by
customers. Consider, for example, the way in which routine surgery is organized in a
hospital. When a patient arrives and is admitted to the hospital, much of the planning
for the surgery will already have happened. The operating theatre will have been
reserved, and the doctors and nurses who staff the operating theatre will have been
provided with all the information regarding the patient’s condition. Appropriate
preoperative and post-operative care will have been organized. All this will involve
staff and facilities in different parts of the hospital. All must be given the same
information and their activities coordinated. Soon after the patient arrives, he or she
will be checked to make sure that their condition is as expected. Blood, if required,
will be cross-matched and reserved, and any medication will be made ready. Any last-
minute changes may require some degree of replanning. For example, if the patient
shows unexpected symptoms, observation may be necessary before the surgery can
take place. Not only will this affect the patient’s own treatment, but other patients’
treatment may also have to be rescheduled. All these activities of scheduling,
coordination and organization are concerned with the planning and control of the
hospital.

Differences between Planning and Control

We have chosen to treat planning and control together. This is because the division
between planning and control is not always clear. However, there are some general
features that help to distinguish between the two. Planning is a formalization of what
is intended to happen at some time in the future. But a plan does not guarantee that an
event will actually happen.
Customers change their minds about what they want and when they want it. Suppliers
may not always deliver on time, machines may fail, or staff may be absent through
illness. Control is the process of coping with changes. It may mean that plans need to
be redrawn. It may also mean that an ‘intervention’ will need to be made in the

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46 operation to bring it back ‘on track’– for example, finding a new supplier that can
Aircraft Maintenance &
Crew Management deliver quickly, repairing the machine which failed, or moving staff from another part
of the operation to cover for the absentees. Control makes the adjustments which
allow the operation to achieve the objectives that the plan has set, even when the
assumptions on which the plan was based do not hold true.

Long-, Medium- and Short-term Planning and Control

The nature of planning and control activities changes over time. In the very long term,
operations managers make plans concerning what they intend to do, what resources
they need, and what objectives they hope to achieve. The emphasis is on planning
rather than control, because there is little to control as such. They will use forecasts of
likely demand which are described in aggregated terms. For example, a hospital will
make plans for ‘2,000 patients’ without necessarily going into the details of the
individual needs of those patients. Similarly, the hospital might plan to have 100
nurses and 20 doctors but again without deciding on the specific attributes of the staff.
Operations managers will be concerned mainly to achieve financial targets. Budgets
will be put in place which identifies its costs and revenue targets.
Medium-term planning and control is more detailed. It looks ahead to assess the
overall demand which the operation must meet in a partially disaggregated manner.
By this time, for example, the hospital must distinguish between different types of
demand. The number of patients coming as accident and emergency cases will need to
be distinguished from those requiring routine operations. Similarly, different
categories of staff will have been identified and broad staffing levels in each category
set. Just as important, contingencies will have been put in place which allow for slight
deviations from the plans.
In short-term planning and control, many of the resources will have been set and it
will be difficult to make large changes. However, short-term interventions are possible
if things are not going to plan. By this time, demand will be assessed on a totally
disaggregated basis, with all types of surgical procedures treated as individual
activities. More importantly, individual patients will have been identified by name,
and specific time slots booked for their treatment. In making short-term interventions
and changes to the plan, operations managers will be attempting to balance the quality,
speed, dependability, flexibility and costs of their operation on an ad hoc basis. It is
unlikely that they will have the time to carry out detailed calculations of the effects of
their short-term planning and control decisions on all these objectives, but a general
understanding of priorities will form the background to their decision making.

Supply and Demand Effects on Planning and Control

If planning and control is the process of reconciling demand with supply, then the
nature of the decisions taken to plan and control an operation will depend on both the
nature of demand and the nature of supply in that operation. In this section, we
examine some differences in demand and supply which can affect the way in which
operations managers plan and control their activities.

Uncertainty in Supply and Demand

Uncertainty makes both planning and control more difficult. Local village carnivals,
for example, rarely work to plan. Events take longer than expected, some of the acts
scheduled in the programme may be delayed en route, and some traders may not
arrive. The event requires a good compère to keep it moving, keep the crowd amused,
and in effect control the event. Demand may also be unpredictable.

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Check Your Progress 11 47

PP&C
Fill in the blanks:
1. ……………. is concerned with routine maintenance and all planned
changes in the future operations.
2. ……………. are the two important components of the management
process.
3. ……………. consist of the evaluation and determination of production-
inputs such as labour (manpower), machinery and equipment, materials,
and utilities to achieve the desired goals.
4. Short term forecasts are made detailed and usually cover …………….
5. PP&C is responsible for three main functions …………….

3.4 WHAT IS PRODUCTION CONTROL?

Production Control is the updating and revising procedure where, according to the
requirements of implementation, the labour assignments, the machine assignments, the
job priorities, the line speeds, production routes, etc. may be revised. It is basically a
correcting mechanism which goes on throughout the implementation process of the
already drawn up production plan and schedule.
In order to continually monitor the progress of implementation, many control
techniques such as Gantt Charts, Line of Balance, PERT/CPM, etc. may be used.
Essentially these are bar-charts, with the latter two showing some sequence
relationship. The plan produced by PP&C allows a certain amount of time for the
performance work based on past knowledge of the work to be done. The plan also
assumes that there is no variation in the flow of work activity. The PP&C planners
only estimate the amount of time required for non-routine items. A routine task of
removing and replacing a hard time item may take 2 hours under normal
circumstances. On some occasion suppose a bolt is sheared off during the installation.
This will require additional work in extracting the broken bolt. There could be a
possibility that the tool required may not be available or not in the area which will
take more time. This could lead to a mechanic delay. For business value it is important
to keep track of the time spent on each task. M&E timed each task for scheduling and
planning purposes. There is need to adjust these plans for numerous reasons.

3.5 INTEGRATIVE NATURE OF PRODUCTION PLANS

Production Planning and Control (PPC), therefore, is an effort to optimize process of
conversion of raw materials into finished products required in the market. Since
various activities are involved in the conversion of raw materials into finished goods,
PPC is and has to be an integrated function if the corporation has to derive maximum
benefit out of planning. The procurement of raw materials, the quality control and
inspection of raw materials, the inventory levels of in-process and finished goods, the
production costs, the labour available, the machinery and equipment that is available,
the warehousing capacity available, etc. all have their influence on the planning of
production operations which convert the procured raw materials into finished goods.
All the functions have inter-links; and the more such inter-links are considered in the
planning process, the better will be the planning process.
For instance, sometimes production and maintenance are planned separately, leading
to conflicts between the preventive maintenance needs and the production needs. Such
conflicts can be avoided if the planning for maintenance is done in coordination with

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48 planning for production, allowing for sufficient number of days of shut-downs of

Aircraft Maintenance &
Crew Management different machineries while drawing up the production plan for the year. The more
integrative the PPC, the better will be the planning decisions.

3.6 FEEDBACK FOR PLANNING

An airline will not be able to sustain if it will take more time in maintenance.
Therefore, it is important for planners to plan properly so that the checking is done on
time. The plan is made properly with the best information in hand and these
information will get from the feedback. The plan is then reviewed by all the work
centres involved to remove any problems. Feedback helps in collecting those points
which are missed and then are added to a new revised plan. The planners need to
know to adjust future plans are:
z The amount of time required to perform
z The amount of time lost in waiting for delivery of parts and supplies
z The down time for unusual circumstances
z The additional time required for non-routine findings
z The variation in manpower availability
z Lost time due to parts robbing from other jobs
Scheduling can be accurate if the actual time is known rather than the calculated or
estimated time. Parts robbing at the airline are an old problem. The M&E has to return
the aircraft as quickly as possible. If parts are not available in the stock, then the
source of part is the aircraft which is not in use or who is not scheduled for the flight
soon. This makes the setting in the hangar as “C” check. It is time consuming as one
as to repeat the same task twice.

3.7 ORGANIZATION OF PP&C

Although theoretically PPC is an integrated function, in many organisational set-ups,
for various special organisational needs, and also because in certain organizations
certain functions play a more important role than others in terms of profit contribution
to the corporation, the PPC unit may have a limited function, with other functions
distributed to other departments such as materials management, manufacturing, etc. At
higher levels or longer time-horizons, plans have to be integrative. At lower levels or
shorter time horizons, benefits may be derived by the decentralization of the planning
process. The organisation of the totality of the PPC function, therefore, will vary in
different organisations depending upon the different external and internal climates in
which the organisations have to function. However, this fact neither refutes the
necessity of congruency when formulating various functional goals, nor does it deny
the integrative nature of the production planning process.
The planning of work can be done by a centralized and decentralized PP&C group.
The centralized groups include functions like forecasting, planning and control. In a
partially decentralized group the forecasting and planning is done by PP&C and the
control is done by personnel in the hangar. Some airlines have decentralized function,
all the work done by each work centre. The problem could be no interaction or
coordination among the work centres.

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Check Your Progress 2 49

PP&C
Fill in the blanks:
1. ………………… is the updating and revising procedure where, according
to the requirements of implementation etc. may be revised.
2. In order to continually monitor the progress of …………………, many
control techniques such as Gantt Charts, Line of Balance, PERT/CPM,
etc. may be used.
3. ………………… timed each task for scheduling and planning purposes.
4. The plan is made properly with the best information in hand and these
information will get from the …………………
5. The planning of work can be done by a ………………… PP&C group.

3.8 LET US SUM UP

Production planning consists mainly of the evaluation and determination of production
inputs to achieve the desired goals. As the time-horizon of the production plan widens,
from a short-range plan, to an intermediate range (monthly, or quarterly or annual), to
a long range plan, the flexibility available-to change the variables and allow
modifications when found necessary-also increases. Production Control is the
updating and revising procedure where, according to the requirements of
implementation, the labour assignments, the machine assignments, the job priorities,
the line speeds, production routes, etc. may be revised. PPC (Production Planning and
Control) is an integrated function for various special organisational needs, and also
play a more important role than others in terms of profit contribution to the
corporation. The aggregate plan is made within the broad frame work of the long-
range plan.
Production management is the process which combines and transforms various
resources used in the Production/Operations subsystem of the organization into value
added products/services in a controlled manner as per the policies of the organization.
The production system of a company mainly uses facilities, equipment, and operating
methods (called the production system) to produce goods that satisfy customers’
demand. The types of production system include flow shop, job shop and batch
manufacturing. The strategic management consists of corporate, business and
functional strategies. The production strategies come under the head of functional
strategies but its impact is considered in both corporate and business strategies as well
to a large extent. World class manufacturing concept is of a recent origin. In
production management, world class manufacturing concept aimed to fulfil the
customer demands through products with high quality, competitive price, enhanced
features, wider variety, delivery with shorter lead times and flexibility.

3.9 LESSON END ACTIVITIES

1. Would operations planning and control in service industries be different from PPC
in manufacturing industries? Discuss.
2. How could a good Management Information System contribute to PPC?

3.10 KEYWORDS
Cost Leadership Strategy: Strategy that aims to produce and deliver the product or
service with specified quality, at a low cost relative to its competitors.

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50 Differentiation Strategy: Strategy that aims to create a new product or service which
Aircraft Maintenance &
Crew Management is unique in that industry.
Flow Shop: This is a conversion process in which successive units of output undergo
the same sequence of operations, using specialized equipment usually positioned
along a production line.
Gross Domestic Product: It is the sum of values of goods and services produced in
that nation in a year.
Productivity: It is a relationship between the output (products/services) and the input
(resources consumed in providing them) of a business system.

3.11 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. Define production and operations management.
2. Briefly discuss different products and services with suitable examples.
3. Discuss the attributes of services.
4. Describe the different types of production systems with suitable examples.
5. Briefly discuss different ways of improving productivity.
6. List different strategies. Also, discuss the link of production/manufacturing
strategies with other strategies.
7. Explain how some of the weaknesses of India could be converted into its
opportunities.
8. Describe the concept of world class manufacturing.
9. Discuss centralisation and decentralisation in the context of production planning
and control.

Check Your Progress: Model Answers

CYP 1
1. Forecasting
2. Planning and control
3. Production planning,
4. 1 to 2 years
5. forecasting, planning and control

CYP 2
1. Production Control
2. implementation
3. M&E
4. feedback
5. centralized and decentralized

3.12 SUGGESTED READINGS

Upendra Kachru, “Production and Operations Management-Text and Cases”, Excel
Books, New Delhi

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Chase, Richard B., and Eric L. Prentis, “Operations Management: A Field 51

PP&C
Rediscovered,” Journal of Management, Vol.13, no. 2 (October 1987): 351: 366
Hayes, Robert H., Towards a ‘New Architecture’ for ROM, Production and
Operations Management, 9, no. 2 (Summer 2000) 105-110.
R C Manchanda, “Production and Operations Management”, Excel Books, New Delhi
Schonberger, Richard J., World Class Manufacturing: The Next Decade, New York:
The Free Press, 1996.

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52
Aircraft Maintenance &
Crew Management
LESSON

4
TECHNICAL PUBLICATION

CONTENTS
4.0 Aims and Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Functions of Technical Publication
4.3 Airline Libraries
4.4 Control Publications
4.4.1 Manufacturer Documents
4.4.2 Document Distribution
4.5 Technical Trainings
4.6 Trainings for Aviation Maintenance
4.6.1 Formal Training
4.6.2 Organizational Training
4.6.3 Manufacturer Training
4.6.4 Quality Training
4.6.5 On-the-job Training
4.6.6 Upgrade Training
4.6.7 Refresher Training
4.6.8 Airframe Manufacturer’s Training
4.7 Computer Support
4.7.1 Airlines Uses of Computer
4.8 Computer Program Module
4.9 Selecting a Computer System for Airline
4.10 Let us Sum up
4.11 Lesson End Activity
4.12 Keywords
4.13 Questions for Discussion
4.14 Suggested Readings

4.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

After studying this lesson, you should be able to:
z Discuss the technical publications
z Describe the importance of computers in aviation
z Explain airline library
z Identify computer module

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53
4.1 INTRODUCTION Technical Publication

Technical Publications department within the technical services is established to

simplify the documentation of productivity, distributing and updating, either small or
large airlines. Some arrangements is required the smaller might require technical
publications or part of engineering org or quality assurance.

4.2 FUNCTIONS OF TECHNICAL PUBLICATION

There are three main functions:
z To receive of distribute within airline those publications issued by outside sources.
z To print and distribute the publication generated by the various org within the
airline
z To establish and maintenance in a complete up to date library system for all such
documents as needed for the operation of M&E.
The documents from outside sources include airframe of engine manufacturers
vendors, manufactures of equipment installed on the aircraft special tools and test
equipment used in maintenance effort. These documents include maintenance
manuals, periodic or occasional revisions to those manuals, service letters, service
bulletins or maintenance tips issued by these manufacturer or vendors, official
publications like Airworthiness Directives (ADs), Advisory Circulars (ACs) from
airline’s regulatory authority are also a part of it. Internal airline documents contain
the airline Technical Policies of Procedure Manual (TPPM), the reliability program
manual and any other maintenance of inspections documents produced by the airline
itself.
Technical publications might also reproduce and distribute other documents by M&E
units such as engineering or QA etc. TP also includes monthly reliability reports,
engineering orders works packages for limit or hangar maintenance checks, tools of
equipment calibrations’ schedules.

4.3 AIRLINE LIBRARIES

The main reasons for making technical publications organization is to make sure valid
airline operations publication availed to the users and up to date the latest and new
technology and changes. The most powerful way is to organize a library in the M&E
organization.
M&E organization has to be of good size, the location might not be suitable for all and
also there could be limited copies of some documents because of these reasons the
technical publication maintains one or more satellite library with the main airline
library, located in the area which helps in minimizing travel time. The main library
contains publications related to maintenance, engineering or inspection activities
whereas the copies would be limited to only those documents related to a particular
functions in a satellite library, both the libraries should have tables, chairs, shelves,
microfilm readers and printers, computers.

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54 Check Your Progress 1

Aircraft Maintenance &
Crew Management Fill in the blanks:
1. …………….. department within the technical services is established to
simplify the documentation of productivity, distributing and updating,
either small or large airlines.
2. To …………….. within airline those publications issued by outside
sources.
3. The most powerful way is …………….. a library in the M&E
organization.
4. TP also includes monthly …………….., engineering orders works
packages for limit or hangar maintenance checks, tools of equipment
calibrations’ schedules.
5. The documents from outside sources include …………….. of engine
manufacturers vendors, manufactures of equipment.

4.4 CONTROL PUBLICATIONS

The Documents related to maintenance are either “uncontrolled” or “controlled”
documents. Uncontrolled documents are made for general information only and are
not to certify airworthiness. They don’t require any tracking systems
Controlled documents are ones which are used to ensure airworthiness of the aircraft,
engines and components. It comprises a List of Effectiveness Pages (LEP) and a
record of revisions to the documents, identifying the revision number or letter date of
those revisions.
The main technical library of M&E organisation consists of one master copy of each
controlled document and uncontrolled. It can be in the form of paper or microfilm.
Each copy will be issued a library number, e.g. “copy 7 of 15” in addition to any
document number.
The library staff will maintain the record of all such documents by document name,
number, the name of the department, the name of the person responsible.

4.4.1 Manufacturer Documents

These documents have usually standard revision cycles like 3 months, 4 months, etc.
Regulatory authorities have both regular and irregular revisions cycles. It is necessary
to make revisions to these internal documents in accordance with the changes made by
other documents, hence local revisions cycles are important.
Airlines address these changes as quickly as possible. This is Technical Publication’s
responsibility to insure all the revisions whether in pages or whole documents. They
need to determine how many copies are needed and in what format so that this
distribution can be done efficiently.

4.4.2 Document Distribution

Technical Publication packs these documents of revisions and sends them by shipping
on company mail or airplanes, etc. This should accompany by a letter or other forms
identifying the material parcelled by document no., copy number and revisions date. It
should give the information when to send and the date it was sent on. It should consist
of a space for the recipients’ to sign, to verify the receipt. The receiver will check the
package for the content and applicability and return the signed receipt to Technical
publication. The receiving unit updates the changes in documents and make sure they

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are kept up to date at. The checking is done periodically by the Technical Publication 55
Technical Publication
staff, quality control inspectors or event maintenance management.
Management of airlines’ technical publications is a seemingly never-ending process of
receiving and implementing updates from the regulator, the airline itself and the
aircraft and components manufacturers.
To compound matters the workload varies, creating a dilemma for those airlines that
opt to manage this process in-house: Do you fully staff the team, at great cost, for the
worst case or do you have a skeleton staff in place and gamble on non-compliance?
Also, the ongoing transition to digital data means airlines must manage complex,
structured data, such as XML, to produce a single master document that might then
require multi-format publishing, e.g. for the web, hard copy, iPad, Toughbook, aircraft
EFB, etc.
And unfortunately most subject matter experts, such as Fleet Captains, may have
expert knowledge of the aircraft they fly but aren’t computer programmers, requiring
them to undergo training to bring them up to speed.
Another issue with technical publications is that of management audit trail: you need
to have the capability of knowing who has what version of a particular publication.
Technical Publications service, created specifically for the aviation industry and
developed in tandem with airlines themselves, ensure the right information gets to the
right person at the right time.

4.5 TECHNICAL TRAININGS

An airline takes the responsibility for the training of its personnel. They impart
training for flight crew, cabin crew, ground handling crew, maintenance mechanics
and technicians, inspectors, auditors, managers, computer operators and administrative
personnel. The training involved formal specialized training and is authorized from
T&A. For this purpose licence is also issued from T&A.
The eligibility criteria for a mechanical licence are as follows:
z A person must be at least 18 years of age
z He must be able to read, write, speak and understand the engine language
z He must passed all the prescribed tests within 24 months
z Comply with the FAR requirements that apply to the rating he/she seeks
These items qualify to have the airframe of power plant (A&P) license. The A&P
license does not mean that a mechanic/aviation maintenance technician is capable of
working on any equipment. Though it signifies that the mechanic has completed the
basic training for the aviation and maintenance but it can only work on specific
equipment. This training needs to be documented because in accident/incidents cases,
it is generally asked if the mechanic was trained properly. This should be backed up
by documentation. This documentation must not only contain extent of training but
also when and where it was done.
The trainers could be the engineer within M&E. But he should answer to QA for his
performance.

4.6 TRAININGS FOR AVIATION MAINTENANCE

There are different kinds of training activities that are required to maintain people in
the aviation sector. They are as follows:

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56 4.6.1 Formal Training

Aircraft Maintenance &
Crew Management It is accomplished before the mechanic is hired. These technicians are hired from FAA
approved schools. Here students are graduated and get license. They have to take test
to acquire license.

4.6.2 Organizational Training

It is conducted by the airline organisation itself. All training courses should address
the safety and human factors.

4.6.3 Manufacturer Training

Manufacturers of airframe, engine and aircraft offer special training on their products.

4.6.4 Quality Training

Mechanics to perform inspection must take special training either from airline or
outside world.

4.6.5 On-the-job Training

It is a kind of refresher training or adjacent to the classroom training.

4.6.6 Upgrade Training

This training is to upgrade the trainees with the new equipment and technology.

4.6.7 Refresher Training

This training is required to revise certain skills of the mechanic or technicians’.

4.6.8 Airframe Manufacturer’s Training

Whenever an airline buys aircraft from the manufacturer, there is a certain number of
training slots from the manufacturer’s training classes. These classes include the
airframe, power plant and avionics equipment installation. The airline decides who
will attend these classes; this entirely depends on their size and structure. Sometimes
the manufacturers will offer special courses on specific equipment at their plant or at
the airline’s location. Airframe, engine and equipment manufacturers also provide a
variety of programs at the airline venue.

4.7 COMPUTER SUPPORT

Computer can maintenance the computer is used for every single things like
communication, letters, memos, messages, e-mails, filing flight maintenance and
material data, data processing graphic and report writing activities.
A computer cannot operate itself. It needs a human to operate it. It needs to be updated
with what computer has been told to do.
Two things to keep in mind;-
The operator should understand the usage of all tools.
Developers of computers must be aware of the uses, wants, needs and capabilities so
that a system is productive for them.
The effort of developers will go in vain if it is not utilized properly.

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4.7.1 Airlines Uses of Computer 57

Technical Publication
An airline always needs computers though the requirement keeps on changing as per
the demand. As the time changes the requirements of computer is increasing. More
memory, more speed, more flexibility, etc. even the small airlines need computers for
their better operations, and large airlines cannot go without computers.
In the airline industry, many different systems interact in order to ensure that planes
stay on schedule and that they fly safely. Nearly all of these systems rely on
computers to some degree. Computers are involved in everything from the passenger's
initial travel arrangements to the functioning of an airport and the airplanes that fly
into it.

Passenger Services
When you book a flight, regardless of the method, your reservation information is
processed and stored by the airline's computer system. If you book this online, your
registration information is directly stored with the company. If you book your flight
over the phone, a customer service representative will enter this information for you.
This computer-based reservation system allows you to easily modify travel
arrangements at any airport, and even to use multiple airline companies over the
course of a single trip.

Airport Services
Many aspects of an airport rely heavily on computers. Security screening machines
such as X-rays may not make use of personal computers, but they do rely on computer
technology for a great deal of their operations. Furthermore, computers are necessary
for the use of pre-screening measures such as the current U.S. counter-terrorism
efforts.

Plane Mechanics
An airplane depends on computers for a number of essential flight functions. The
autopilot, which many modern airplanes are equipped with, frequently employs a
computer. This relieves the pilots of many in-flight tasks, allowing the plane to
process navigational data and flight control systems. Computerized "fly-by-wire"
technology, which many airplanes have, transmits pilot or autopilot signals to a
computer. This allows planes to respond to subtle atmospheric variables and make
other adjustments easily. Additionally, some airplanes have wing flaps that can be
controlled by a computer. Others have power systems that can be regulated by
computer. Finally, computers are central to the efficient communication and recording
of an airplane's flight data. Such data is vital to air traffic controllers, and greatly
assists in the event of an emergency situation.

4.8 COMPUTER PROGRAM MODULE

The software can be complex to use, if an airline is going to go from manual to
computerized operations becomes difficult. To ease it software packages are produced
in modular form. At a time few modules are allowed, each software system is
designed in such a way that it consists of only those modules which are best suited.
An airline usually begins with the material module, then taking care of parts and
supplies processing and then comes engineering and maintenance modules. The
engineering module gets the maintenance task and program schedules organized. The
maintenance module allow aircraft maintenance long book to enter. The data are
utilized by maintenance crews for troubleshooting. This report consists of additional

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58 information such as flight time and cycles flown number and types of aircraft in
Aircraft Maintenance &
Crew Management service as well as those who are out of services.
It comprises three steps:

Step 1
It’s a two-part process. The first determines what you want computer to do and the
output you want in terms of raw data, chart and graphs. The second part determines
the input you want to meet the output.

Step 2
This process is to check the software requirements. This includes the handling of
input/output data but also the processing, calculating other data manipulations needed
to accomplish. In planning the systems, one should consider the future needs so that
all the processes work accurately. There are different approaches to software
selections:
1. off-the-shelf software packages fixed packages; they do operations like producing
standard reports, etc. This might be affordable but is limited, so it needs to change
with the growth in tech.
2. to develop software specifically for the organization; this is more expenses but it
satisfies the operation
3. it is only open to those who have the skills to develop the software as and what is
required at a reasonable price. Generally, large airlines do this and are successful.

Step 3
The last step is to select the hardware needed to run the software. This could be a
mainframe or a group of networked desktop computers.
A single computer might be sufficient for an air taxi services with only one airplane.

Check Your Progress 2

Fill in the blanks:
1. The last step is to select the ………………… needed to run the software.
2. The software can be complex to use, if an airline is going to go from
manual to ………………… operations becomes difficult.
3. An airplane depends on computers for a number of essential
…………………
4. In the airline industry, many different systems interact in order to ensure
that planes stay on schedule and that they …………………

4.9 SELECTING A COMPUTER SYSTEM FOR AIRLINE

A proper aircraft maintenance system will consist of Hardware (server), operating
system and licensing for users and then the actual software.
It has been proven over and over that the harmonization of these factors can be both
tedious and frustrating, therefore we provide the A-Z solution, you log into your
dedicated server and start working, technical implementation is left to us.
Many firms prefer all of their aircraft maintenance software/data to be stationed in
house, for those we provide automatic FTP upload of complete working environment

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to Airsoft's FTP site (where the customer can download their own environment at any 59
Technical Publication
time) or any FTP location preferred by the customer.

4.10 LET US SUM UP

Technical Publications department within the technical services is established to
simplify the documentation of productivity, distributing and updating, either small or
large airlines. Some arrangements is required the smaller might require technical
publications or part of engineering org or quality assurance.
The documents from outside sources include airframe of engine manufacturers
vendors, manufactures of equipment installed on the aircraft special tools and test
equipment used in maintenance effort. Technical publications might also reproduce
and distribute other documents by M&E units such as engineering or QA etc. The
Documents related to maintenance are either “uncontrolled” or “controlled”
documents. These documents have usually standard revision cycles like 3 months, 4
months etc. Technical Publication pack these documents of revisions and send them
by shipping on company mail or airplanes Technical Publications service, created
specifically for the aviation industry and developed in tandem with airlines
themselves, ensure the right information gets to the right person at the right time. The
technical training needs to be documented because in accident/incidents cases, it is
generally asked if the mechanic was trained properly. This should be backed up by
documentation
Computer can maintenance the computer is used for every single things like
communication, letters, memos, messages, e-mails, filing flight maintenance and
material data, data processing graphic and report writing activities.
In the airline industry, many different systems interact in order to ensure that planes
stay on schedule and that they fly safely. Nearly all of these systems rely on
computers to some degree. An airline usually begins with the material module, then
taking care of parts and supplies processing and then comes engineering and
maintenance modules. The engineering module gets the maintenance task and
program schedules organized.

4.11 LESSON END ACTIVITY

Select a computer module for the airline industry. Also, give its structure.

4.12 KEYWORDS
Airframe: The airframe of an aircraft is its mechanical structure. It is typically
considered to include fuselage, wings and undercarriage and exclude the propulsion
system.
Technical: Relating to a particular subject, art, or craft, or its techniques.
Vendor: A vendor or a supplier in a supply chain is an enterprise that contributes
goods or services in a supply chain.
Training: Training is the acquisition of knowledge, skills, and competencies as a
result of the teaching of vocational or practical skills and knowledge that relate to
specific useful competencies.
Reservation: The action of reserving something.

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60
Aircraft Maintenance & 4.13 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
Crew Management
1. Define technical publication in aviation.
2. Briefly discuss the importance of computers in aviation industry. Give suitable
examples.
3. Explain computer support.
4. Describe the functions of technical publication.
5. Explain different types of technical training.

Check Your Progress: Model Answers

CYP 1
1. Technical Publications
2. receive or distribute
3. to organize
4. reliability reports
5. airframe

CYP 2
1. hardware
2. computerized
3. flight functions
4. fly safely

4.14 SUGGESTED READINGS

Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), FAR/AMT 2011: Federal Aviation
Regulations for Aviation Maintenance Technicians (FAR/AIM series), Aviation
Supplies & Academics, Inc.; 2011 Edition
Icon Group International, The 2010-2015 World Outlook for Aircraft Maintenance,
Repair, and Overhaul (MRO) Services, ICON Group International, Inc. (July 7, 2009)
Michael H. Tooley, Mike Tooley (2007), “Aircraft Digital Electronic and Computer
Systems”, Routledge.
Federal Aviation Administration (2009), “Aviation Instructor's Handbook”, Skyhorse
Publishing Inc.

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61
Crew Resource
Management

UNIT III

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62
Aircraft Maintenance &
Crew Management

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63
LESSON Crew Resource
Management

5
CREW RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

CONTENTS
5.0 Aims and Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 CRM
5.3 CRM: Evolution and Basics
5.4 Management of CRM
5.4.1 Maintenance Resource Management
5.5 Performance Standard for Instructors in CRM
5.6 CRM Standards and Training
5.6.1 CRM Standards
5.7 CRM Instructors (CRMI)
5.7.1 Requirements – General
5.7.2 Instructor Requirements
5.7.3 Grandfather Rights for CRMIs (Aeroplanes)
5.7.4 Grandfather Rights for CRMIs (Helicopters)
5.8 Accreditation for CRMIs
5.9 Revalidation Criteria for CRMIs
5.9.1 Instructors Ground
5.9.2 Instructors Simulator/Base
5.9.3 Line Training Captains
5.9.4 Record Keeping
5.10 CRM Instructors – Examiners (CRMIEs)
5.10.1 Requirements – General
5.10.2 Examiner Requirements
5.10.3 Examiners Ground School
5.10.4 Examiners Simulator/Base
5.10.5 Examiners Line
5.11 Initial Accreditation
5.11.1 Accreditation
5.12 Revalidation Criteria
5.13 Crew Resource Management
5.14 Crew Resource Management as a Model of Safety Management
Contd…

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64 5.15 Impact of CRM in Aviation Safety

Aircraft Maintenance &
Crew Management 5.15.1 Communication and Decision-making Skills
5.15.2 Team Building
5.15.3 Workload
5.16 Let us Sum up
5.17 Lesson End Activity
5.18 Keywords
5.19 Questions for Discussion
5.20 Suggested Readings

5.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

After studying this lesson, you should be able to:
z Define CRM
z Describe the standards for instructors and examiners
z Explain maintenance resource management

5.1 INTRODUCTION
Crew Resource is concerned not so much with the technical knowledge and skills
required to fly and operate an aircraft but rather with the cognitive and interpersonal
skills needed to manage the flight within an organised aviation system. In this context,
cognitive skills are defined as the mental processes used for gaining and maintaining
situational awareness, for solving problems and for making decisions. Interpersonal
skills are regarded as communications and a range of behavioural activities associated
with teamwork. In aviation, as in other walks of life, these skill areas often overlap
with each other, and they also overlap with the required technical skills. Furthermore,
they are not confined to multi-crew aircraft, but also relate to single pilot operations,
which invariably need to interface with other aircraft and with various ground support
agencies in order to complete their missions successfully. CRM training for crew has
been introduced and developed by aviation organisations including major airlines and
military aviation worldwide. CRM training is now a mandated requirement for
commercial pilots working under most regulatory bodies worldwide.
CRM was developed as a response to new insights into the causes of aircraft accidents
which followed from the introduction of flight recorders and cockpit voice recorders
into modern jet aircraft. Information gathered from these devices has suggested that
many accidents result not from a technical malfunction of the aircraft or its systems,
nor from a failure of aircraft handling skills or a lack of technical knowledge on the
part of the crew; it appears instead that they are caused by the inability of crews to
respond appropriately to the situation in which they find themselves. For example,
inadequate communications between crew members and other parties could lead in
turn to a loss of situational awareness, a breakdown in teamwork in the aircraft, and
ultimately to a wrong decision or series of decisions which result in a serious incident
or a fatal accident.
The widespread introduction of the dynamic flight simulator as a training aid, allowed
various new theories about the causes of aircraft accidents to be studied under
experimental conditions. On the basis of these results, and in an attempt to remedy the
apparent deficiency in crew skills, additional training in flight deck management

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techniques has been introduced by some airlines. Following a period of 65

Crew Resource
experimentation and development, the techniques embraced by the new training Management
became known collectively as CRM. The importance of the CRM concept and the
utility of the training in promoting safer and more efficient aircraft operations have
now been recognised worldwide.

5.2 CRM
CRM encompasses a wide range of knowledge, skills and attitudes including
communications, situational awareness, problem solving, decision making, and
teamwork; together with all the attendant sub-disciplines which each of these areas
entails. The elements which comprise CRM are not new but have been recognised in
one form or another since aviation began, usually under more general headings such
as ‘Airmanship’, ‘Captaincy’, ‘Crew Co-operation’, etc. In the past, however, these
terms have not been defined, structured or articulated in a formal way, and CRM can
be seen as an attempt to remedy this deficiency. CRM can therefore be defined as a
management system which makes optimum use of all available resources –
equipment, procedures and people – to promote safety and enhance the efficiency of
flight operations.
CRM is concerned not so much with the technical knowledge and skills required to fly
and operate an aircraft but rather with the cognitive and interpersonal skills needed to
manage the flight within an organised aviation system. In this context, cognitive skills
are defined as the mental processes used for gaining and maintaining situational
awareness, for solving problems and for taking decisions. Interpersonal skills are
regarded as communications and a range of behavioural activities associated with
teamwork. In aviation, as in other walks of life, these skill areas often overlap with
each other, and they also overlap with the required technical skills. Furthermore, they
are not confined to multi-crew aircraft, but also relate to single pilot operations, which
invariably need to interface with other aircraft and with various ground support
agencies in order to complete their missions successfully.

5.3 CRM: EVOLUTION AND BASICS

The fatal loss of an aircraft emphasises human weakness – man-made mistakes – with
tragic results. In the early years of aviation technical defects were the main cause of
accidents but more recently, as reliability has improved, the main cause has changed
to the human error element. Of these human error causes, the lack of CRM skills
demonstrated by the crew has been highlighted as a major contributory factor. As a
result of these accidents, research has been undertaken to discover the root causes of
failure of CRM skills.
CRM training has been running in North America since the late '70s when a NASA
Industry sponsored workshop on "Resource Management on the Flight Deck" in 1979,
and Patrick Ruffel-Smith's study of flight crew performance in a B747 simulator
started the process. However, since this CAP is concerned only with CRM as
applicable to UK flight crew.

5.4 MANAGEMENT OF CRM

Each operator should appoint one person within the company who is to be responsible
for all aspects of aircrew CRM, from the development of the syllabi and course to the
selection and training of CRM instructors and examiners. This would be the CRM
Manager who should be cited in the training manual. It is a statutory requirement that
a training manual contains all information necessary to enable those persons appointed
by the operator to give or supervise training to perform their duties. This does not

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66 mean that the training manual need contain every reference to CRM. It could contain
Aircraft Maintenance &
Crew Management the reference to the CRM manual, which could be a separate book but yet remain a
controlled document within the overall training manual. The coordination of all the
revalidations for the CRMIs and CRMIEs would also be the responsibility of the CRM
Manager.
Some operators may not wish to conduct their own CRM training. They may appoint a
CRMI from another organisation to run their courses for them, but they (the operator)
will be responsible for the standard of the course and its syllabus as well as the
standard of the training given.

UK and JAA CRM Requirements

UK industry was first advised that CRM was to be included in flight crew training in
November 1992 when CAP 360 (Air Operators’ Certificates) was amended to include
this requirement. Then the CAA decided in 1993 to enhance this information by
publishing an Aeronautical Information Circular (AIC) on the subject of CRM training
for flight crew. This was followed by another AIC in 1995 which had the original
syllabus for a CRM course. In 1998, another AIC was published which contained
information on the standards of CRM instruction and introduced CAA Paper 98005
(Behavioural Markers for CRM). This CAA Paper was to be the forerunner of the
JARTEL NOTECHS project (an EU funded research project into the use of
behavioural markers as a method of accurately assessing pilots for their CRM skills).
A “Guide to Performance Standards for Instructors of Crew Resource Management in
Commercial Aviation” was printed in September 1998 as another step towards
improving the standards of instruction in CRM. Latterly, the JAA have produced an
amendment to JAR-OPS 1 (formerly NPA OPS 16) and to JAR-OPS 3 (formerly NPA
OPS 27) mandating the requirement for CRM instructors to be qualified to the
acceptance of the Authority. Both amendments also require the assessment of pilots,
both individually and as a crew.
It was, therefore, with this in mind that the CAA embarked on the process of formally
accrediting all CRM instructors and instructor examiners. This process utilised the
Accreditation Focus Group, a group of representatives from industry, BALPA, the
RAeS, the ATA and the CAA, to consider how to set up this procedure for the
accreditation of instructors. This group subsequently became the CRM Advisory Panel
and its recommendations were used as the basis of the Standards Document 29
published early in 2002.
CRM Training requirements for cabin crew were expanded in amendment 7 to
JAROPS 1 Subpart O (formerly NPA OPS 24) in 2004.

Requirements
Whilst CRM applies to all areas of flying operations, from commercial air transport to
corporate and to private operations, currently this requirement is only mandated for
commercial air transport aeroplanes and helicopters. However, best aviation practice
is that all operators should study and implement CRM procedures. Nevertheless, in the
application of CRM principles, the CAA recognises that the operations to which this
CAP will apply are numerous and varied and will endeavour to adopt as flexible an
approach as is consistent with the maintenance of good standards. Small aircraft
operators should bear this in mind when reading this document and considering its
implications for their style of operations.
CRM skills assessment should be included in an overall assessment of flight crew
members’ performance and be in accordance with approved standards. The purpose of
such assessment is to: (a) provide feedback to the crew collectively and individually
and serve to identify retraining, and (b) be used to improve the CRM training system.

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5.4.1 Maintenance Resource Management 67

Crew Resource
Over the years, considerable progresses have been made to Crew Resource Management

Management (CRM). One of the reasons is that errors made by pilots are highly
visible and have immediate consequences on safety. In addition, pilots are also seen as
the last line of defense against errors. For these reasons, research on activities such as
communication and team working skills initially focused on pilots. In contrast, errors
made by maintenance personnel are latent and thus Maintenance Resource
Management (MRM), the maintenance version of CRM has received considerably less
attention.
In their efforts to enhance safety, the aviation industry as a whole has recognised that
there is a need to minimise errors across all facets of aviation. Because of this, the
trend nowadays is to move further in their approach to reduce errors. Thus human
factor programmes have expanded to include people in all facets of aviation such as
air traffic controllers and of course maintenance personnel.
Maintaining aircrafts is a complex and demanding endeavour. It consists of numerous
interrelated human and machine components. The complexity of such interface mean
that errors are likely to be introduced and ways to detect errors and deal with them are
needed. The safety of the flying public is first and foremost dependent on the proper
functioning of the aircraft and its components. In any maintenance process, it is the
ability of maintenance personnel to work together that determines its success. The
very nature of the industry is such that engineers and mechanics will often need to
work together, therefore communication and team working skills are important.
Although most errors in the maintenance environment are latent, they cannot be
ignored as they have the potential to contribute towards fatal consequences in flight.
Once an aircraft leaves the hanger, the sound functioning of all systems on board will
be one of the important precursors to whether a flight will get from one point to
another safely. Indeed, maintenance plays such a crucial role in flight safety that it is
the responsibility of the aircraft's owner or operator to ensure that they are properly
maintained. In United States, studies have shown that a maintenance factor is a
contributing factor in 18% of all accidents. History is abound with notorious examples
of how maintenance errors contribute to accidents.
Table 5.1: Maintenance Errors
Airline Location Date Cause
Aloha Airlines Hawaii 28th April 1988 Fuse ledge failure in flight caused by
Flight 243 inspection failure
United Airlines Iowa 19th July 1989 Inspection failure which led to uncontrolled
Flight 232 engine failure and loss of flight controls
Continental Texas 11th September Separation of horizontal stabilizer.
Express Flight 1991 Maintenance personnel did not replace screws
on it.
Northwest Airlines Tokyo 01st March 1994 Engine separation caused by incomplete
assembly

There is an urgent need for changes in aspects of the organisation relating to human
performance. Increasing diligence in maintenance will probably have prevented these
accidents. In addition MRM will help airlines avoid significant financial burdens
imposed by loss of lives, flight delays, cancellations, turn backs and diversions.
MRM was developed from CRM after the fuselage of Aloha Airlines Flight 243 was
ripped off in flight and had to make an emergency landing. Investigations led to
attention being turned to maintenance errors as a potential cause of accidents. MRM
and maintenance human factors training are thus developed.

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68
Aircraft Maintenance & 5.5 PERFORMANCE STANDARD FOR INSTRUCTORS IN
Crew Management
CRM
z In 2001, FODCOM 6/2001 advised of the requirement for formal accreditation of
CRM Instructors and CRMI Standards. Document 29 contains details of the
scheme.
z In order to make understanding of the system as simple as possible, it was decided
to model this system on the existing one for the approval and verification of TRI
ratings and TRE authorisations. This procedure would have the benefit of using a
proven system and one which would be both efficient and cost effective.
z The accreditation process has been divided into three contexts for the qualification
of CRMI: Instructor – Ground School, Instructor – Simulator/Base, and Instructor
– Line. An instructor may be qualified in more than one role.
z JAR-OPS (AMC OPS 1.943) requires all CRM Instructors to have current
operational experience in the relevant role. Some alleviations from this
requirement will be given and will be subject to the discretion of the CAA.
z The CAA will appoint a CRMIE – Ground School after observation by a suitably
trained Flight Operations Inspector (FOI), Training Inspector (TI) or a suitably
qualified
z The CRMIE – Ground School may then accredit CRMIs – Ground School after
ensuring that they have been suitably trained and have reached the required
standard as an instructor of CRM.
z A CRMIE – Simulator/Base will be appointed after observation in the relevant
role by a TI. In the case of TRE/TRIs who are qualified on both aircraft and
simulator only one observation will normally be necessary. RETREs and TRI(E)s
may assume grandfather rights as a CRMIE – Simulator/Base until their first
revalidation observation of their authorities by a TI.
z A CRMIE – line will be appointed by the AOC company who should ensure that
the person appointed is a senior training captain with the relevant knowledge of
CRM. This post should be agreed with the company's assigned inspector and
recorded in the training manual. The CAA will carry out observations of the
CRMIE – line on an opportunity basis.
z These proposals were implemented over a three-year transition period to allow
operators to adapt to them. “Grandfather rights” applied, during this period, to
those instructors who have a proven track record and demonstrated instructional
experience with a recognised training organisation.

5.6 CRM STANDARDS AND TRAINING

This lesson sets out the standards of CRM required, the competencies that individuals
need, the training they require, and how that training should be given. In common with
other aspects of flight crew performance, the achievement of high standards of CRM
rests on a foundation that is several layers deep, and the successful achievement of
each stage relies on the preceding stage. In other words, crew performance will be
determined by individuals behaving and operating to a set of standards; which will
require them to have certain knowledge, skills and attitudes.
Although achieving standards is the end result of the training process, it must be
considered first because it sets out the behaviour that the industry and regulators will
require aircrew to demonstrate during flying operations.

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5.6.1 CRM Standards 69

Crew Resource
There are two issues in the specification of performance standards for CRM. The first Management

is to identify and define the categories of behaviour and the second is to define the
levels or standards of performance in each category which distinguish competence
from non-competence.
The standards are competency based and therefore can be assessed against specific
performance criteria. Much work has been done worldwide on these subjects, and
although there is not yet an internationally agreed set of reference points, there is
obvious overlap among categories and standards defined in the documents. This
contains a selection of behavioural markers and competency standards currently used
by various organisations.
The objectives of CRM training are as follows:
(a) To enhance crew and management awareness of human factors which could cause
or exacerbate incidents which affect the safe conduct of air operations.
(b) To enhance knowledge of human factors and develop CRM skills and attitudes
which when applied appropriately could extricate an aircraft operation from
incipient accidents and incidents whether perpetrated by technical or human factor
failings.
(c) To use CRM knowledge, skills and attitudes to conduct and manage aircraft
operations, and fully integrate these techniques throughout every facet of the
organisation culture, so as to prevent the onset of incidents and potential
accidents.
(d) To use these skills to integrate commercially efficient aircraft operations with
safety.
(e) To improve the working environment for crews and all those associated with
aircraft operations.
(f) To enhance the prevention and management of crew error.

5.7 CRM INSTRUCTORS (CRMI)

5.7.1 Requirements – General
The role of the CRMI derives from the JAR-OPS Subpart N. CRMIs may be qualified
in three contexts, namely Ground School, Simulator/Base and Line. A CRMI may be
qualified in more than one context. When exercising the privileges of a CRMI in an
aircraft, the individual shall hold an appropriate valid and current licence.
With the exception of Line CRMIs, the qualification of CRMI may be carried forward
from one operator to another subject to suitable training being given with regard to the
second and/or subsequent company’s culture, practices, and nature of operations.
A CRMI may be an instructor for more than one company at any one time. All
company CRMIs should be nominated in the company Operations Manual (Training).
Standardisation will be maintained by a CAA Inspector observing ground school
training, LOFT training, simulator/base checks and line checks on an opportunity
basis.

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70 5.7.2 Instructor Requirements

Aircraft Maintenance &
Crew Management
Instructors Ground School
A CRMI (Ground) must meet the minimum standards contained in “The Short Guide”
and should at least;
(a) have completed a basic instructional technique course.
(b) have or have had commercial air transport experience as a flight crew member;
and
(i) have successfully passed the Human Performance and Limitations (HPL)
examination whilst obtaining the ATPL; or
(ii) if holding a Flight Crew Licence acceptable under JAR-OPS 1.940 (a)(3)
prior to the introduction of HPL into the ATPL syllabus, have completed a
theoretical HPL course covering the whole syllabus of that course; or
(iii) have theoretical experience in the subject of CRM or Human Factors training.
Notwithstanding the above, and when acceptable to the CAA:
(c) A flight crew member holding a recent qualification as a CRM trainer may
continue to be a CRM trainer after the cessation of active flying duties;
(d) An experienced non-flight crew CRM trainer having knowledge of HPL, may also
be, and continue to be, a CRM trainer;
(e) A former flight crew member having knowledge of HPL may become a CRM
trainer if he maintains adequate knowledge of the operation and aircraft type and
meets the provisions of paragraphs (a) and (b) above;
(f) An instructor not meeting the above requirements may become A CRM Instructor
at the discretion of the CAA after an observation by a CAA Training Inspector.
The CRMI must:
(a) have completed initial CRM training; and
(b) be supervised by a suitably qualified CRMI when conducting their first initial
CRM training sessions; and
(c) have the knowledge and ability to teach the subjects
The CRMI must demonstrate that they:
(a) have the knowledge specified for their relevant role;
(b) have the necessary instructional skills;
(c) are able to evaluate crews’ CRM performance; and
(d) are able to facilitate constructive training of CRM issues.

Instructors Simulator/Base
A CRMI (Simulator/Base) must meet the minimum standards contained in “The Short
Guide” and should at least;
(a) hold a TRI, TRE, CRI, CRE, SFI or SFE authority;
(b) have or have had commercial air transport experience as a flight crew member;
and
(i) have successfully passed the Human Performance and Limitations (HPL)
examination whilst obtaining the ATPL; or

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(ii) if holding a Flight Crew Licence acceptable under JAR-OPS 1.940 (a)(3) prior 71
Crew Resource
to the introduction of HPL into the ATPL syllabus, have completed a Management
theoretical HPL course covering the whole syllabus of that course; or
(iii) have theoretical experience in the subject of CRM or Human Factors training.
Notwithstanding the above, and when acceptable to the CAA:
(c) a flight crew member holding a recent qualification as a CRM trainer may
continue to be a CRM trainer after the cessation of active flying duties.
The CRMI must:
(a) have completed initial CRM training; and
(b) have the knowledge.
The CRMI must demonstrate that they:
(a) have the knowledge specified for their relevant role;
(b) have the necessary instructional skills;
(c) are able to evaluate and assess crews’ CRM performance; and are able to facilitate
a constructive debrief of CRM issues.

Instructors Line
A CRMI (Line) must meet the minimum standards contained in “The Short Guide”,
and should at least:
(a) have completed a basic instructional technique course;
(b) have commercial air transport experience as a flight crew member; and
(i) have successfully passed the Human Performance and Limitations (HPL)
examination whilst obtaining the ATPL; or
(ii) if holding a Flight Crew Licence acceptable under JAR-OPS 1.940 (a)(3)
prior to the introduction of HPL into the ATPL syllabus, have completed a
theoretical HPL course covering the whole syllabus of that course; or
(iii) have theoretical experience in the subject of CRM or Human Factors training.
The CRMI must:
(a) have completed initial CRM training; and
(b) have the knowledge.
The CRMI must demonstrate that they:
(a) have the knowledge specified for their relevant role;
(b) have the necessary instructional skills;
(c) are able to evaluate and assess crews’ CRM performance;
(d) are able to facilitate a constructive debrief of CRM issues; and
(e) are able to meet the standards in 'The Start Guide' (Appendix 12) or company
equivalent.

5.7.3 Grandfather Rights for CRMIs (Aeroplanes)

Ground School
All those personnel whose names were supplied to the CAA prior to 30th November
2001 and who had been providing ground school instruction of CRM were credited

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72 with “grandfather rights” as CRMIs for the period to 30th September 2004, provided
Aircraft Maintenance &
Crew Management they had been conducting CRM instruction for at least six months and had run part of
at least two CRM courses. New instructors and any instructors who did not register for
grandfather rights prior to 30th November 2001 who wish to give CRM tuition will
need to be accredited by a CRMI Examiner (CRMIE) in accordance with Standards
Document.

Simulator/Base
TRI, TRE, SFI or SFEs who conduct simulator or aircraft training were initially given
grandfather rights until 1st October 2001. These grandfather rights remained in place
until such time as their ratings or authorities were due for revalidation. All TRI, TRE,
CRI, CRE, SFI and SFEs should have been accredited by 30th September 2004. New
TRI, TRE, SFI and SFEs will need to obtain accreditation coincident with granting of
their initial approval.

Instructor Line
Training Captains should have been accredited by 31st March 2003.

5.7.4 Grandfather Rights for CRMIs (Helicopters)

Instructors Ground School
Requirements are as Standards Document 29. CRMIs can teach both aeroplane and
helicopter crews provided they have the relevant experience. Helicopter operators may
continue with present arrangements until 1st January 2007.

Instructors Simulator/Base
Requirements are as Standards Document 29. All TRE/CREs revalidating their
authority will have to be accredited as CRMIs as from 1st May 2005.

Instructors Line
Requirements are as Standards Document 29, therefore all new line trainers will have
to be accredited as CRMIs as from 1st January 2006. Existing trainers will have to be
accredited by 1st January 2007. This is a Company Appointment.

5.8 ACCREDITATION FOR CRMIs

In order to become accredited all instructors will need to demonstrate to a CRM
Instructor Examiner (who may be a CAA Inspector) that they:
(a) have the knowledge specified for their relevant role;
(b) have the necessary instructional skills;
(c) are able to evaluate, and assess crews’ CRM performance; and
(d) are able to facilitate a constructive debrief of those CRM issues.
On recommendation from the CRMIE, the CAA will accredit suitably experienced
and qualified persons to conduct the appropriate training, for an initial period of three
years. This accreditation will remain valid subject to the individual’s continued
employment as a CRMI.
Instructors without the relevant experience as aircrew who wish to instruct pilots in
CRM skills must be accredited by a CAA Training Inspector.

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73
5.9 REVALIDATION CRITERIA FOR CRMIs Crew Resource
Management
5.9.1 Instructors Ground
With the exception of any period of grandfather rights, initial accreditation is for a
period of three years. Thereafter, re-accreditation will be at the discretion of the CAA
and subject to the following:
(a) The instructor should have conducted at least two courses of training in every
yearly period within the three year accreditation period; and
(b) For re-accreditation, one course of training, or a part thereof, within the last 12
months of the accreditation period will be observed by a CRMIE, who may be a
company examiner, a CAA Inspector, or a suitably qualified member of the CRM
Advisory Panel.

5.9.2 Instructors Simulator/Base

TREs, CREs and SFEs will be accredited with CRM instructional and assessment
skills when their authority is revalidated either by a CAA Training Inspector or a
company. TRIs and SFIs, if accredited separately from any other qualification, may be
revalidated by a TRI(E), CRIs by a CAA Flight Examiner.

5.9.3 Line Training Captains

Line Training Captains will be accredited by a company CRMIE on a three yearly
renewal basis. The accreditation process may be done as a workshop, during actual
line training or during a simulator LOFT detail in the multi-crew environment. For
single pilot aeroplane operations the workshop may be combined with other operators
who have a similar operating method.

5.9.4 Record Keeping

Records of all training courses conducted by instructors must be kept for a period of
three years. These records should show the instructional course dates, the type of
course or check, the name(s) of the candidate(s) and the type of simulator or aircraft
(if any) that was used.

Check Your Progress 1

Fill in the blanks:
1. ………............ of all training courses conducted by instructors must be
kept for a period of three years.
2. ………............ encompasses a wide range of knowledge, skills and
attitudes.
3. The research on activities such as communication and team working skills
initially focused on ………............
4. Increasing diligence in maintenance will probably have prevented these
………............
5. A ………............ may be an instructor for more than one company at any
one time.

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74
Aircraft Maintenance & 5.10 CRM INSTRUCTORS – EXAMINERS (CRMIEs)
Crew Management
5.10.1 Requirements – General
The role of the CRMIE derives from the JAR-OPS Subpart N and subsequent
revisions. The CAA will authorise suitably experienced and qualified individuals as
examiners to facilitate the accreditation of instructors as being competent to carry out
CRM training. CRMIEs may be qualified in the three contexts of Ground School,
Simulator/Base and Line. The CRMIE shall meet all the requirements of the CRMI in
the context in which he is to be a CRMIE.
A CRMIE may be qualified in more than one context. All company CRMIEs should
be nominated in the company Operations Manual (Training). When exercising the
privileges of a CRMIE in an aircraft, the individual shall hold an appropriate valid and
current licence.
The CRMIE authorisation will remain valid subject to the examiner’s continued
employment with the sponsoring company. Should the examiner cease to be employed
on examining duties, or leave the sponsoring company, the authorization will
automatically lapse.
A CRMIE may carry out accreditation checks on instructors not employed by the
company sponsoring that examiner’s authorisation subject to a written agreement
between the sponsoring company and the third party. Copies of such written
agreements must be forwarded to the Head of Training Standards at the CAA for his
approval. The CAA will, on receipt of this copy agreement, reserve the right without
prejudice, to refuse to sanction any such agreements.
Standardisation will be maintained by CAA Inspectors observing CRMIEs
undertaking assessment of CRMIs at ground school training, LOFT training,
simulator/base checks and line training/checks on an opportunity basis.

5.10.2 Examiner Requirements

Examiners in any CRM context shall be at least as well qualified and experienced as
the CRMI candidate whom they are going to examine. This means that any CRMIE
needs to fulfil at least the minimum qualification and experience requirements laid
down for CRMIs in the relevant context.

5.10.3 Examiners Ground School

A CRMIE (Ground) should meet the minimum standards as those laid down for a
CRMI (Ground).

5.10.4 Examiners Simulator/Base

A CRMIE (Simulator/Base) should hold a TRI(E) or RETRE authority.

5.10.5 Examiners Line

A CRMIE (Line) should hold a company appointment as a line training captain on the
appropriate aircraft type. Where CRMI (Line) accreditation and/or revalidation are
carried out by the means of a classroom based workshop, the CRMIE should be a
senior trainer nominated by the company to the CAA for their acceptance of that
appointment.

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75
5.11 INITIAL ACCREDITATION Crew Resource
Management
The accreditation process is divided into the three contexts of Ground School,
Simulator/Base and Line.

Ground School
Initial accreditation of CRMIEs (Ground) will be by observation of the candidate
CRMIE accrediting a CRMI (Ground) during a course, or part of a course of ground
training. The observation will be carried out by a CAA Inspector or a suitably
qualified member of the CRM Advisory Panel. The accreditation will be for an initial
period of three years.

Simulator/Base
TRI(E)s and RETREs who conduct TRI and TRE revalidations in simulators or
aircraft have been given grandfather rights since 1st October 2001. These grandfather
rights will remain in place until such time as the appropriate authority is revalidated.
This revalidation is carried out by a CAA Training Inspector.
Extension of the existing authority to include CRM accreditation will be in accordance
with Standards Document 29. All TRI(E)s and RETREs need to have been accredited
by 30th September 2004.
New TRI(E) and RETREs will need to obtain accreditation coincident with granting
of their initial approval.

Line
Initial accreditation of CRMIEs (Line) will be by observation of the candidate CRMIE
accrediting a CRMI (Line) in a workshop, on an actual line flight, or in the case of
multipilot operators, on a simulator LOFT detail.
Alternatively, a company may nominate a senior trainer as a CRMIE (Line). This
appointment is subject to acceptance by the CAA.
The accreditation will be for an initial period of three years.

5.11.1 Accreditation
In order to become accredited all instructor examiners will need to demonstrate to a
CAA Inspector or a suitably qualified member of the CRM Advisory Panel that they:
(a) have the knowledge specified for their relevant role;
(b) have the necessary instructional and assessment skills;
(c) are able to assess instructors’ teaching, evaluating and debriefing of CRM
performance in accordance with 'The Short Guide' (Appendix 12); and
(d) are able to facilitate a constructive debrief of CRM issues.
On recommendation the CAA will accredit suitably experienced and qualified persons
to conduct instructor examining for an initial period of three years. This accreditation
will remain valid subject to the individual’s continued employment as a CRM
instructor examiner.

Examiners Ground
All CRMIEs (Ground) will require to become accredited prior to being authorised to
examine CRMI candidates.

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76 Examiners Simulator/Base
Aircraft Maintenance &
Crew Management All TRI(E)s and RETREs, who held valid authorisations at 30th September 2001 were
given grandfather rights. These grandfather rights remain valid until the expiry of that
authority at which time they will require to become accredited. To achieve
accreditation an assessment will be made of their CRMIE performance to assess the
teaching, evaluating and debriefing of the CRM aspects of LOFT and competency
checks during the recurrent three-yearly revalidation observation.
All candidates put forward by their companies subsequent to 30th September 2001
were required to demonstrate their CRM instructor examiner performance to assess
the teaching, evaluating and debriefing of the CRM aspects of LOFT and competency
checks during the initial observation by a CAA Inspector.

Examiners Line
Line Training or Line Checking Captains have not received grandfather rights as
CRMIEs (Line). Companies may nominate a senior trainer as a CRMIE (Line). Such
appointment is subject to acceptance by the CAA, and standardisation will be
achieved by periodic observation by a CAA Inspector observing the accreditation
process.

5.12 REVALIDATION CRITERIA

Examiners Ground
Initial accreditation is for a period of three years. Thereafter, re-accreditation will be at
the discretion of the CAA and subject to the following:
z The examiner should have conducted at least two accreditation checks in every
yearly period within the three year accreditation period;
z For re-authorisation, one accreditation check within the last 12 months of the
authorisation period will be observed by a CAA Inspector, or a suitably qualified
member of the CRM Advisory Panel.

Examiners Simulator/Base
TRI(E)s and RETREs will be accredited with CRM instructional and assessment skills
when their authority is revalidated by a CAA Training Inspector.

Examiners Line
Line examiners will be accredited by a CAA Inspector on a three yearly renewal basis.
The revalidation may be achieved by observation of the CRMIE conducting a CRMI
(Line) accreditation in a workshop, during actual line training or during a simulator
LOFT detail in the multi-crew environment.

Record Keeping
Records of all checks conducted by examiners must be kept for a period of three
years. These records should show the instructional course dates, the type of course or
check, the name(s) of the candidate(s) and the type of simulator or aircraft (if any) that
was used.

5.13 CREW RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

Air transport remains one of the safest methods of moving people and goods from one
point to another. The number of fatal incidents per distance travelled is extraordinarily
low however; the industry suffers a paradox of very low accident rate but a very high

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potential for loss of life when an incident does occur (as modern transport aircraft can 77
Crew Resource
carry hundreds of passengers at a time). It has been touted widely during the past Management
several decades that 85% of accidents are caused by human error but what this term
fails to recognize is that humans are but one part of the wider environment – they must
interact with many components including weather, technology, social systems etc.
Despite this, humans are at the most very basic level the root cause of any incident
because humans ultimately design and/or interact with all elements of the wider
environment. The core reason for the existence of air carriers (airlines) is to safely
transport people and goods from one place to another. Management of risk and threat
is the key to managing safety and therefore many aviation systems (such as weather
planning, air traffic control and flight deck warning systems) exist to manage risk. The
practice of crew resource management is an integral part of commercial airline
operations. Modern crew resource management focuses upon the management of
resources to reduce error by many groups of aviation specialists (e.g. air traffic
controllers, pilots, cabin crewmembers, mechanics and dispatchers) through goal
setting, teamwork, awareness and both pro- and reactive feedback. These same
components of crew resource management are facets of Perezgonzales’ model of
health and safety management. Crew resource management aims to allow numerous
people in various roles to manage various core elements and throughputs to achieve an
outcome (safer flight); therefore, crew resource management in practice can be
thought of a micro-model for safety management existing as part of a larger
organizational model.

5.14 CREW RESOURCE MANAGEMENT AS A MODEL OF

SAFETY MANAGEMENT
Crew resource management is a model of management used to respond (manage)
threat and error in aviation. This model uses the same principles of the Perezgonzales
model (core elements are used to build throughputs, which become outputs, which
results in outcomes).
The core elements of CRM are:
z The goal of a safe flight (goals),
z Cooperation and communication between pilots, ATC, cabin
z Crew and dispatch,
z Monitoring of internal (intra-crew and aircraft) and external
z Situation for threats (e.g. poor teamwork, weather, terrain, Fuel state, location of
aircraft in regards to flight plan), and
z Feedback to enable practices to be adjusted and threats to be evaluated.
z These core elements allow throughputs to be created which enhance system
performance.
z Awareness of the current state of both internal (onboard the Aircraft) and external
operations (air traffic instructions, Environment, weather) and threats,
z Threat detection (through awareness of the situation),
z Threat response through expertise (training/standard operating procedures),
coordination and communication (between the crew and air traffic control, intra-
crew, crew and dispatch, etc.). By using the core elements and throughputs of
goals, teamwork (communication/co-operation), situational awareness and
feedback the crew practice threat detection and error avoidance behaviours.

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78
Aircraft Maintenance & 5.15 IMPACT OF CRM IN AVIATION SAFETY
Crew Management
‘Natural limitations on human performance and complexity of the environment make
error inevitable’ (Helm Reich Pub.257). In the aviation industry, safety is the utmost
priority even though they (aviation industry) can justifiably or boast about how much
safer it is to travel by air then on road. The field of human factors has been a great
concern since the early days of commercial aviation (Hawkins 1987). Human factors
evolved from an initial combination of engineering and psychology with focus on
‘knobs and dials’ to an multidisciplinary field that draws on the methods and
principles of behavioural-social sciences, engineering and physiology to optimize
human performance and to reduce human error (National Research Council 1989).
Crew Resource Management (CRM) is an application in order to reduce errors
committed by human. We will now go in-depth to discuss on what is CRM, and the
impact it has on the aviation industry worldwide. Human errors accounts for about
75% of aviation accidents, therefore, human performance is one of the major concerns
towards safety in aviation (Hawkins 1987). Recognition of this human performance
problem stimulated a number of independent efforts classified under the term ‘pilot
error’. The researchers are focused on what can be done to reduce such errors. One of
the most outstanding developments in aviation safety for the past decade has been the
implementations of training programs aiming to increase effectiveness and efficient in
crew’s teamwork as well as flight-deck management. This development was first
introduced when aircraft investigators concluded that ‘pilot error’ documented in past
accidents and incidents were reflected to team-communication and coordination rather
than pilots ‘stick and rudder’ skills proficiency (Murphy 1980). The original label for
such training was known as cockpit resource management, but with recognition to its
applicability of the approach to others members of the aviation community; it changes
into Crew Resource Management (CRM). CRM is the application of human factors in
the aviation system which uses all available resources (equipment and people) to
achieve safe flight operations. CRM combines individual technical efficiency with the
broader goal of crew coordination. CRM courses aims to allow all aviation personnel
to have effective performance which consist of technical proficiency and interpersonal
skills. The primary focus will be directed to team coordination, the attitudes and
behaviours of individual. CRM courses are design to address human behaviour which
is a product of knowledge and thought process, personality, attitude and background.
It is not design to change ones’ personality. In order to achieve those key-points
mentioned above; most CRM courses worldwide are similar in terms of its content.
All CRM courses consist of three main clusters of skills namely, communication,
team-building and workload.

5.15.1 Communication and Decision-making Skills

Communication and Decision-making Skills is the first cluster of CRM modules.
These skills are the primary core factor in good CRM. It is to build up interpersonal
skills in which crew will need to ensure optimal performance. Personnel attending
CRM must know that information must be requested, offered or given freely in a
timely way to permit accurate, effective decision-making. CRM training will also
provide knowledge on communication styles used by others for interpretation as well
as to determine the proper emphasis for a response (Jensen 1995). With poor
information due to poor communication, there will be a lack of critical information or
data which will subsequently affect decision-making. On 25th January 1990, Avianca
Flight 052 crashed while making a second attempt to land at JFK International
Airport, New York (NTSB aircraft accident report HK2016). NTSB reported that
flight crew did not communicate an emergency fuel situation to the ATC before fuel
exhaustion occurred. Communications was reported as not clear and the captain did
request the first officer to repeat information louder as the captain could not hear it. A

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fatal communication error occurs when the first officer relay the message to turn 79
Crew Resource
starboard instead of turning port. This massage made the B707-321B fly a longer loop Management
thus burning more fuel. Communications between the ATC and the first officer clearly
shows a misinterpretation about fuel level. The first officer assumed that the ATC had
acknowledged the low fuel status of the Flight 052 but in fact, the ATC interpreted the
transmission as ‘Flight 052 has sufficient fuel’. Words like ‘emergency’ was not used
by the first officer thus it leads to a different outcome of interpretation. This air
accident shows us a total breakdown in communication by the flight crews in attempt
to relay important situations to the ATC. The flight crew was reported to have
limitations in their individual abilities in English language. Proper knowledge of CRM
training which focus on inter-personal communication will perhaps prevent this
accident as the pilots may have better proficiency in English language, communicate
better and clearly, standardisation of phraseology which will prevent
misinterpretations and the pilots may repeat to the other party about the message and
make sure they understood what the situation was before engaging in other
conversations (Shari Stamford Krause, Ph.D.), With good attributes of CRM,
decision-making by the captain or the first officer to declare an emergency and seek
for help from the ATC might prevent this fatal accident. CRM training in
communication and decision-making allows aviation personals to increase team
effectiveness, reduces fewer errors which eventually increases the safety aspects.

5.15.2 Team Building

The second clusters of skills will be Team Building. Team building consists of two
major concepts which are leadership and team management. Large aircrafts like the
A380s or the B747-800s are flown by teams not by individual pilots. Teams are often
used in aviation as the complexity of task increases as technology advances. Teams are
used to also provide redundancy in order to provide an extra safety factor which is
critical for aviation (Ginnett 1993). CRM focus on how people behave in teams/groups.
As people behave differently in teams/groups as they do alone, CRM training teaches
personnel to adapt to such situations and to optimise performance rather than getting
‘affect’ from team-working. CRM aims to reduce problems which might be created in
teams such as, bystander effect, conformity, social loafing, decision-making in teams
and groupthink (Jensen 1995). On 23rd March 1994, an Aeroflot Russian International
Airline A310-304 crashed near Mezhduretshensk, Russia killing 75 passengers on board
(ICAO Adrep Summary 2/94 #4).The aircraft crashed after a captain allowed his
children to fly the plane. While the boy was flying, he inadvertently disengaged the
autopilot linkage to the ailerons and put the airliner in a bank of 90-degrees which
caused the nose to drop sharply. The co-pilot tried to remedy by pulling back on the
yoke to obtain level flight but the plane stalled. After several stalls, the aircraft crashed
into the ground. This Example display how poor team performance can have disasters
consequences. Conformity affects the co-pilot as he agrees with the captain to allow
unauthorised personnel to handle the aircraft. The co-pilot knew that this was against
procedure and worst of all; to let someone without any qualifications on flying to handle
the aircraft. The co-pilot was perhaps under pressure from the captain when he gave in
towards the decision. Normative influence occurs in order to not to offend the captain.
In another aspect, the captain did not show leadership capabilities as he had breech
safety policies to allow non-pilots to fly the commercial airliner. If the co-pilot had been
properly trained with CRM, he would reject the captain’s idea. CRM teaches a person to
use proper communication skills as well as assertive behaviour in order to handle such
situations. Therefore, from this example, we can conclude that CRM is critical and it
will be able to prevent such fatal accidents.

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80 5.15.3 Workload
Aircraft Maintenance &
Crew Management Lastly, the final clusters of skills for CRM will be workload. These include concepts
like mission planning, stress management and workload distribution. Accidents often
happen when workload demands are greater than team capabilities. In pilot’s
perspective, most accidents happen during take-off and landing phrases. These phrases
are periods on high workload. But surprisingly, low workload can also cause
accidents. In flight crew perspective, during the long cruise segments, the pilots may
be less attentive then when they are working frantically. This low workload periods
are times where complacency is the most common. This is known as the low-arousal
level factor from the Yerkes-Dowson Law (Wickens & Hollands 2000). Workload
management is crucially important. Most of the aviation-operations jobs required shift
duties, thus proper workload management must be planned as circadian rhythms will
causes performance to decrease which results in reduction of safely aspects. On 3rd
September 1989 2045 hour, VARIG airline flight RG 254 made a forced landing into
a jungle near Sao Jose do Xingu, Brazil due to fuel exhaustion (ICAO Adrep
Summary 5/89 #11). The flight, a B737-241 took off at 1725 hour from Maraba
towards Belem, Brazil. The flying time was approximately 45mins. The flight crew
entered into the flight computer 270 degrees instead of 027 degrees. After 2 hours of
flying, the captain finally realized that they were flying towards the wrong direction.
Amendments were made to fly back to their original route, but it was too late. The
plane was 600NM off course. Fuel exhaustion occurred which leads to the forced
landing in the jungle. The navigation mistake went unnoticed because the flight crews
were reported listening to the World Cup Qualification Match between Brazil vs.
Chile. From this example, we can see that how poor workload management causes
such an accident. If the crew/team manages to priories their workload and if the crew
doubled-check their computer inputs, such accidents will not even occur. With quality
CRM training, teams are train to follow procedures and to double-check their work.
Good leaders will distribute even workload to each member’s capacity, in order to
have optimal performance. From this accident, if captain has order the co-pilot to
make scheduled checks on the flight computer, such accidents could be prevented.
Distractions such as listening to radios should be minimised. The pilots should
increase their arousal level by going through cruising procedures in order to have
optimal performance during cruising. CRM training for personnel will prevent such
accidents which increases aviation’s safety. From the three examples given above
which demonstrated human factors being a key failure which result in massive
destruction, proper CRM training must be applied in order to increase safety in
aviation. CRM knowledge will reduce the above mentioned slips/mistakes which will
prevent the accidents.

Check Your Progress 2

Fill in the blanks:
1. …………. remains one of the safest methods of moving people and goods
from one point to another.
2. …………. is divided into the three contexts of Ground School,
Simulator/Base and Line.
3. Standardisation will be maintained by CAA Inspectors observing
CRMIEs undertaking assessment of CRMIs at ………….
4. Line Training or Line Checking Captains have not received grandfather
rights as ………….
5. Crew Resource Management (CRM) is an application in order to reduce
…………. committed by human.

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81
5.16 LET US SUM UP Crew Resource
Management
Crew resource management aims to allow numerous people in various roles to manage
various core elements and throughputs to achieve an outcome (safer flight); therefore,
crew resource management in practice can be thought of a micro-model for safety
management existing as part of a larger organizational model. Crew resource
management is a model of management used to respond (manage) threat and error in
aviation. There are various core elements of CRM. These core elements allow
throughputs to be created which enhance system performance. Crew Resource
Management (CRM) is an application in order to reduce errors committed by human.
Communication and Decision-making Skills is the first cluster of CRM modules. It is
to build up interpersonal skills in which crew will need to ensure optimal
performance. The second clusters of skills will be Team Building. Team building
consists of two major concepts which are leadership and team management. Lastly,
the final clusters of skills for CRM will be workload. These include concepts like
mission planning, stress management and workload distribution.

5.17 LESSON END ACTIVITY

Find out the features of CRM training followed by the Indian aviation industry and
make a report of the same.

5.18 KEYWORDS
Air Traffic Control (ATC): Air Traffic Control is a service provided by ground-based
controllers who direct aircraft on the ground and through controlled airspace.
Crew Resource Management (CRM): Crew Resource Management can be defined as
a management system which makes optimum use of all available resources –
equipment, procedures and people – to promote safety and enhance the efficiency of
flight operations.
Perezgonzales’ Model of Health and Safety Management: It consists of a number of
layers and components in a causal chain whereby each element has influence upon the
total system and allows for the logical, effective flow of information to achieve goals.
The purpose of this system is to influence the operational system so that it is operated
in such a way that health and safety are maintained.
Throughputs: In Perezgonzales’ model, these enhance the core elements and lead to
greater outputs.

5.19 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. What are the core elements and throughputs of CRM?
2. What is the relationship between CRM and Aviation?
3. Describe the three main clusters of skills focused upon by CRM.

Check Your Progress: Model Answers

CYP 1
1. Records
2. CRM
3. pilots
4. accidents
Contd…

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82 5. CRMI
Aircraft Maintenance &
Crew Management
CYP 2
1. Air transport
2. The accreditation process
3. ground school training
4. CRMIEs (Line)
5. errors

5.20 SUGGESTED READINGS

Kanki, B.G. et. al. (2010) Crew Resource Management Academic Press
Harvey, G. and Turnbull, P.J. (2006) ‘Employment Relations, Management Style and
Flight Crew Attitudes at Low Cost Airline Subsidiaries: The Cases of British
Airways/Go and big/bmibaby’, European Management Journal, 24(5), pp. 330-337.
LeSage, P. et al. (2010) Crew Resource Management; Jones & Bartlett Learning 2012
FAR for Flight Crew Book – ASA

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83
Incidents/Accidents

UNIT IV

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84
Aircraft Maintenance &
Crew Management

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85
LESSON Incidents/Accidents

6
INCIDENTS/ACCIDENTS

CONTENTS
6.0 Aims and Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Accident
6.3 Preliminary Report
6.3.1 Responsibility of the State Conducting the Investigation Accidents to
Aircraft Over 2250 kg
6.3.2 Accidents to Aircraft of 2250 kg or less
6.3.3 Language
6.3.4 Dispatch
6.4 Accident/Incident Data Report
6.4.1 Responsibility of the State Conducting the Investigation Accidents to
Aircraft over 2250 kg
6.4.2 Additional Information
6.4.3 Incidents to Aircraft over 5700 kg
6.5 Accident Prevention Measures
6.5.1 Incident Reporting Systems
6.6 Database Systems
6.7 Analysis of Data – Preventive Actions
6.8 Exchange of Safety Information
6.9 Evaluation of Flight Crew CRM Skills
6.10 Crew CRM Skills
6.11 Let us Sum up
6.12 Lesson End Activity
6.13 Keywords
6.14 Questions for Discussion
6.15 Suggested Readings

6.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

After studying this lesson, you should be able to:
z Discuss the fatalities of aviation accidents
z Describe the incidents of aircraft

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86
Aircraft Maintenance & 6.1 INTRODUCTION
Crew Management
An occurrence associated with the operation of an airplane that takes place between
the times any person boards the airplane with the intention of flight and such time as
all such persons have landed, in which:
z The airplane sustains substantial damage, or
z The airplane is missing or is completely inaccessible, or
z Death or serious injury results from:
™ Being in the airplane, or
™ Direct contact with the airplane or anything attached thereto, or
™ Direct exposure to jet blast.
In general, this expression is a measure of accidents per million departures. Departures
(or flight cycles) are used as the basis for calculating rates, since there is a stronger
statistical correlation between accidents and departures than there is between accidents
and flight hours, or between accidents and the number of airplanes in service, or
between accidents and passenger miles or freight miles. Airplane departures data are
continually updated and revised as new information become available. These form the
baseline for the measure of accident rates and, as a consequence, rates may vary
between editions of this publication.

6.2 ACCIDENT
An occurrence associated with the operation of an aircraft which takes place between
the times any person boards the aircraft with the intention of flight until such time as
all such persons have landed, in which:
(a) a person is fatally or seriously injured as a result of:
™ being in the aircraft, or
™ direct contact with any part of the aircraft, including parts which have become
detached from the aircraft, or
™ direct exposure to jet blast, except when the injuries are from natural causes,
self-inflicted or inflicted by other persons, or when the injuries are to
stowaways hiding outside the areas normally available to the passengers and
crew; or
(b) the aircraft sustains damage or structural failure which:
™ adversely affects the structural strength, performance or flight characteristics
of the aircraft, and
™ would normally require major repair or replacement of the affected
component, except for engine failure or damage, when the damage is limited
to the engine, its cowlings or accessories; or for damage limited to propellers,
wing tips, antennas, tires, brakes, fairings, small dents or puncture holes in the
aircraft skin; or
(c) the aircraft is missing or is completely inaccessible.
Note: For statistical uniformity only. An injury resulting in death within thirty days of
the date of the accident is classified as a fatal injury by ICAO.
Note: An aircraft is considered to be missing when the official search has been
terminated and the wreckage has not been located.

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Overall, incidents and accidents involve the entire range of CRM and Human Factors 87
Incidents/Accidents
aspects.
In incident and accident reports, the flight crew’s contribution often is considered to
be just what the flight crew did or did not do.
The following discussion is a focused but limited overview of the broad CRM subject.
CRM concepts and techniques enhance effective cross monitoring and backup by each
crewmember.
The minimum content of CRM training is defined by regulations and airlines should
consider additional CRM training to account for specific requirements, such as multi-
cultural flight crews and different areas of operation.
CRM issues have been identified as circumstantial factors in more than 70% of
approach-and-landing incidents or accidents.
Because CRM practices are a key factor in flight crew adherence to and performance
of normal and non-normal procedures and in the interaction with automated systems,
CRM issues are involved to some degree in every incident or accident.
The captain’s role and attitude in opening the line of communication with the first
officer and cabin crew is of prime importance for setting the flight deck atmosphere
and ensuring effective:
z Teamwork (e.g., creating a synergy among crew members, allowing the authority
and duty for the first officer to voice any concern as to the progress of the flight
and overall safety)
z Crew coordination, mutual monitoring and backup
z Human relations (e.g., effective intra-crew communications)
Performing a pre-flight briefing that includes the flight crew and cabin crew
establishes the basis for effective teamwork. Flight attendants may hesitate to report
technical occurrences to flight crew (i.e., because of cultural aspects, company
policies or intimidation). To overcome this reluctance, the implementation and
interpretation of the sterile cockpit rule (as applicable) should be discussed during
cabin crew CRM training and recalled by the captain during the pre-flight briefing.
When performing the operational and human factors analysis of operational events,
Airbus qualifies teamwork aspects, using the following markers:
z Flight preparation and planning
z Intra-cockpit communications
z Cockpit crew/cabin crew communications
z Cultural/language factors
z Priority setting
z Quality of briefings
z Flight monitoring
z Workload management
z Mutual cross-check and back-up
z Adherence to standard calls
z Strategic (long-term) decision making
z Tactical (short-term) decision making

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88 z Situational awareness
Aircraft Maintenance &
Crew Management z Interruptions and distractions management
z Effective use of all crew resources

Accredited Representative
A person designated by a State, on the basis of his or her qualifications, for the
purpose of participating in an investigation conducted by another State.

Adviser
A person appointed by a State, on the basis of his or her qualifications, for the purpose
of assisting its accredited representative in an investigation.

Aircraft
Any machine that can derive support in the atmosphere from the reactions of the air
other than the reactions of the air against the earth’s surface.

Causes
Actions, omissions, events, conditions, or a combination thereof, which led to the
accident or incident.

Flight Recorder
Any type of recorder installed in the aircraft for the purpose of complementing
accident/incident investigation.
Note: The provisions of this chapter may require two separate reports for anyone
accident or incident. They are:
z Preliminary Report
z Accident/Incident Data Report
Note: Guidance for preparing the Preliminary Report and the Accident/Incident Data
Report is given in the Accident/Incident Reporting Manual.

Incident
An occurrence, other than an accident, associated with the operation of an aircraft
which affects or could affect the safety of operation.
Note: The types of incidents which are of main interest to the International Civil
Aviation Organization for accident prevention studies are listed in the
Accident/Incident Reporting Manual.

Investigation
A process conducted for the purpose of accident prevention which includes the
gathering and analysis of information, the drawing of conclusions, including the
determination of causes and, when appropriate, the making of safety
recommendations.

Investigator-in-charge
A person charged, on the basis of his or her qualifications, with the responsibility for
the organization, conduct and control of an investigation.
Note: Nothing in the above definition is intended to preclude the functions of an
investigator-in-charge being assigned to a commission or other body.

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Operator 89
Incidents/Accidents
A person, organization or enterprise engaged in or offering to engage in an aircraft
operation.

Preliminary Report
The communication used for the prompt dissemination of data obtained during the
early stages of the investigation.

Safety Recommendation
A proposal of the accident investigation authority of the State conducting the
investigation, based on information derived from the investigation, made with the
intention of preventing accidents or incidents.

Serious Incident
An incident involving circumstances indicating that an accident nearly occurred. Like,
z Collisions flight into terrain only marginally avoided.
z Aborted take-offs on a closed or engaged runway.
z Take-offs from a closed or engaged with marginal separate from obstacle(s)
z Landings or attempted landings on a closed or engaged runway.
z Gross failures to achieve predicted performance during take-off or initial climb.
z Fires and smoke in the passenger compartment, in cargo compartments or engine
fires, even though such fires were extinguished by the use of extinguishing agents.
z Events requiring the emergency use of oxygen by the flight crew.
z Aircraft structural failures or engine disintegrations not classified as an accident.
z Multiple malfunctions of one or more aircraft systems seriously affecting the
operation of the aircraft.
z Flight crew incapacitation in flight.
z Fuel quantity requiring the declaration of an emergency by the pilot.
Note: The difference between an accident and a serious incident lies only in the result.

Serious Injury
An injury which is sustained by a person in an accident and which:
(a) requires hospitalization for more than 48 hours, commencing within seven days
from the date the injury was received; or
(b) results in a fracture of any bone (except simple fractures of fingers, toes or nose);
or
(c) involves lacerations which cause severe hemorrhage, nerve, muscle or tendon
damage; or
(d) involves injury to any internal organ; or
(e) involves second or third degree bums, or any bums affecting more than 5 per cent
of the body surface; or
(f) involves verified exposure to infectious substances or injurious radiation.

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90 State of Design
Aircraft Maintenance &
Crew Management The State having jurisdiction over the organization responsible for the type of design.

State of Manufacture
The State having jurisdiction over the organization responsible for the final assembly
of the aircraft.

State of Occurrence
The State 111 the territory of which an accident or incident occurs.

State of the Operator

The State in which the operator’s principal place of business is located or, if there is
no such place of business, the operator’s permanent residence.
State of Registry: The State on whose register the aircraft is entered.
Note: In the case of the registration of aircraft of an international operating agency on
other than a national basis, the States constituting the agency are jointly and severally
bound to assume the obligations which, under the Chicago Convention, attach to a
State of Registry.

Check Your Progress 1

Fill in the blanks:
1. Landings or attempted landings on a …………………. runway.
2. An …………………. which is sustained by a person in an accident.
3. A person, organization or enterprise engaged in or offering to engage in
an aircraft operation is called an ………………….
4. Any machine that can derive support in the atmosphere from the reactions
of the air other than the reactions of the air against the earth’s surface is
………………….
5. …………………. data are continually updated and revised as new
information and estimating processes become available.

6.3 PRELIMINARY REPORT

6.3.1 Responsibility of the State Conducting the Investigation Accidents to
Aircraft Over 2250 kg
When the aircraft involved in an accident is of a maximum mass of over 2250 kg, the
State conducting the investigation shall send the Preliminary Report to:
(a) the State of Registry or the State of Occurrence, as appropriate;
(b) the State of the Operator;
(c) the State of Design;
(d) the State of Manufacture;
(e) any State that provided relevant information, significant facilities or experts; and
(f) the International Civil Aviation Organization.

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6.3.2 Accidents to Aircraft of 2250 kg or less 91

Incidents/Accidents
When an aircraft, not covered by 7.1, is involved in an accident and when
airworthiness or matters considered to be of interest to other States are involved, the
State conducting the investigation shall forward the Preliminary Report to:
(a) the State of Registry or the State of Occurrence, as appropriate;
(b) the State of the Operator;
(c) the State of Design;
(d) the State of Manufacture; and
(e) any State that provided relevant information, significant facilities or experts.

6.3.3 Language
The Preliminary Report shall be submitted to appropriate States and to the
International Civil Aviation Organization in one of the working languages of ICAO.

6.3.4 Dispatch
The Preliminary Report shall be sent by facsimile, e-mail, or airmail within thirty days
of the date of the accident unless the Accident/Incident Data Report has been sent by
that time. When matters directly affecting safety are involved, it shall be sent as soon
as the information is available and by the most suitable and quickest means available.

6.4 ACCIDENT/INCIDENT DATA REPORT

6.4.1 Responsibility of the State Conducting the Investigation Accidents to
Aircraft over 2250 kg
When the aircraft involved in an accident is of a maximum mass of over 2250 kg, the
State conducting the investigation shall send, as soon as practicable after the
investigation, the Accident Data Report to the International Civil Aviation
Organization.

6.4.2 Additional Information

Recommendation—The State conducting the investigation should, upon request,
provide other States with pertinent information additional to that made available in the
Accident/Incident Data Report.

6.4.3 Incidents to Aircraft over 5700 kg

If a State conducts an investigation into an incident to an aircraft of a maximum mass
of over 5700 kg, that State shall send, as soon as is practicable after the investigation,
the Incident Data Report to the International Civil Aviation Organization.

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92 Table 6.1: Accident Summary by Type of Operation

Aircraft Maintenance &
Crew Management

6.5 ACCIDENT PREVENTION MEASURES

Note: The objective of these specifications is to promote accident prevention by
analysis of accident and incident data and by a prompt exchange of information.

6.5.1 Incident Reporting Systems

A State shall establish a mandatory incident reporting system to facilitate collection of
information on actual or potential safety deficiencies.

Recommendation
A State should establish a voluntary incident reporting system to facilitate the
collection of information that may not be captured by a mandatory incident reporting
system.
A voluntary incident reporting system shall be non-punitive and afford protection to
the sources of the information.
Note 1: A non-punitive environment is fundamental to voluntary reporting.
Note 2: States are encouraged to facilitate and promote the voluntary reporting of
events that could affect aviation safety by adjusting their applicable laws, regulations
and policies, as necessary.
Note 3: Guidance related to both mandatory and voluntary incident reporting systems
is contained in the Accident Prevention Manual.
Table 6.2: Causes of Fatal Accidents by Decade (percentage)
Cause 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s 2000s All
Pilot Error 40 34 24 26 27 30 29
Pilot Error (weather related) 10 17 14 18 19 19 15
Pilot Error (mechanical related) 6 5 5 2 5 5 5
Total Pilot Error 57 56 43 46 51 54 50
Other Human Error 2 9 9 6 9 5 7
Weather 16 9 14 14 10 8 12
Mechanical Failure 21 19 20 20 18 24 22
Sabotage 5 5 13 13 11 9 9
Other Cause 0 2 1 1 1 0 1

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93
Incidents/Accidents

Source: Statistical Summary of Commercial Jet Airplane Accidents, 1959 - 2008, Boeing

Figure 6.1: Accidents and Fatalities by Phase of Flight

6.6 DATABASE SYSTEMS

Recommendation— A State should establish an accident and incident database to
facilitate the effective analysis of information obtained including that from its incident
reporting systems.
Recommendation— The database systems should use standardized formats to
facilitate data exchange.
Note 1: Guidance material related to the specification for such databases will be
provided by ICAO upon request from States.
Note 2: States are encouraged to foster regional arrangements, as appropriate, when
implementing.

6.7 ANALYSIS OF DATA – PREVENTIVE ACTIONS

A State having established an accident and incident database and an incident reporting
system shall analyse the information contained in its accident/incident reports and the
database to determine any preventive actions required.
Note: Additional information on which to base preventive actions may be contained in
the Final Reports on investigated accidents and incidents.
Recommendation— If a State, in the analysis of the information contained in its
database, identifies safety matters considered to be of interest to other States, that
State should forward such safety information to them as soon as possible.
Recommendation— In addition to safety recommendations arising from accident and
incident investigations, safety recommendations may result from diverse sources,
including safety studies. If safety recommendations are addressed to an organization
in another State, they should also be transmitted to that State’s investigation authority.

6.8 EXCHANGE OF SAFETY INFORMATION

Recommendation— States should promote the establishment of safety information
sharing networks among all users of the aviation system and should facilitate the free
exchange of information on actual and potential safety deficiencies.
Note: Standardized definitions, classifications and formats are needed to facilitate data
exchange. Guidance material on the specifications for such information-sharing
networks will be provided by ICAO upon request.

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94
Aircraft Maintenance & 6.9 EVALUATION OF FLIGHT CREW CRM SKILLS
Crew Management
In order to ascertain whether CRM training has been effective, it would be necessary
to assess the CRM skills of flight crew members from time to time. CRM assessment
is inevitable and essential if standards that address this major threat to safety are to be
maintained and improved. However, if implemented inappropriately, assessment could
be potentially damaging to increased safety in the long term. Trainers and examiners
may be reluctant to explore CRM issues, so the objective of having CRM discussed in
depth during briefings might be threatened.
Some methods exist for assessment of CRM skills (the NOTECHS system being one
method), but operators and training providers are advised to familiarise themselves
with the arguments concerning assessment of CRM and the application of behavioural
marker systems before implementing such assessment. (Further information and some
papers on the subject can be found on the CRM page of the Royal Aeronautical
Society Human Factors Group website: www.raes-hfg.com. In particular, the paper
entitled “The assessment of non-technical skills in JAR-OPS and JAR-FCL”).
Assessment is the process of observing, recording, interpreting and assessing, where
appropriate, crew performance and knowledge against a required standard in the
context of overall performance. It includes the concept of self-critique and feedback
which can be given continuously during training, or in summary following a check.
There are four instances under which the assessment of Non-technical skills (NTS) or
CRM takes place, namely the Licence Skill Test (LST), Licence Proficiency Check
(LPC), Operator’s Proficiency Check (OPC) and Line Check.
This assessment is in accordance with a methodology acceptable to the CAA and the
purpose is to:
(a) provide feedback to the crew collectively and individually and serve to identify
retraining where necessary; and
(b) be used to improve the CRM training system.
At all other stages of the CRM training process, (i.e. initial CRM training, operators
conversion course CRM training (whether a change of aircraft type or a change of
operator), command course CRM training and recurrent CRM training, CRM should
NOT be assessed with respect to pass/fail competence. However, there remains a
requirement that crew members progress through the CRM training cycle should be
evaluated such that feedback can be provided to the individual, any requirement for
retraining can be identified, and continued improvement of the CRM training system
can be implemented.
The subtle difference between assessment and evaluation is that assessment is made
against a required standard. An assessment below that required, will require the pilot’s
CRM performance to be recorded as unsatisfactory and may require remedial training.
CRM skills assessment should be included in an overall assessment of the flight crew
member’s performance and should be in accordance with approved standards. When
operating in a multi-pilot role it may be difficult to make an assessment of an
individual crew member. However, this should be done where possible in order that
the pilot concerned gains maximum advantage from the assessment and any
recommendations that the instructor may make. If it is not possible to make individual
assessments then this should be done as a crew. Individual assessments are not
appropriate until the crew member has completed the full cycle of CRM recurrent
training.
CRM assessment should only be tied to the assessment of technical issues, and not
carried out as a stand-alone assessment. Suitable methods of assessment should be

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established, together with the selection criteria and training requirements of the 95
Incidents/Accidents
assessors, and their relevant qualifications, knowledge and skills.
A crew member should not fail a licence or type rating revalidation check due to poor
CRM unless this is associated with a technical failure (e.g. violation of SOPs, failure
to observe company policies, etc.). However, an Operator Proficiency Check should
not be considered as being satisfactorily completed unless the CRM performance of
the pilot meets with company requirements. This does not prevent instructors and
examiners from giving feedback on CRM issues where appropriate even if there has
not been an effect on the technical performance of the flight.
Foreign TREs (non CAA approved) must be accredited as CRMIs in order to test for
OPCs. For individual CRM skills assessment, the following methodology is
considered appropriate:
z An operator should establish the CRM training programme including an agreed
terminology. This should be evaluated with regards to methods, length of training,
depth of subjects and effectiveness.
z The CRM standards to be used (e.g. NOTECHS) have been agreed by crews,
operators and regulators, and reflect best practice.
z The standards are clear, briefed, and published (in the Operations Manual).
z The methodology for assessing, recording and feeding back has been agreed and
validated.
z Training courses are provided to ensure that crews can achieve the agreed
standards.
z Procedures are in place for individuals who do not achieve the agreed standards to
have access to additional training, and independent appeal.
z Instructors and examiners are qualified to standards agreed by all parties, and are
required to demonstrate their competency to the CAA or such persons as the CAA
may nominate.
z A training and standardisation programme for training personnel should be
established.
For a defined transition period (normally the full cycle of CRM recurrent training), the
evaluation system should be crew rather than individually based.
Prior to the introduction of CRM skills assessment, a detailed description of the
methodology (including standard terminology to be used) acceptable to the CAA,
should be published in the Operations Manual (Training). This methodology should
include procedures to be applied in the event that crew members do not achieve, or
maintain the required standards. Until recently the assessment of CRM training has
lacked any formal measurement criteria resulting in subjective and extremely variable
standards.
Research into means of assessment has determined that acquired CRM skills are
reflected in recognizable behaviours, whose characteristics are identifiable as
measurable behavioural markers. CRM skills assessment should be accomplished via
a behavioural marker system (a behavioural marker is a taxonomy or listing of key
nontechnical skills associated with effective, safe task performance in a given
operational job position). The need for a clear and simple system focusing on general
concepts and their application is fundamental, as is the need for the training of the
users of the system. Currently the two main validated systems being (i) NOTECHS
and (ii) the UT markers. A number of airlines have developed their own behavioural

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96 marker systems, and provided that these systems can demonstrate a similar level of
Aircraft Maintenance &
Crew Management robustness, there should be no reason why they should not be utilized.
Instructors and examiners should be familiar with the marker system in use by the
operator in order to enable them to make constructive debriefs and give guidance to
crews to improve future performance and also to make recommendations for further
training where this is necessary. However, they should not use these markers as a
check list when making assessments. CRM assessment should not be conducted as an
activity survey for each phase of flight, but should be carried out within the overall
assessment of the flight check.
Key to the use of any behavioural marker system is the training and standardization of
the assessors within the company. Regular re-standardization is necessary as it has
been shown that assessors’ skills are degradable, and require regular re-evaluation and
sharpening.

6.10 CREW CRM SKILLS

While the initial emphasis in human performance training should be upon knowledge
and comprehension of basic Human factors, instructors must also bear in mind the
need to develop appropriate operational behaviour and skills. In other words, to make
this academic knowledge useful, pilots must develop those skills and attitudes
necessary to maximise their operational performance. For example, a pilot with proper
knowledge of physiology should be able to identify an unfit condition with potentially
dangerous and undesirable consequences and elect not to fly, thus exercising what can
be considered as a judgement skill. Obviously training activities directed towards the
development of suitable attitudes and skills should always be given the highest
possible priority.
Human factors skill identification and training applications remains a relatively
underdeveloped field in pilot training and can be expected to undergo considerable
development in years to come. For many skills, the major training requirement will be
to identify and specify suitable training materials and techniques, and to successfully
integrate these into the ground and airborne training syllabi. In one major training
school, for instance, the heading "pilot judgement" and supplementary notes have
been included in all briefing and instructional materials, including those used during
ground instruction. This serves as a trigger for instructors to discuss relevant pilot
judgement skills.
The following is a list of Human Factors skills areas identified using the SHEL model
(some skills are of necessity included in more than one interface). This guidance
material may assist trainers with the identification of the required Human Factors
skills, and should help to fill the void between the written word and its practical
application. Possible skill areas for training development are as follows:

Liveware-Liveware
z Communication skills
z Listening skills
z Observation skills
z Operational management skills; leadership and followership
z Problem solving
z Decision-making

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Liveware-Hardware 97
Incidents/Accidents
z Scanning
z Detection
z Decision-making
z Cockpit adjustment
z Instrument interpretation/situational awareness
z Manual dexterity
z Selection of alternative procedures
z Reaction to breakdowns/failures/defects
z Emergency warnings
z Workload; physical, allocation of tasks
z Vigilance

Liveware-Environment
z Adaptation
z Observation
z Situational awareness
z Stress management
z Risk management
z Prioritisation and attention management
z Coping/emotional control
z Decision making

Liveware-Software
z Computer literacy
z Self-discipline and procedural behaviour
z Interpretation
z Time management
z Self-motivation
z Task allocation
The proposed ICAO curriculum detailed above includes an interface not considered as
such in the SHEL model, namely the Human Element. Human Factors skills under this
heading include those relating to the psychological state and well-being of operational
personnel themselves (this should not be confused with the Liveware-Liveware
interface, which deals with interpersonal contacts):

Human Element
z Recognition/coping: disorientation (motion systems), stress
z Fatigue
z Pressure effects

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98 z Self-discipline/control
Aircraft Maintenance &
Crew Management z Perception
z Attitudes and the application of knowledge and exercise of judgement
It will be readily appreciated from the foregoing that the development of skills for
practical application during flight operations is an important evolution from
theoretical Human Factors knowledge to actual operational settings. While the
emphasis in this document is necessarily directed mainly towards pure knowledge
requirements, it is important to reiterate that, where possible, practical Human Factors
considerations should be built into all relevant aspects of instructional activity. This
should apply throughout all stages of pilot and instructor training. Instruction directed
at the acquisition of Human Factors skills is the activity which is expected to yield the
greatest benefit in the future.
It is anticipated that specialist training directed towards the acquisition of suitable
skills will be further developed in the coming years and that suitable training
techniques will be fully integrated into all pilot training activities. It is especially
undesirable that, after meeting the different knowledge requirement, trainees come to
see human performance training as an academic exercise lacking in operational
relevance.

Check Your Progress 2

Fill in the blanks:
1. States should promote the establishment of ……………… sharing
networks among all users of the aviation system and should facilitate the
free exchange of information on actual and potential safety deficiencies.
2. Key to the use of any behavioural marker system is the ………………
3. ……………… are in place for individuals who do not achieve the agreed
standards to have access to additional training, and independent appeal.
4. ……………… assessment should not be conducted as an activity survey
for each phase of flight, but should be carried out within the overall
assessment of the ………………
5. A number of airlines have developed their own ………………, and
provided that these systems can demonstrate a similar level of robustness,
there should be no reason why they should not be utilized.

6.11 LET US SUM UP

The airplane with the intention of flight and such time as all such persons have
disembarked, in which:
z The airplane sustains substantial damage, or
z The airplane is missing or is completely inaccessible, or
z Death or serious injury results from:
™ Being in the airplane, or
™ Direct contact with the airplane or anything attached thereto, or
™ Direct exposure to jet blast.

Excluding
z Fatal and nonfatal injuries from natural causes, and

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z Fatal and nonfatal self-inflicted injuries or injuries inflicted by other persons, and 99
Incidents/Accidents
z Fatal and nonfatal injuries of stowaways hiding outside the areas normally
available to the passengers and crew, and
z Non-fatal injuries resulting from atmospheric turbulence, normal manoeuvring,
loose objects, boarding, disembarking, evacuation, and maintenance and
servicing, and
z Non-fatal injuries to persons not aboard the airplane.
In order to ascertain whether CRM training has been effective, it would be necessary
to assess the CRM skills of flight crew members from time to time. CRM assessment
is inevitable and essential if standards that address this major threat to safety are to be
maintained and improved. The subtle difference between assessment and evaluation is
that assessment is made against a required standard. An assessment below that
required, will require the pilot’s CRM performance to be recorded as unsatisfactory
and may require remedial training. CRM skills assessment should be included in an
overall assessment of the flight crew member’s performance and should be in
accordance with approved standards.

6.12 LESSON END ACTIVITY

Prepare a chart indicating the factors causing accidents/incidents.

6.13 KEYWORDS
Accident Rates: This expression is a measure of accidents per million departures.
Departures (or flight cycles) are used as the basis for calculating rates, since there is a
stronger statistical correlation between accidents and departures than there is between
accidents and flight hours, or between accidents and the number of airplanes in
service, or between accidents and passenger miles or freight miles.
Airplane Collisions: Events involving two or more airplanes are counted as separate
events, one for each airplane. For example, destruction of two airplanes in a collision
is considered to be two separate accidents.
Fatal Accident: An accident that results in fatal injury.
Hull Loss: Airplane totally destroyed or damaged and not repaired.

6.14 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. Define accidents. Discuss the reasons for aircrafts accidents.
2. What are accident preventive measures?
3. Describe the crew CRM skills.
4. Explain incidents and its occurrence.
5. Describe the preliminary report.

Check Your Progress: Model Answers

CYP 1
1. closed or engaged
2. injury
3. operator
Contd…

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100 4. aircraft
Aircraft Maintenance &
Crew Management 5. Airplane departures

CYP 2
1. safety information
2. training and standardization
3. Procedures
4. CRM, flight check
5. behavioural marker systems

6.15 SUGGESTED READINGS

Federal Aviation Administration, Aircraft Inspection, Repair & Alterations:
Acceptable Methods, Techniques, & Practices (FAA Handbooks), Aviation Supplies
& Academics, Inc. (August 1, 2008)
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), FAR/AMT 2011: Federal Aviation
Regulations for Aviation Maintenance Technicians (FAR/AIM series), Aviation
Supplies & Academics, Inc.; 2011 Edition
Dale Crane, General Test Guide 2011: The Fast-Track to Study for and Pass the FAA
Aviation Maintenance Technician (AMT) General Knowledge Exam (Fast Track
series), Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc. (September 1, 2010)

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101
LESSON Communication: A Relevant
Factor in Aviation Safety

7
COMMUNICATION: A RELEVANT FACTOR IN
AVIATION SAFETY

CONTENTS
7.0 Aims and Objectives
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Communication
7.2.1 Modes of Communication
7.2.2 Verbal Communication
7.2.3 Non-verbal Communication
7.2.4 Communication Problems
7.3 Communication Provides Information
7.4 Communication Establishes Predictable Behaviour Patterns
7.5 Communication Maintains Attention to Task and Monitoring
7.6 Communication is a Management Tool
7.7 Need for Communication Training
7.8 Let us Sum up
7.9 Lesson End Activity
7.10 Keywords
7.11 Questions for Discussion
7.12 Suggested Readings

7.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

After studying this lesson, you should be able to:
z Discuss the characteristics of communication
z Describe the role of communication in aviation
z Identify the communication pattern of behaviour

7.1 INTRODUCTION
From the foregoing discussion on cognitive skills, it is evident that effective
communication between crew members is an essential prerequisite for good CRM.
Research has shown that in addition to its most widely perceived function of
transferring information, the communication process in an aircraft fulfils several other
important functions as well. It not only helps the crew to develop a shared mental
model of the problems which need to be resolved in the course of the flight, thereby

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102 enhancing situational awareness, but it also allows problem solving to be shared
Aircraft Maintenance &
Crew Management amongst crew members by enabling individual crew members to contribute
appropriately and effectively to the decision-making process. Most importantly, it
establishes the interpersonal climate between crew members and is therefore a key
element in setting the tone for the management of the flight.
The communication process invariably takes place in a social and organizational
context and it is therefore profoundly influenced by company culture. Its effectiveness
also depends on the experience level of the pilot or crew members involved in the
transaction and their perception of their roles and position in the chain of command.
The effectiveness of the communication process also depends on the nature of the task
and operational context in which the flight is taking place, e.g. the phase of flight, and
whether it is being conducted under normal, non-normal or emergency conditions. In
addition, it is affected by the mode of speech employed and the linguistic context in
which the transaction takes place. In this context, individual styles, body language,
grammatical styles and speech patterns all have their part to play. Because of these
complexities, crew members need to be aware of and sensitive to the nuances of
effective communication. They also need to understand and avoid where possible
those elements which constitute a barrier to effective communication.
Communication has long been suggested as a critical issue in all aspects of human
interaction. The above example from the ASRS database amply illustrates just how
critical communication is in aviation and aviation safety, from the cockpit-controller
interface to coordination in the cockpit to cockpit-cabin interaction to the management
of safety and creation of a safety culture.

7.2 COMMUNICATION
Good communication is important in every industry. In aircraft operations, it is vital.
Communication, or more often a breakdown in communication, is often cited as a
contributor to aviation incidents and accidents. Communication is defined in the
Penguin Dictionary of Psychology as:
“The transmission of something from one location to another. The ‘thing’ that is
transmitted may be a message, a signal, a meaning, etc. In order to have
communication both the transmitter and the receiver must share a common code, so
that the meaning or information contained in the message may be interpreted without
error”.
Communication is essential for organizational and managerial performance and
success in any endeavour, including in the aviation environment. Chester Barnard, the
father of management theory, stated that the primary function of a manager is to
develop and maintain a system of communication (Barnard, 1938). Herbert Simon, a
Nobel-prize winner in economics, feels that communication is essential to the
functioning of an organization, especially with regard to effective decision-making
(Simon, 1957). Indeed, “information flow is the ‘lifeblood’ of an organization. In
order for decision makers to arrive at the best possible decisions from a set of
alternative decisions, accurate information is a necessity”.
As in any human activity, communication plays an integral function in air travel,
especially from the perspective of aviation safety. There are numerous findings noting
the crucial nature of communication in aviation safety. Young (1994) made this
connection when she indicated that:
“The overall objective is to prevent accidents through improved communication in air
carrier operations, and keep safety at the highest possible level.”

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Helmreich and Foushee (1993) note that 70% of aircraft accidents involve human 103
Communication: A Relevant
error, listing several specific accidents as examples (see also Foushee, 1982, 1984; Factor in Aviation Safety
Kayten, 1993; Krifka, Martens, & Schwarz, 2003; O’Hare, Wiggins, Blatt, &
Morrison, 1994; Sexton & Helmreich, 2000; and Taneja, 2002 for treatment of the
relationship between human error and aircraft accidents and incidents). They go on to
state that: “The theme of these cases is human error resulting from failures in
interpersonal communication” (Helmreich and Foushee, 1993). Factors related to
interpersonal communication have been implicated in up to 80% of all aviation
accidents in the past 20 years” (p. 1). The FAA also estimates that human error is a
contributing factor in 60-80% of all air carrier incidents and accidents, citing
ineffective communication and other communication-related indicators as underlying
causes of such human error.
Communication is essential for the safety and efficiency of any flight; the crew needs
to convey information, communicate to issue orders, acknowledge commands,
conduct briefings, execute callouts, and ask questions: In order for cockpit
crewmembers to share a “mental model,” or common understanding of the nature of
events relevant to the safety and efficiency of the flight, communication is critical.
This is not to say that effective communication can overcome inadequate technical
flying proficiency, but rather the contrary, that good “stick & rudder” skills cannot
overcome the adverse effects of poor communication.
Smith-Christensen and Durkert (1995) says that effective communication in the ockpit
is a prerequisite for safety. Foushee (1982) notes that
“At the very least, communication patterns are crucial determinants of information
transfer and crew coordination.”
The results of communication errors in aviation can lead to serious impacts on
margins of safety. “Perhaps no other essential activity is as vulnerable to failure
through human error and performance limitations as spoken communication”.
One of the basic underlying premises of CRM is that a team can, and should, perform
better than two (or three) individuals in the cockpit. The aim of CRM is to ensure that
1+1>2, as opposed to 1+1<2 (in a two pilot cockpit), and that team performance takes
precedence over individual performance. Good CRM is getting the balance right as a
team, whilst recognising that the Captain has the final say and responsibility for the
safety of the aircraft.
In order to be effective, team members must be able to talk to each other, listen to
each other, share information and be assertive when required. Commanders should
take particular responsibility for ensuring that the crew function effectively as a team.
Whilst the emphasis in CRM is primarily upon the cockpit crew, and how they work
as a team, it is also important to look at wider team effectiveness, namely the whole
flight crew. CRM principles may also extend to situations where ATC, maintenance,
company experts, etc., are considered to be part of the team (especially in emergency
situations).

7.2.1 Modes of Communication

We are communicating almost constantly, whether consciously or otherwise. We may
need to communicate:
z Information (e.g. "ATC have instructed us to...");
z Feedback/challenger/response (e.g. "checked" or "set");
z Ideas/proposals/counter-proposals (e.g. "I disagree. What about.XX instead?");
z Feelings (e.g. "I'm not happy with....").

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104 As the sender of a message, he will typically expect some kind of response from the
Aircraft Maintenance &
Crew Management person he is communicating with (the recipient), which could range from a simple
acknowledgement that his message has been received (and hopefully understood), to a
considered and detailed reply. The response constitutes feedback.

7.2.2 Verbal Communication

Verbal communication may be either social or functional/operational. Both serve a
useful purpose, the former helping to build teamwork, and the latter being essential to
the task of flying an aircraft.
For a spoken or written message to be understood, the sender has to make sure that the
receiver:
z is using the same channel of communication;
z recognises and understands his language, including any subtleties;
z is able to make sense of the message’s meaning.
The channel of communication is the medium used to convey the message. For spoken
communication, this might be face-to-face, or via the radio or intercom. Written
messages might be notes, information keyed in, or tone messages (e.g. between flight
deck and cabin crew). Oral/aural communication is the primary mode of
communication in an aircraft.
However, it is not appropriate to go into too much detail in this document, other than
to stress that CRM principles should also apply to pilot-ATC communications (within
the restrictions of standard phraseology and air-ground communications procedures)
as well as face-to-face communications.

7.2.3 Non-verbal Communication

Non-verbal communication can accompany verbal communication, such as a smile
during a face-to-face chat. It may constitute acknowledgement or feedback (e.g. a nod
of the head). It can also be used when verbal communication is impossible, such as a
thumbs-up in a noisy environment.
Body language can be very subtle, but often quite powerful. For example, the message
“No” accompanied by a smile will be interpreted quite differently from the same word
said whilst the sender scowls.
Non-verbal communication may also take the form of written information or notes,
between pilots or flight deck and cabin crew. Future ground-air communications are
increasingly more likely to be non-verbal as data link technology and associated
procedures gradually replaces oral/aural RTF communications between ATC and
pilots. As mentioned above, this is not addressed in any detail in this document.
Non-verbal communication is the predominant manner by which systems
communicate their status. For instance, most displays in the aircraft cockpit present
their information graphically. However, man-machine interface issues are not covered
in this document.

7.2.4 Communication Problems

There are two main ways in which communication can cause problems. These are lack
of communication and poor communication. An example of the former is a young first
officer who is very IT-literate, who is engrossed with programming the FMS but
doesn't explain to the less-IT-literate Captain what he is doing. An example of the
latter is a flight deck crew who advises the cabin crew that there will be a

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precautionary emergency landing, but fails to tell them not to evacuate the cabin. Both 105
Communication: A Relevant
problems can lead to subsequent human error. Factor in Aviation Safety
Communication also goes wrong when one of the parties involved makes some kind
of assumption. The sender of a message may assume that the receiver understands the
terms he has used. The receiver of a message may assume that the message means one
thing when in fact he has misinterpreted it. Assumptions may be based on context and
expectations, which have already been mentioned in this lesson.
Problems with assumptions can be minimised if messages are unambiguous and
proper feedback is given.
There are several hazards which reduce the quality of communications:
z failures during the transmitting process (e.g. the sending of unclear or ambiguous
messages, language problems);
z difficulties caused by the medium of transmission (e.g. background noises or
distortion of the information);
z failures during receiving (e.g. the expectation of another message, wrong
interpretation of the arriving message or even its disregard);
z failures due to interference between the rational and emotional levels of
communication (e.g. arguments); and
z physical problems in listening or speaking (e.g. impaired hearing or wearing of the
oxygen mask).
It is the task of Human Factors training to prevent or minimise communication errors.
This task includes the explanation of common communication problems as well as the
reinforcement of a standard of language to ensure the error-free transmission of a
message and its correct interpretation. Ambiguous, misleading, inappropriate or
poorly constructed communication, combined with expectancy, have been listed as
elements of many accidents, the most notorious one being the double 747 disaster in
Tenerife.
Communication-related issues have comprised a sizeable portion of NASA’s Aviation
Safety Reporting System (ASRS) database since its inception. Over 70% of the reports
to the ASRS database between 1976 and 1981, the first five years of the reporting
system, were either directly or indirectly related to communication issues and
problems; (Billings & Reynard, 1981; Grayson & Billings, 1981; see also, Billings &
Cheaney, 1981; Monan, 1988, 1991 for further explication of these findings), and
continue to make up a large part of ASRS reports “Communication problems are
mentioned in a high percentage of incidents reported to ASRS” (Callback, 2003,
October, p. 1). Billings and Reynard (1981) go even further when they say that
communication problems involve an even larger proportion of problems in the
aviation system that the 70% that was found in their study.
Kanki and Palmer (1993) highlight the importance of communication in aviation
safety when they state that
“. . . we would like to underscore the importance of communication for efficiency and
safety in aviation . . .”
They further note that:
“By now it should be evident that communication at its simplest is a multi-faceted,
slippery concept It is clearly a means to an end; that is, communication is required in
accomplishing the flying task” (Kanki & Palmer, 1993, p. 129).

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106 While communication, in its multi-faceted nature, can have myriad functions in a
Aircraft Maintenance &
Crew Management variety of settings and situations, Kanki and Palmer (1993) provide an excellent
structure for the functions communication plays in aviation and aviation safety,
especially as it affects crew performance:
1. Communication provides information
2. Communication establishes interpersonal relationships
3. Communication establishes predictable behaviour patterns
4. Communication maintains attention to task and monitoring
5. Communication is a management tool

7.3 COMMUNICATION PROVIDES INFORMATION

Information sharing is a critical part of the aviation safety environment. The first topic
that will be explored with regard to problems of information transfer is that of
expectation. Billings and Reynard (1981) in their analysis of ASRS data found
expectation was a key factor in messages being misunderstood. Using the same
database Grayson and Billings (1981) found that:
“Pilots and controllers alike tend to hear what they expect to hear”.
The following report to ASRS amply illustrates the impact of expectation on problems
with information transfer for aviation safety, where anticipating a message—hearing
what we expect to hear—can create any number of problems for pilots and controllers.
For example, Engines were started and taxi commenced to the pre-briefed departure
runway, Before takeoff checklist was called for and completed during the initial
taxi…My attention turned to observing for bird flocks as large numbers of seagulls
were present on the airport…I remarked to the First Officer that the flocks seemed to
have moved away from the runway. We continued the taxi southbound…Nearing the
end of this taxi, I remarked again to the First Officer that the large flocks of birds
seemed to be away from the runway… Nearing the departure end of Runway 36,
Ground queried us asking ‘Air carrier X, are you on frequency?’ The First Officer
replied ‘Affirmative, is there a problem?’ (I was anticipating information concerning a
gate hold at ZZZ or perhaps a bird report.) Ground replied, ‘You taxied without a
clearance.’ We both were in disbelief, thinking we had been cleared to taxi. Ground
then asked us to change to Tower control, which we did, and were subsequently
cleared for takeoff on Runway 36.
Callback, the monthly publication of the ASRS, often includes analysts’ comments.
The ASRS analyst’s comments preceding the next incident report to ASRS exemplify
the expectation factor as a communication problem in aviation safety. Like in this
instance, A B757 pilot shows that even when we think we are paying attention, the
thinking process can be short-circuited by a preconceived notion. He expected
Runway 18R." On short final he thought he heard, "Cleared to land Runway 18R." he
asked [Tower to] confirm clearance to land. Again, he thought he said, "Cleared to
land Runway 18R." After landing, Tower said both transmissions were, "Cleared to
land Runway 18L.", don't know what to say. The pilot just kept thinking Runway 18R.
The Captain involved in this same incident had expectation on his mind: he had been
doing this same flight for almost 2 months; runway 22 had been the runway 90% of
the time, and every landing on 22 had been followed by, "Exit the highspeed, cross 27,
[contact] Ground the other side."
Monan (1988) perhaps summarized the issue of expectation best when commenting on
his analysis of hearback problems in the ASRS database when he stated that:

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“Pilots heard what they expected to hear, heard what they wanted to hear and 107
Communication: A Relevant
frequently did not hear what they did not anticipate hearing . . .”. Factor in Aviation Safety
A concept allied to that of expectation is that of making assumptions. When we make
assumptions, we interpret the message—or situation—to mean what we assume it to
mean, not necessarily what was actually said or perceived.
The following cases from the ASRS database not only illustrate how making
assumptions can lead to misunderstandings, but also how such unchecked assumptions
can impact safety:
(a) Engine start was uneventful until the after start flows were accomplished. At that
point we experienced a problem with the left bleed air valve. The MEL (Minimum
Equipment List) showed this as a "return to gate" item. At this point, I told the
mechanic we needed to be towed back in. His response sounded like he was
asking us to release the parking brake; however, neither of us quite understood
what he had said about the brakes. I asked him if he was asking us to release the
parking brake, to which he responded, "Release parking brake." I released the
parking brake and the tug operation commenced. With the tug operation
underway, I turned my attention towards the logbook, thinking about how I was
going to write up this problem. The First Officer was looking over the MEL. What
seemed like a few seconds after we began to be tugged, the First Officer asked,
"Where is this guy taking us?" I looked up I saw the end of the paved ramp
approaching rapidly and heard the First Officer say something about stopping the
aircraft. At that point we were both simultaneously on the brakes. After leaving
about 20 feet of skid marks on the ramp, the aircraft came to a stop with the nose
wheel approximately eight feet from the end of the paved surface... without the
tug connected! When the aircraft was stopped and the engines shut down, my next
concern was the location of the mechanic and whether he was okay. He was.
Although this mechanic speaks fairly good English, I was truly surprised at the
level of communication breakdown that had just occurred. The mechanic told me
he thought I was telling him that I was releasing the parking brake. Once we
started rolling he did not tell us to stop, but instead simply unplugged his headset
and got out of the way. What lessons can be learned or relearned from all of this?
First of all, this is a reminder of something we all know, that being towed is an
operation which requires someone to be monitoring the aircraft. Secondly, never
assume anything. Since we never saw the tug pull away (it pulled away while we
were in the books) and we were told to release the parking brake, we thought we
were under tow. During approach briefings, simulator training, and line non-
normal operations flight, someone is always assigned the task of monitoring the
aircraft. Let this serve as a reminder to do the same during tow operations. Thank
goodness no one was hurt, no metal was bent, and no careers were put in jeopardy,
but we sure came darn close (Callback, 2005, November, p. 1; emphasis added).
(b) While being vectored on a downwind leg to Runway 01L, Tower asked if we had
the field in sight, which we did. At that time we were cleared for a visual approach
to Runway 01L and a left turn back to the field was initiated to result in a final of
approximately 6 miles. When approximately 60° from the runway heading, Tower
reported traffic (a B-757) joining a final for runway 01R. While looking for the
traffic the First Officer, who was flying the aircraft, took his eyes off the field and
shallowed his bank... When I realized he was not just squaring off his final but
was going to overshoot the runway I told him he was going to overshoot and
ordered a turn back to our runway. He seemed disoriented and was slow in
responding, resulting in a significant overshoot approaching the approach corridor
for Runway 01R. A TCAS II-Resolution Advisory resulted with a "monitor
vertical speed" command which was complied with. Tower questioned if we had

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108 the traffic in sight which we answered in the affirmative. We corrected back to the
Aircraft Maintenance &
Crew Management 01L centerline and landed with no further incident.
This type of misinterpretation can occur whether it is based on expectation,
making assumptions, or the fact that we can interpret the meaning of a message to
fits our frame of reference, not necessarily what the sender had intended the
message to mean. As Redding and Sincoff (1984), communication is not like a
conveyor belt where the meaning is transferred from person to another, arriving—
and being interpreted—exactly same way that it was sent.
(c) Approaching [destination airport] from the east we were cleared to 1l,000 feet/250
knots. We checked in with Approach at 11,000 feet with the ATIS information.
When Approach acknowledged our check they issued a new altimeter setting of
30.00. We acknowledged the updated information. As I reset the two altimeters on
the Captain's side, I inadvertently said 3000 (3 thousand), referring to the altimeter
setting rather than a more appropriate verbiage of 30.00 (three zero zero zero). No
other conversation was ongoing at the time. We were both monitoring Approach
Control and at the time I thought my meaning was clear. Several moments later I
noticed we were descending out of 11,000 feet and 3,000 was set in the altitude
window. We began a climb back to 11,000 as I reconfirmed our assigned
altitude...
After landing, the incident was discussed further and how a similar situation might
be avoided in the future. The First Officer is relatively new a month or two with
the irline. It was learned that he had misinterpreted verbalization of the altimeter
setting as a newly assigned altitude and thought when he restated it that he wanted
him to reset the altitude select window he explained that he would be more precise
in the future. We also used this event as a basis for discussing why, per our
procedures, the Pilot Not Flying always is the person to reset the assigned altitude
and that it is verified by the Pilot Flying prior to any altitude changes.
(d) Prior to engine start, company procedure requires securing the cockpit door. This
procedure was followed and the door indicated "locked." During climb out, the
flight attendant called the flight deck. The Captain answered and after a brief
conversation, he instructed me to level the aircraft and prepare to return to due to a
disturbance in the cabin. During the descent, the Captain assumed control of the
aircraft. As we were nearing [destination], the light attendant called the flight deck
to ask if we were landing. I replied that we were. The Captain took this
opportunity to get additional information regarding the situation in the cabin. She
advised him that the only problem was that the cockpit door was open. The door
was then secured and the flight continued to its original destination. Apparently in
her initial report to the Captain, the flight attendant had simply stated, "Turn
around." Her intent was for the Captain to see the open door, but the Captain
perceived her comment to mean that the flight was in jeopardy and the aircraft
should be turned around and returned to [departure airport]. The fact that English
is the international language of aviation can also lead to misunderstandings. As
has been noted, it is easy enough for native speakers of English to misinterpret
other peoples’ messages. Putting non-native English speakers into the mix can
compound the problem. Prinzo, Hendrix, and Hendrix (2006) note that issues
related to English language proficiency in the aviation safety system need to be
addressed. Again, the ASRS database provides numerous examples of the impact
and problems associated with English as the language of aviation. Here are two,
both of which include the ASRS analyst’s comments that illustrate the
communication issues involved. U.S. flight crews must exercise extra vigilance
when operating internationally into airports where accented English, and the use
of native languages by air traffic controllers, can create confusion and uncertainty

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about ATC instructions. A recent ASRS report describes how an alert flight crew 109
Communication: A Relevant
relied on "gut instincts" and prior experience to avoid a ground collision. Factor in Aviation Safety
(e) We were cleared for an immediate departure on Runway 09L, but we had to do a
low-speed abort because the prior aircraft that landed took an excessively long
time to clear the runway. We also had a hard time clarifying our clearance because
Tower was having a long conversation in non-English language. When we were
finally able to inform them of our actions, they told us to taxi clear of the runway
and to contact Ground. We elected to stop immediately after leaving Runway 09L
because taxiing well clear of Runway 09L would have placed us on a taxiway
which also doubles as Runway 09R. We wanted to make sure that it was safe to
proceed any further. It is fortunate we did because Tower had cleared another
aircraft to land on Runway 09R/taxiway and following their instructions could
have resulted in a collision. The Captain's report added this clarifying information
To clear Runway 09L conservatively would take us on to taxiway/Runway 09R.
Taxiway/Runway 09R had not been used as a runway since we had been in the
vicinity [but]...I decided to stay on Tower frequency wait and look first aware that
our tail might be in close As we can see, information transfer—and attendant
hazards—can occur in any facet of the aviation environment, not just in the
cockpit or between the cockpit and ATC or cabin. The cabin is an area where
information transfer is also important. One of the basic information functions of
the cabin crew is sending messages to keep passengers informed about safety
issues. The messages that flight attendants convey to passengers may take the
form of information about on-board services, connection gate data, required safety
briefings, and information passengers need to cope with and survive emergency
situations, including evacuations. For the airline passenger this type of
information transfer may be vital to survival in an emergency. For a thorough
treatment of pre-flight safety briefing and other aspects of information transfer in
the cabin—and the potential communication problems that may occur in that
environment, see Parker (2006), Barkow and Rutenberg (2002), Darby (2006),
and Krivonos (2005). Jargon, the use of language in a profession, trade, or in a
specialized situation (as in aviation), provides a shorthand means for
communicating well—when everyone understands the jargon. The aviation safety
environment is loaded with jargon that often makes communication more efficient
and effective. However, when others don’t understand the jargon or use it
incorrectly, then problems of misunderstanding and misinterpretation can easily
occur. The following example from the ASRS database provided by Matchette
(1995) illustrates how such difficulties can arise with the misuse of jargon, as it
did for one unfortunate pilot:
The Pilot-Controller Glossary defines squawk as "activate specific
mode/code/function on the aircraft transponder." Therefore, "squawk your
altitude" is a controller's instruction to activate the altitude function of a Mode 3/A
transponder. Squawking 7500 is the international code to indicate a hijacking. The
AIM instructs pilots of hijacked aircraft to set 7500 into the aircraft transponder,
which triggers a flashing "HIJK" in the aircraft's data block on the Controller's
radar screen. The Controller will then ask the pilot to "verify squawking 7500." If
the pilot verifies the code or makes no response at all, the Controller will not ask
further questions, but will continue to flight-follow, respond to pilot requests, and
notify appropriate authorities.
(f) "Burbank assigned me a squawk code. Several minutes later the Controller asked
me my altitude and I responded 7,500 feet. He told me to squawk my altitude. I
replied, 'Squawking 7500', and the Controller confirmed my code...After landing,
Ground directed me to a specific parking area, and I was immediately surrounded
by three police cars with a number of officers pointing their weapons at me...They

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110 frisked me and handcuffed me. They really roughed me up...I would suggest that
Aircraft Maintenance &
Crew Management Controllers never use the terminology 'squawk your altitude.' This poor pilot
forgot to review his AIM, which would have informed him that:
"Code 7500 will never be assigned by ATC without prior notification from the
pilot that his aircraft is being subjected to unlawful interference [hijacking]. The
pilot should refuse the assignment of Code 7500 in any other situation and inform
the controller accordingly".
One of the problems with the use of jargon is that if someone isn’t familiar with
the jargon, you might as well be speaking a foreign language. Using jargon when
others don’t know what it means is an example of what I term the COIK
principle—Clear Only If Known. Again, if we know what the jargon means, it is a
handy way to help in the information transfer process. If we do not know what the
jargon means, then the information is seldom, if ever, transferred effectively.
(g) Majoros (1990) offers a personal example that effectively captures the essence of
the COIK principle: I would like to relate an incident that happened as I was
boarding a plane in Orange County to come to Washington. At this time the John
Wayne Airport is undergoing a major building program and does not have jetways
or other motorized conveniences for planing and deplaning, Planes must line up
on the apron or tarmac or gate area one-by-one and passengers have to walk to the
aircraft. Just before I boarded the flight, the boarding agent said over the public
address system, “Flight 1256 is in final boarding. Passengers should proceed
through Gate C. The plane is in the middle of the runway, it is facing south, and it
is a Boeing.” Other than the experienced traveller, who would know where to go
with these instructions? How much of our communication in maintenance could
take on similar tones because the communication is not clear and the maintainer
does not know where to go with the instructions? While there are a number of
communication and information transfer issues and problems that are apparent in
the above discussion, there are some effective communication principles that can
lead to greater safety and less risk and error in the system. Although more
effective listening skills would be generally helpful, two specific communication
skills that can be applied to create more effective information transfer in the
aviation environment are using feedback and asking questions. Given that a
substantial number of ASRS reports involve readback/hearback problems
(Callback, 2001, March), these skills are especially important. With regard to
feedback both Ruffell Smith (1979) and Foushee and Manos (1981) note that
feedback in the form of acknowledgement, monitoring, and cross-checking are
important aspects of communication for effective flight operations. The following
example from the ASRS data base, including the analyst’s comments, illustrates
the importance of feedback.
Mandatory readback of certain parts of clearances provides a mechanism to
reduce misunderstandings between ATC and flight crews. An ATC supervisor
reports on a readback error that slipped by both him and an ATC trainee, with a
potentially hazardous result.
Aircraft A was given a descent from 8,000 feet to only 7,000 feet (6,000 feet
would be the norm on this route). Pilot read back 6,000 feet, which was not caught
by either of us. We tried to get him back to 7,000 feet, but he went to 6,500 before
he climbed back. Aircraft B was one mile in trail at 6,000 feet, same speed.
A contributing factor was my over-reliance on the trainee, who is fairly well along
in training. I was assuming he would catch the problem, so I was not listening as
intently. Also, the [typical] descent from 8,000 to 6,000 feet probably had the pilot

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expecting to hear 6,000. Only goes to prove the importance of readbacks being 111
Communication: A Relevant
heard and understood (Callback, 1997, October, p. 1). Factor in Aviation Safety
The following comment by an ASRS analyst about the example provided above
concerning the misinterpretation of “position and hold” provides an excellent
justification for asking questions:
The reporter realized after the fact that the crew either misheard or misinterpreted
the Controller's clearance. Regardless, the reporter's suggestion is a good one:
seek clarification by rephrasing the clearance in plain, simple words, different
from those used by the controller. Although some foreign controllers may not
have a broad command of English, they often will understand the crew's restated
questions and be able to provide clarification (Callback, 1996, November, p. 1).
These reports certainly underscore the need for feedback to clear up unchecked
assumptions and expectations.
Asking questions is another effective communication skill that can help reduce
information transfer problems in the aviation safety environment, thus minimizing
risk.
Krifka, et al. (2003) found that questions were slightly more frequent in good
crews and that good crews also answered a considerably higher number of
questions; in contrast to good crews, commands were more frequent in poor
crews. Flight Safety Foundation (2000) indicates that the failure to request
clarification or to question ATC instructions is an ineffective aspect of pilots’
communication.
(h) After completing our run-up, we taxied to the hold short line of Runway 16. My
student was at the controls in the left seat. He called the tower saying "Skyhawk
holding short Runway 16, ready for takeoff." The tower replied, "Skyhawk, taxi
up and hold." I thought the tower meant taxi into position and hold...and we
crossed the hold short line. Tower then told us to stop and clear the runway. We
complied immediately, but the inbound plane elected to go around. Factors
contributing to this incident were the use of non-standard phraseology by the
tower, and my failure to verify whether he meant "hold short" or "taxi into
position and hold." To avoid this type of situation in the future, I will always ask
if I am not sure of a clearance, especially before entering the active runway
(Callback, 2004, April, p. 2; emphasis added): The crew did not request
clarification about the weather conditions or change its course of action to take
these conditions into account. The winds associated with the storm forced the
plane down precipitously, causing an emergency landing without the landing
gear’s being fully extended. The plane skidded off the runway, causing serious
damage to the aircraft and an emergency evacuation of the passengers (Federal
Aviation Administration, 1997, p.11; emphasis added).
Monan (1991) effectively sums up the importance of asking questions when he
states:
“Ask for verification of any ATC instruction about which there is doubt”. This
suggestion goes for any communication interaction in the aviation safety
environment, not just between pilot and ATC. It is useful advice within the
cockpit or cabin, between cockpit and cabin, or for any aspect of the aviation
safety system.

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112 Check Your Progress 1

Aircraft Maintenance &
Crew Management Fill in the blanks:
1. ………………….. is essential for the safety and efficiency of any flight.
2. The aviation safety …………… is loaded with jargon that often makes
communication more efficient and effective.
3. ……………… sharing is a critical part of the aviation safety environment
4. Communication is essential for …………… and managerial performance
and success in any endeavour, including in the aviation environment.
5. The ………………….. certainly underscore the need for feedback to clear
up unchecked assumptions and expectations.

7.4 COMMUNICATION ESTABLISHES PREDICTABLE

BEHAVIOUR PATTERNS
Functioning as predictable patterns of behaviour, communication can help us
coordinate human activities including the teamwork necessary for the effective
operation of aircraft and thus have an impact on aviation safety. Ruffell Smith (1979)
conducted in a flight simulator study from which he found that most of the “flying”
difficulties were related to crew coordination problems, not poor technical skills or
lack of knowledge. Because effective crew coordination is mainly accomplished
through effective communication, it follows then that effective crew performance is
more closely associated with effective crew communication than with any individual
pilot’s flying proficiency.
In a follow up study to that of Ruffell Smith (1970), Foushee and Manos (1981)
analysed the cockpit voice recording utilizing Ruffell Smith’s data from his study.
Foushee and Manos (1981) found a positive relationship between communication and
good flight performance: Overall, there was a tendency for crews who did not perform
as well to communicate less, suggesting that as expected, poor crew coordination
tends to result in more marginal performance (p. 66).
They also found that it was not simply the amount of communication that was
important for effective crew coordination, but more importantly the type of
information that was share. They found that the greater the information about flight
status that was shared, the fewer errors there were in the operation of the flight. In
addition the type of communication utilized also played a role: more inquiries,
observations, and Acknowledgements were also related to fewer operational errors,
while poor Communication, lack of understanding, and such specific communication
behaviours as Frustration, anger, uncertainty, and embarrassment were related to
higher operational errors (Foushee & Manos, 1981).
Federal Aviation Administration (1997) notes that a lack of coordination among
members of the cockpit crew can lead to problems and emphasizes the importance of
effective communication to accomplish effective coordination. The lack of effective
communication by aircrew continues to be the most causal factor in aviation accidents.
In his review of human factors in aircraft accident and incident investigations, Adams
(2006) points to communication as one of the key factors leading to errors that
transpired because of poor crew coordination.
Again, the cockpit crew is but one aspect of the aviation system. While critically
important for the safety of any flight, they are not the only source of communication
for providing predicable behaviour patterns or coordinating activity. The cabin crew is
also charged with that task, especially when it comes to cabin safety. Burian,

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Kismukes, and Barshi (2003), the importance of communication and coordination 113
Communication: A Relevant
during emergency situations and as an example note that communication problems Factor in Aviation Safety
between the cabin and cockpit had negative consequences the evacuation of a flight
into LaGuardia in 2003.
Flight Safety Foundation (2003) indicates that poor communication can contribute to
problems during evacuation procedures. Transportation Safety Board of Canada
(1995) reports several evacuations in which ineffective cabin crew communication
jeopardized the chances of successful evacuations in several incidents. Effective crew
coordination is crucial to a successful evacuation, but ineffective crew communication
leads to ineffective crew coordination. As evidenced by the occurrence data, poor
crew communication may result in unnecessary injuries or fatalities and unnecessary
exposure to risk for passengers and aircrew alike.
Effective coordination between cabin crew and flight deck crew is also essential for
the safe operation of an aircraft. Since 9/11, effective communication from the cabin
crew to the flight crew is even more important. “The ‘sealed’ cockpit environment has
increased the reliance on Flight Attendants for the transfer of vital information”
(Callback, 2003, 17th March). The FAA clearly states that effective communication
between all crewmembers is a prerequisite for such coordination (Federal Aviation
Administration, 1988). ASRS reinforces this point: “Flight attendants are an integral
part of the aircraft crew and their primary responsibilities are safety related”
(Callback, 2003). Rice (2001, May-June) suggests that better communication between
cabin crew and flight crew have resulted in fewer fatalities. Chute and Wiener (1995)
make the tie between communication and safety even more explicit There are two
critical safety obligations for the flight attendant. The first is to prevent accidents,
primarily by means of conveyance of information regarding hazardous conditions to
the flight deck. If the accident cannot be prevented, the second is to maximize
survivability. Both roles require effective communication between the two cultures.
There are a large number of reports that confirm the success with regard to safety of
effective communication in the cabin-cockpit interaction. Yet, the working and
relationship and communication interaction between cabin crew and flight crew
continues to be a vexing one. “Communication and coordination problems between
cockpit crewmembers and flight attendants continue to challenge air carriers and the
FAA” (Federal Aviation Administration, 2004, p. 15).
Helmreich, Wiener, and Kanki (1993) and Kayten (1993) cite numerous examples
where crew coordination problems and poor communication were contributing factors
in several accident reports. Murphy (2001) conveys stories from flight attendants who
felt that vital information they tried to pass along to the cockpit was ignored. In their
study of flight attendants and pilots, Chute & Wiener (1996) found cabin-cockpit
communication to be ineffective. Chute (2001) also maintains that cabin-cockpit
communication is not always necessarily effective.
In a report on evacuation procedures, the Transportation Safety Board of Canada
(1995) indicated that poor communication between flight and cabin crew possibly
jeopardized safe evacuations in several instances. Regarding one specific incident, the
report states that: Inadequate communication between the cabin and the flight deck
resulted in a significant delay before the flight crew was aware of the existence and
seriousness of the fire and contributed to the fact that the evacuation was not initiated
until one minute 55 seconds following the rejected take-off (Transportation Safety
Board of Canada, 1995, p. 19).

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Aircraft Maintenance & 7.5 COMMUNICATION MAINTAINS ATTENTION TO
Crew Management
TASK AND MONITORING
Another problem with information transfer is that while information is important to
make good decisions, too much information—information overload—can lead to
tension and errors, and communication or information overload often occurs in the
aviation environment. Prinzo & Morrow (2002) found that: “Communication
problems arise in part because of complex air traffic control (ATC) messages
sometimes overload pilot memory (p 1);” especially with that longer messages which
increased demands on pilots’ memories. Majoros (1990) notes that excess information
can lead to communication overload and that the challenge is to communicate
essential information. Prinzo, et al. (2006) states that controllers should be encouraged
to transmit shorter and less complex messages that limit the occurrence of
communication problems and misunderstandings.
Wever, Ven Es, and Verbeek (2006) found that pilots suggested reducing the amount
information in the voice communication and observed that shorter messages may help
to reduce misunderstandings.
Along with other factors, such as poor listening skills, information overload can lead
to lack of attention and distraction. Billings and Cheaney (1981) “conclude that
distraction is a serious problem that inhibits effective performance, both in the cockpit
and in air traffic control” (p. 92). Dismukes, Young, and Sumwalt (1998) examined
107 ASRS reports in which flight crew paid inadequate attention to one task while
performing another task. Their examination revealed a wide range of activities that
distracted or preoccupied the pilots, most of which were communication related. A
number of recent incidents and accidents, including the near miss at LAX between a
SkyWest flight and that of a business jet in September 2006 and the crash of Comair
Flight 5191 in Lexington, Kentucky in August 2006, can be attributed to lack of
attention and distraction.
The following reports from the ASRS database illustrate the effects of distraction on
safety. After landing I began to think about the [clearance] the controller had given
me.... I think he may have said that he needed me at 500 feet while en route for
passing under the Runway 33 approach course. If that was true, I should have
descended to 500 feet and then proceeded on course. The bottom line is, I should have
known exactly what he wanted, but I did not. I believe that I made a mistake in not
giving 100% attention to the ATC instructions. When flying a multi-task job, i.e.
EMS, power line [patrol], lift work, etc., there can be many distractions from the
customer that have little or nothing to do with the immediate job of flying the aircraft.
In the future, I will lock out the [company] radios while receiving a clearance or ATC
instructions.... I am going back to the basics- first the aircraft and ATC, then I'll take
care of any company business (Callback, 2005, May, p. 2.).

7.6 COMMUNICATION IS A MANAGEMENT TOOL

While much of the communication functions noted in relationships and coordinating
activities could also be classified as a management tool, perhaps the most important
aspect of communication in this regard is to create and maintain a safety culture in any
aviation organization. It is through leadership and messages about the importance of
safety (and the effective transfer of information, teamwork, and attention to task)—
and behaviours and resources to back up those messages—that a safety culture can be
built and nourished.

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115
7.7 NEED FOR COMMUNICATION TRAINING Communication: A Relevant
Factor in Aviation Safety
There have been numerous calls for communication training, both as an independent
effort and as part of Crew Resource Management (CRM) for flight crews and for
flight attendants (Baker & Frost; 1994; Butler, 1993; Chidester & Vaughn, 1994;
Chute & Wiener, 1996; Edwards, 1992; Federal Aviation Administration, 1988, 2004;
Grommes and Dietrich, 2002; Helmreich, 2000; Sexton & Helmreich, 2000; Young,
1994). Perhaps, more important have been the calls for joint pilot-flight attendant
training (Baker & Frost, 1994; Butler, 1993; Chidester & Vaughn, 1994; Chute &
Wiener, 1995, 1996; ETSC, 1996; Federal Aviation Administration, 2004; Helmreich,
Wiener, & Kanki, 1993; Kayten, 1993; Murphy, 2001; Moshansky, 1994, NTSB,
2000). “We must teach crews that communication and cooperation are safety issues”
(Chute, Wiener, Dunbar, & Hoang, 1996, p. 17).
Flight and cabin crew, while a critical part of the aviation environment, should not be
the only focus of communication training as part of an aviation safety training
program. Flight Safety Foundation (2000) notes that training programs should include
special emphasis on pilot controller communication. Thomas (2005b) and Thomas and
Petrilli (2004) argue for communication training as part of error management.
Latorella and Prabhu (2000) and Petrowski (1990) note that the importance of
communication in aviation maintenance training. Baron (2002) emphasizes the
importance of providing training about runway incursions for pilots, controllers, and
ground vehicle operators. Etem & Patten (1998) suggest the need for communication
training in flight instruction.
However, such calls for training generally do not often include or indicate which
communication topics are needed, especially when it comes to interpersonal
communication training; nor are the specific subtopics needed to help increase
communication effectiveness generally explicated. With regard to communication
training, including interpersonal communication, listening skills, decision-making
skills, and conflict management, though they did indicate, as noted above that cockpit-
cabin crew communication coordination continues to challenge the aviation system
(Federal Aviation Administration, 2004). The Federal Aviation Administration (2004)
also offers some specific areas where joint cabin-cockpit communication training can
focus, including pre-flight briefings, post incident and accident procedures, sterile
cockpit procedures, notifications and pre-flight, pre-landing and turbulence passenger-
handling issues.
In addition, the Federal Aviation Administration (2004) notes that the “importance of
clear and unambiguous communication must be stressed in all training activities
involving pilots, flight attendants, and aircraft dispatchers”. Communication is a two-
way transaction, not a one-way transfer. Thus the concepts of perception and meaning
are important to include in any communication training. We communicate about the
world in the way we perceive it, therefore, everyone in the aviation safety system
needs to understand how perception operates and how people differ, sometimes
radically, in the ways they perceive a situation.
Layered upon differing perceptions is the concept that when we communicate about
the world, we do so in symbolically, so that we give meaning to our perceptions. As
we have seen, people will interpret messages in such a way that makes sense to them
and makes sense of the world around them. George (1993) and Matchette (1995)
provide several suggestions, some including the use or misuse of jargon, for
improving communication between pilots and controllers that can be incorporated into
any communication training for aviation safety. Thus, the areas of perception,
language (including meaning and jargon) need to be part of any communication
training for aviation safety. As we indicated earlier, feedback and asking questions are

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116 critical to greater success and effectiveness in our communication interactions.

Aircraft Maintenance &
Crew Management Majoros (1990) reinforces the need for feedback as one method to improve
communication effectiveness.
In addition to the exploration of the effects of meaning and jargon on communication,
two other related concepts need to be included: message distortion and information
overload—and how to minimize them. As much as we understand and desire to have
clear and unambiguous communication, especially regarding aviation safety issues,
given the nature of language and human interaction, we can only hope to minimize
message distortion and information overload. Understanding these important
communication barriers and how to deal with them effectively are needed in cabin
safety training. As far as interpersonal communication training is concerned, more in
depth treatment of such areas as establishing a positive, supportive communication
climate, understanding how trust and credibility are achieved, conflict management
skills, and active listening is required.
The process of conflict, underlying reasons for conflict, and effective communication
behaviours during conflict are also crucial topics in this area of aviation safety
training. For example cabin crew assertiveness—with respect to evacuations, poor
passenger behaviour and air rage, and reticence to convey important safety
information to the cockpit—is an integral aspect of the conflict management portion
of communication training. Like any other communication behaviour, conflict
management requires a situational perspective. The conflict management and
assertiveness portions of the training will take this concept into account, for example,
when to be assertive, when to be accommodative, and when other communication
behaviours might be appropriate. This situational nature of conflict management will
also provide a thought provoking opportunity for when flight and cabin crew need to
be assertive and when indirectness or mitigation is a more effect method of
communicating.
Training with regard to establishing a positive supportive climate needs to explore
such topics as defensive communication and disconfirming messages.A defensive
communication climate is extremely disruptive to the interpersonal communication
process. In fact a negative climate can make effective team communication very
difficult, if not impossible. Communication training for cockpit and cabin crew should
include the understanding of defensive communication, disconfirming messages, and
the practice of supportive and confirming messages. Defensive and disconfirming
messages are basically ones that ignore others and treats them as if they do not exist or
do not matter. Supportive and confirming messages let others know that they—and
their ideas—are worthwhile and valuable. Trust, too, is an important aspect of a
positive, supportive climate, one that can lead to much greater rapport, cohesion, and
team coordination for the flight crew as a whole unit. Thus, understanding trust
behaviours and messages needs to be an integral part of this aspect of training.
The briefing process offers an ideal opportunity for joint cabin-cockpit
communication training to integrate the concepts of trust, supportiveness, teamwork,
and a positive communication climate in training. It is in this aspect of communication
between cabin and cockpit crews that many problems occur, potentially setting a
negative tone for the rest of the flight. Likewise, understanding and utilizing
communication that engenders a positive climate during the briefing process can
create a collaborative and productive atmosphere for the flight.
Active listening comprises the final part of communication in aviation safety training.
As important as specific topics needed for training for effective aviation safety
communication are, the methodologies required for delivering such training are also
critical. As with most communication training, there should be limited educational
presentation. Rather, there needs to be a great deal of interaction, practice, and

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introspection. The best methods for this type of training would include experiential 117
Communication: A Relevant
exercises, practicing communication skills, role playing, small group and team Factor in Aviation Safety
building exercises and discussion, case study scenarios, and self-assessment tools (for
example, the Thomas-Kilman Conflict Mode Instrument)—all centered around
communication in aviation safety, with particular emphasis on communication
specific, applicable situation, such as in the cockpit, the cabin, and between cabin and
flight deck crews.
ASRS publications, especially Callback and Direct line, afford abundant examples of
both poor and good communication in the aviation system that can be used to create
case studies and scenarios which can be used to gain insight into effective
communication skills. These actual communication occurrences in the aviation safety
environment need to be integrated into cabin safety communication training. Young
(1994) and Flight Safety Foundation (1994), in addition to numerous ASRS reports,
provide incidents in which cockpit crew, flight attendants, ATCs, and maintenance
personnel were able to use their good sense in emergency or potentially unsafe
situations in order to prevent possible tragedies. While examples of poor communication
can provide excellent examples for scenarios that would be useful for training, so too
should such examples of good communication be used for training purposes.

Check Your Progress 2

Fill in the blanks:
1. ……………… listening comprises the final part of communication in
aviation safety training.
2. Training with regard to establishing a positive supportive climate needs to
explore such topics ……………… and ……………… messages.
3. ……………… is the important communication barrier.
4. ……………… management requires a situational perspective.

7.8 LET US SUM UP

Communication is defined in the Penguin Dictionary of Psychology as: “The
transmission of something from one location to another. The ‘thing’ that is transmitted
may be a message, a signal, a meaning, etc. In order to have communication both the
transmitter and the receiver must share a common code, so that the meaning or
information contained in the message may be interpreted without error”.
As in any human activity, communication plays an integral function in air travel,
especially from the perspective of aviation safety. There are numerous findings noting
the crucial nature of communication in aviation safety. The FAA also estimates that
human error is a contributing factor in 60-80% of all air carrier incidents and
accidents, citing ineffective communication and other communication-related
indicators as underlying causes of such human error.
Communication is essential for the safety and efficiency of any flight; the crew needs
to convey information, communicate to issue orders, acknowledge commands,
conduct briefings, execute callouts, and ask questions. One of the basic underlying
premises of CRM is that a team can, and should, perform better than two (or three)
individuals in the cockpit.
In order to be effective, team members must be able to talk to each other, listen to
each other, share information and be assertive when required. Commanders should
take particular responsibility for ensuring that the crew function effectively as a team.
Whilst the emphasis in CRM is primarily upon the cockpit crew, and how they work

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118 as a team, it is also important to look at wider team effectiveness, namely the whole
Aircraft Maintenance &
Crew Management flight crew.

7.9 LESSON END ACTIVITY

“Communication is essential for aviation safety.” Comment. Also, give suitable
examples.

7.10 KEYWORDS
Cockpit: Cockpit a compartment for the pilot and sometimes also the crew in an
aircraft or spacecraft.
Commanders: Commanders is a person in authority, esp. over a body of troops or a
military operation.
Coordination: Coordination is the organization of the different elements of a complex
body or activity so as to enable them to work together effectively.
Jeopardized: Put (someone or something) into a situation in which there is a danger of
loss, harm, or failure.
Skidded: Skidded (of a vehicle) slide, typically sideways or obliquely, on slippery
ground or as a result of stopping or turning too quickly.

7.11 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. Define communication and its types.
2. Why communication is required for proper management of aviation? Explain with
examples.
3. Discuss the importance for communication training.
4. Explain the factors affecting proper communication.
5. Describe communication establishes predictable behaviour.

Check Your Progress: Model Answers

CYP 1
1. Communication
2. environment
3. Information
4. Organizational
5. reports

CYP 2
1. Active
2. defensive and disconfirming
3. Understanding
4. conflict

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119
7.12 SUGGESTED READINGS Communication: A Relevant
Factor in Aviation Safety
Federal Aviation Administration, Aircraft Inspection, Repair & Alterations:
Acceptable Methods, Techniques, & Practices (FAA Handbooks), Aviation Supplies
& Academics, Inc. (August 1, 2008)
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), FAR/AMT 2011: Federal Aviation
Regulations for Aviation Maintenance Technicians (FAR/AIM series), Aviation
Supplies & Academics, Inc.; 2011 Edition
Icon Group International, The 2010-2015 World Outlook for Aircraft Maintenance,
Repair, and Overhaul (MRO) Services, ICON Group International, Inc. (July 7, 2009)
Federal Aviation Administration (2009), “Aviation Instructor's Handbook”, Skyhorse
Publishing Inc.

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121
Line Operations and
Safety Audit

UNIT V

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122
Aircraft Maintenance &
Crew Management

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123
LESSON Line Operations and
Safety Audit

8
LINE OPERATIONS AND SAFETY AUDIT

CONTENTS
8.0 Aims and Objectives
8.1 Introduction
8.2 History
8.3 Threat and Error Management Model
8.3.1 Threats
8.3.2 Errors
8.4 LOSA and CRM Relationship
8.5 Let us Sum up
8.6 Lesson End Activity
8.7 Keywords
8.8 Questions for Discussion
8.9 Suggested Readings

8.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

After studying this lesson, you should be able to:
z Describe LOSA
z Discuss the relationship between LOSA and CRM

8.1 INTRODUCTION
LOSA is proposed as a critical organizational strategy aimed at developing
countermeasures to operational errors. It is an organizational tool used to identify
threats to aviation safety, minimize the risks such threats may generate and implement
measures to manage human error in operational contexts. LOSA enables operators to
assess their level of resilience to systemic threats, operational risks and front-line
personnel errors, thus providing a principled, data-driven approach to prioritize and
implement actions to enhance safety. LOSA uses expert and highly trained observers
to collect data about flight crew behaviour and situational factors on “normal” flights.
The audits are conducted under strict no-jeopardy conditions; therefore, flight crews
are not held accountable for their actions and errors that are observed. During flights
that are being audited, observers record and code potential threats to safety; how the
threats are addressed; the errors such threats generate; how flight crews manage these
errors; and specific behaviours that have been known to be associated with accidents
and incident. LOSA is closely linked with Crew Resource Management (CRM)
training. Since CRM is essentially error management training for operational
personnel, data from LOSA form the basis for contemporary CRM training focuses on
threat and error training.

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124
Aircraft Maintenance & 8.2 HISTORY
Crew Management
Human Factors Research Project, with funding from the FAA (Human Factors Division,
AAR-100), developed LOSA to monitor normal line operations. In its early form,
LOSA mostly focused on CRM performance. The reason for this was that researchers
and airlines alike wanted to know more about the actual practice of CRM rather than
just formulating conclusions about its effectiveness from data collected within the
training environment, as were the established practice. The actual practice of CRM was
quite different than the one depicted within the typical training department.
After several years of development and refinement, LOSA has turned into a strategy
of systematic line observations to provide safety data on the way an airline’s flight
operations system is functioning. The data generated from LOSA observations provide
diagnostic indicators of organizational strengths and weaknesses in flight operations
as well as an overall assessment of crew performance, both in the technical and human
performance areas. LOSA is a data-driven approach to the development of
countermeasures to operational threats and errors.
LOSA is a critical organisational strategy aimed at developing countermeasures to
operational errors. It is an organisational tool used to identify threat to aviation safety,
minimise the risk such threats may generate and implement measures to manage
human error in operational contexts. LOSA enables operators to assess their level of
resilience to systemic threats, operational risks, and front-line personnel errors, thus
providing a principled, data-driven approach to prioritise and implement actions to
enhance safety.
LOSA uses expert and highly trained observers to collect data about flight crew
behaviour and situational factors on "normal" flights. The audits are conducted under
strict no-jeopardy conditions; therefore flight crews are not held accountable for their
actions and errors that are observed. During flights that are being audited, observers
record and code potential threats to safety; how the threats are addressed; the errors
such threats generate; how flight crews manage these errors; and specific behaviours
that have been known to be associated with accidents and incidents.
LOSA is closely linked with CRM training. Since CRM is essentially error
management training for operational personnel, data from LOSA form the basis for
contemporary CRM training refocus and/or design known as Threat and Error
Management (TREM) training. Data from LOSA also provide a real-time picture of
system operations that can guide organisational strategies in regard to safety, training
and operations. A particular strength of LOSA is that it identifies examples of superior
performance that can be reinforced and used as models for training. In this way,
training interventions can be reshaped and reinforced based on successful
performance, that is to say, positive feedback.

Check Your Progress 1

Fill in the blanks:
1. LOSA is proposed as a critical organizational strategy aimed at
developing countermeasures to ………………..
2. During flights that are being audited, observers record and code potential
…………
3. LOSA is closely linked with ……………….. training.
4. LOSA is a ……………….. approach to the development of counter
measures to operational threats and errors.
5. ……………….. Project, with funding from the FAA (Human Factors
Division, AAR-100), developed LOSA to monitor normal line operations.

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8.3 THREAT AND ERROR MANAGEMENT MODEL Line Operations and
Safety Audit
LOSA is premised on the University of Texas Threat and Error Management
(UTTEM) Model. Essentially, the model posits that threats and errors are integral
parts of daily flight operations and must be managed. LOSA is premised on The
University of Texas Threat and Error Management (UTTEM) Model. Essentially, the
model posits that threats and errors are integral parts of daily flight operations and
must be managed. Idea of managing the threats has great relevance to them, more so
than error management, which still retains negative connotations despite attempts to
acknowledge its ubiquity and necessity in human intelligence and information
processing. Crew countermeasures are then seen as the tools that pilots develop to
handle these daily threats and errors.
The UTTEM Model has been successfully incorporated into training programmes and
in some cases has replaced existing CRM training The UTTEM Model provides a
quantifiable framework to collect and categorize data. Some questions that can be
addressed using this framework include the following:
z What type of threats do flight crews most frequently encounter? When and where
do they occur, and what types are the most difficult to manage?
z What are the most frequently committed crew errors, and which ones are the most
difficult to manage?
z What outcomes are associated with mismanaged errors? How many result in an
Undesired Aircraft State?
z Are there significant differences between airports, fleets, routes or phases of flight
vis-à-vis threats and errors?
The following paragraphs introduce a brief overview of the most important building
blocks of the UTTEM Model.

8.3.1 Threats
Threats are external situations that must be managed by the cockpit crew during
normal, everyday flights. Such events increase the operational complexity of the flight
and pose a safety risk to the flight at some level. Threats may be expected or
anticipated and, therefore, the crew may brief in advance. Threats may also be
unexpected.
As they occur suddenly and without any warning, there is no possibility for the crew
to brief in advance. External threats may be relatively minor or major. Observers
should record all external threats that are on the code sheet or any others that may be
considered significant. Errors originated by non-cockpit personnel are considered
external threats. For example, if the cockpit crew detects a fuel loading error made by
ground staff, it would be entered as an external threat, not an error. The crew was not
the source of the error (although they must manage it, as they would any other
external threat). Other examples of non-cockpit crew errors that would be entered as
external threats are errors in Air Traffic Control (ATC) clearances discovered by the
crew, dispatch paperwork errors and discrepancies in passenger boarding counts by
cabin attendant.

8.3.2 Errors
Cockpit crew error is defined as an action or inaction by the crew that leads to
deviations from organizational or flight crew intentions or expectations. Errors in the
operational context tend to reduce the margin of safety and increase the probability of
accidents or incidents. Errors may be defined in terms of non-compliance with

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126 regulations, Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) and policies, or unexpected

Aircraft Maintenance &
Crew Management deviation from crew, company or ATC expectations. Errors observed may be minor
(selecting the wrong altitude into the mode control panel (MCP), but correcting it
quickly) or major (forgetting to do an essential checklist). Observers should record all
cockpit crew errors that they detect.
Crew errors may not have any consequences, but they still need to be recorded by the
observer. For example, a violation to the sterile cockpit rule may not have any
negative consequence to the flight, but it is a violation of regulations and thus must be
entered as an error. In addition, errors may be intentional or unintentional. As implied
in the definition, when a crew action is appropriate or prescribed in SOPs, the lack of
action may also be defined as an error.

Figure 8.1: Threat and Error Management Model

8.4 LOSA AND CRM RELATIONSHIP

Line Operations Safety Audit (LOSA) is seen as an important way to help develop
countermeasures to operational errors. It involves a structured programme of
observation of front line activities built around the Threat and Error
Management (TEM) concept. It aims to identify threats to operational safety, identify
and minimise the risks which are the origin of such threats and implement measures to
manage the human error aspects of the residual risk. LOSA provides a way to assess
the level of organisational resilience to systemic threats in accordance with the
principles of a data-driven approach.
LOSA uses trained observers to collect data about pilot behaviour and its situational
context on “normal” flights from supernumerary seats on the flight deck. Such
monitoring allows the capture of data which can characterise pilot strategies for
managing "threats, errors and undesirable states". The audits are conducted under
strict no-jeopardy conditions; therefore, flight crews are not held accountable for their
actions and errors that are observed. During flights that are being audited, observers
record and code:
z potential threats to safety;

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z how the threats are addressed; 127

Line Operations and
z the errors such threats generate; Safety Audit

z how flight crews manage these errors;

z specific behaviours that have been known to be associated with accidents and
incidents.
The LOSA method is seen as closely linked with Crew Resource Management (CRM)
training. A particular strength of LOSA is perceived as the way it identifies examples
of "superior" pilot performance that can be provide models for use in training.
LOSA originated at the request of continental airlines as an instrument to check
whether crew resource management concepts taught in training actually transferred to
the line.

Check Your Progress 2

Fill in the blanks:
1. ……………… are then seen as the tools that pilots develop to handle
these daily threats and errors.
2. ……………… are external situations that must be managed by the
cockpit crew during normal, everyday flights.
3. ……………… may be relatively minor or major.
4. ……………… is defined as an action or inaction by the crew that leads to
deviations from organizational or flight crew intentions or expectations.
5. The LOSA method is seen as closely linked with Crew Resource
Management (CRM) ………………

8.5 LET US SUM UP

During flights that are being audited, observers record and code potential threats to
safety; how the threats are addressed; the errors such threats generate; how flight
crews manage these errors; and specific behaviours that have been known to be
associated with accidents and incident. LOSA is closely linked with Crew Resource
Management (CRM) training. Since CRM is essentially error management training for
operational personnel, data from LOSA form the basis for contemporary CRM
training focuses on threat and error training.

8.6 LESSON END ACTIVITY

Prepare a chart indicating LOSA as per ICAO.

8.7 KEYWORDS
Audit: An evaluation of a person, organization, system, process, enterprise, project or
product. The term most commonly refers to audits in accounting, quality management,
water management, and energy conservation.
Errors: An 'error' is a deviation from accuracy or correctness. A 'mistake' is an error
caused by a fault: the fault being misjudgment, carelessness, or forgetfulness.
Operating: Control the functioning of (a machine, process, or system).
Panel: A small group of people brought together to discuss, investigate, or decide on a
particular matter, esp. in the context of business or government.

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128 Threats: A statement of an intention to inflict pain, injury, damage, or other hostile
Aircraft Maintenance &
Crew Management action on someone in retribution for something done or not done.

8.8 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. Discuss LOSA in detail.
2. What is threat and error management model? Explain.
3. Differentiate between threat and error.
4. Explain the relationship between LOSA and CRM.

Check Your Progress: Model Answers

CYP 1
1. operational errors
2. threats to safety
3. Crew Resource Management (CRM)
4. data-driven
5. Human Factors Research

CYP 2
1. Crew countermeasures
2. Threats
3. External threats
4. Cockpit crew error
5. training

8.9 SUGGESTED READINGS

Federal Aviation Administration, Aircraft Inspection, Repair & Alterations:
Acceptable Methods, Techniques, & Practices (FAA Handbooks), Aviation Supplies
& Academics, Inc. (August 1, 2008)
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), FAR/AMT 2011: Federal Aviation
Regulations for Aviation Maintenance Technicians (FAR/AIM series), Aviation
Supplies & Academics, Inc.; 2011 Edition
Icon Group International, The 2010-2015 World Outlook for Aircraft Maintenance,
Repair, and Overhaul (MRO) Services, ICON Group International, Inc. (July 7, 2009)

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129
LESSON Crew Resource
Management Training

9
CREW RESOURCE MANAGEMENT TRAINING

CONTENTS
9.0 Aims and Objectives
9.1 Introduction
9.2 CRM Training Syllabus
9.3 CRM Training Methods
9.4 Competency Profile for Instructors of CRM
9.4.1 Instructors Ground School
9.4.2 Instructors Simulator/Base
9.4.3 Instructors Line
9.4.4 Authorisation
9.5 Maintenance Crew Skill Requirements
9.6 Morning Meeting
9.7 Let us Sum up
9.8 Lesson End Activity
9.9 Keywords
9.10 Questions for Discussion
9.11 Suggested Readings

9.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

After studying this lesson, you should be able to:
z Discuss crew resource management methods
z Identify CRM training skills

9.1 INTRODUCTION
Crew Resource is concerned not so much with the technical knowledge and skills
required to fly and operate an aircraft but rather with the cognitive and interpersonal
skills needed to manage the flight within an organised aviation system. In this context,
cognitive skills are defined as the mental processes used for gaining and maintaining
situational awareness, for solving problems and for making decisions. Interpersonal
skills are regarded as communications and a range of behavioural activities associated
with teamwork. In aviation, as in other walks of life, these skill areas often overlap
with each other, and they also overlap with the required technical skills. It should be
stressed that these are only examples and an operator may wish to use other sources of
information when formulating a detailed CRM syllabus appropriate to their own type

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130 of operation. The aim should be to incorporate, where possible, CRM training into
Aircraft Maintenance &
Crew Management other initial and recurrent training but stand-alone modules should be given where
appropriate. The objectives of training methods would be to ensure that participants
develop the right knowledge, skills and attitudes.

9.2 CRM TRAINING SYLLABUS

CRM training should be based on the JAR-OPS Subpart N syllabus. The operator or
training provider should include a detailed CRM course syllabus, based on the
JAROPS syllabus, in their Operations Manual. However, the aim should be to ensure
that crews are able to make best use of all facilities available to them, rather than to
cover any particular aspect of the syllabus. Operators should therefore give due regard
to the type of operation and to company culture when designing or agreeing any CRM
training. For example, the syllabus will need to take account of the level of automation
in use in company aircraft.
Operators should build their own training programme to fit in with the company
culture and SOPs. Operators should include additional material gathered from case-
based studies and recent events. Particular attention should be given to cultural
differences where this is applicable.
It should be stressed that these are only examples and an operator may wish to use
other sources of information when formulating a detailed CRM syllabus appropriate to
their own type of operation.
Crews should have received training in Human Performance and Limitations. It is
acceptable if this has been completed during licence acquisition or with another
operator (where this can be verified as being carried out to a satisfactory standard).
Much of this ground should have been covered during initial training, and there should
be no need to repeat the theory during CRM training if course participants have
already studied the topics previously and are reasonably familiar with the concepts.
Where possible, it may be appropriate to assess the level of knowledge of potential
course participants in advance of the training course, and adapt the theoretical content
accordingly. In any event, the training should concentrate on developing an
understanding of CRM concepts, and any reference to the theory of human
performance and limitations should be backed up by practical examples in an aviation
context.
The aim should be to incorporate, where possible, CRM training into other initial and
recurrent training but stand-alone modules should be given where appropriate. Initial
training given by another operator or training provider may be acceptable provided
that syllabus takes into account the current operator’s requirements or the operator’s
conversion course is amended to cover any deficiencies or additional requirements. It
should be emphasised that the aim should be to develop proficiency in CRM skills and
recurrent training should be focused on this aim.
Recurrent training may be generic or type-specific. JAR-OPS states that all the
syllabus items should be covered within a three year period, for recurrent training, but
the primary aim of such training should be to ensure that weak areas of CRM within
the company, and individuals, are addressed, rather than a religious cycling through
the syllabus once every three years irrespective of actual training needs. Operators are
encouraged to tailor their recurrent training to address the threats1 and to place more
emphasis upon CRM skills rather than repetition of knowledge.

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Check Your Progress 1 131

Crew Resource
Fill in the blanks: Management Training

1. ……………… should build their own training programme to fit in with

the company culture and SOPs.
2. Crews should have received training in ……………… and Limitations.
3. ……………… into other initial and recurrent training but standalone
modules should be given where appropriate.
4. ……………… training may be generic or type-specific.
5. It should be emphasized that the aim should be to develop proficiency in
CRM skills and recurrent training should ………………on this aim.

9.3 CRM TRAINING METHODS

To maintain the integrity of the training process, training methods should be focused
on objectives; rather than be activity driven, which tends to encourage a 'tick in the
box' mentality. The objectives would be to ensure that participants develop the right
knowledge, skills and attitudes. Whereas hitherto in the airline and other industries,
training programmes have been constructed and assessed largely on the basis of their
content, the more recent tendency is to assess programmes on the basis of the trainee
outcomes they purport to achieve and the procedures they have in place to assess these
outcomes.
This trend focuses the effort and investment in training on objectives which are
defined in terms of measurable outcomes. It does not by any means render content
obsolete, but recognizes that content is only the means, not the end in itself, of training
and education.
In behavioural training, where behavioural skills development and attitude changes are
being encouraged, the interactive process of the actual training is what is of paramount
importance. The following model in the field of training emphasizes the relationship
in which knowledge, skills and attitudes stand to each other in the learning and
development process. The essence of the model is that knowledge, ability and
motivation are all necessary to effect enduring changes in behaviour of training
resources and media, which run from the traditional and passive to the highly
interactive and experiential such as: self-study; classroom awareness training;
modelling, classroom skills training; continual skills practice both classroom and
simulator; and practice or coaching during flying operations.
The onus for operators and regulators rests upon specifying CRM training objectives
that map onto the competency standards which they require of their aircrew. Training
contents and methods, and trainers themselves, need to accommodate the needs of the
trainees in whatever ways, shapes and forms necessary to attain these ends, within the
limits imposed by commercial and other practical considerations.
Cognitive and interpersonal skills – CRM skills – are mostly concerned with
understanding and interpreting behaviour, particularly behaviour which occurs in a
group context, so they are more appropriately developed through a process known as
experiential learning. Successful experiential learning occurs when an individual
reflects on his or her past behaviour in a given organisational situation and gains
sufficient insight to form a rational basis for behaving in a more effective way when
faced with similar circumstances in the future. Consequently, CRM training usually
takes place in groups and is often assisted by a trained facilitator who is equipped with
the relevant knowledge, skills and techniques to foster the learning process.

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132 Table 9.1: CRM Skills

Aircraft Maintenance &
Crew Management I DO Competence
I WILL Motivation
I CAN Ability
I KNOW Knowledge

9.4 COMPETENCY PROFILE FOR INSTRUCTORS OF

CRM
In the early years of aviation the main cause of accidents was attributed to technical
defects. However as the reliability of aircraft improved it became apparent that the
proportion of accidents attributed to non-technical causes was increasing. Crew
Resource Management (CRM) was developed as a result of accident analysis and
information from Flight Data and Voice Recorders which indicated that many
accidents were caused by the flight crew responding inappropriately to a particular
situation.
CRM training has developed over the last two decades and has now reached a
sufficient stage of maturity to benefit from a more formal structure. In order to
formalize the training and to further enhance the effectiveness of CRM it is essential
that instructors of CRM meet certain performance standards. Details of the
performance criteria and instructor assessment are now given in CAP 737 "Crew
Resource Management (CRM) Training". This Standards Document has been
developed by the CRM Advisory Panel.
These guidance notes form part of the JAR-OPS and JAR-FCL "acceptable means of
compliance".
The role of the CRM Instructor derives from JAR-OPS Subpart N. CRM instructions
and, where appropriate, CRM checking of flight crew will therefore be carried out by
accredited instructors.
A CRMI should meet the minimum standards contained in CAP 737, and should at
least:
(a) Have completed a basic instructional technique course acceptable to the CAA.
(b) Have or have had commercial air transport experience as a flight crew member;
and
(i) Have successfully passed the Human Performance and Limitations (HPL)
examination whilst obtaining the ATPL; or
(ii) If holding a Flight Crew Licence acceptable under JAR-OPS 1.940 (a)(3)
prior to the introduction of HPL into the ATPL syllabus, have completed a
theoretical HPL course covering the whole syllabus of that course; or
(iii) Have theoretical experience in the subject of CRM or Human Factors training.
Notwithstanding the above, and when acceptable to the CAA:
(a) A flight crew member holding a recent qualification as a CRM Instructor may
continue to be a CRM trainer after the cessation of active flying duties;
(b) An experienced non-flight crew CRM Instructor having knowledge of HPL, may
also be, and continue to be, a CRM Instructor;

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(c) A former flight crew member having knowledge of HPL may become a CRM 133
Crew Resource
Instructor if he maintains adequate knowledge of the operation and aircraft type Management Training
and meets the provisions of paragraphs (a) and (b) above;
(d) An instructor not meeting the above requirements may become a CRM Instructor
at the discretion of the CAA and after an observation by a CAA Training
Inspector.

9.4.1 Instructors Ground School

Shall have satisfied the conditions above, and
(a) Have completed initial CRM training; and
(b) Be supervised by a suitably qualified CRM Instructor when conducting their first
initial CRM training sessions; and
(c) Have the knowledge and ability to teach the subjects

9.4.2 Instructors Simulator/Base

Shall have satisfied the conditions above, and
Hold a TRI, TRE, CRI, CRE, SFI or SFE rating/authority.

9.4.3 Instructors Line

Shall have satisfied the conditions above, and
Have the knowledge detailed

9.4.4 Authorisation
All instructors will need to demonstrate that:
(a) They have the knowledge specified for their relevant role,
(b) They have the necessary instructional skills,
(c) They are able to assess crews' CRM performance, and
(d) They are able to facilitate a constructive debrief of the above.
For Ground School Instructors the demonstration of ability should be carried out with
a class of "live" trainees and be of sufficient length to confirm the CRMI's depth of
knowledge and ability to facilitate learning where necessary. It is unlikely, therefore,
that a course of less than one day or four trainees including some flight crew would be
considered adequate.

9.5 MAINTENANCE CREW SKILL REQUIREMENTS

The work done by line main covers a larger area. They can’t be unskilled or newer
personnel. They need to be efficient in handling the entire aircraft with all its systems
and its interactions.
Line mechanics have to face the different problems on different aircraft, each flight
comes. The crew is assigned must be well qualified for their profession. They should
be certified and approved by the regulatory authority and must be certified for
maintenance tasks. The crew might include personnel without certifications or license
but they need to work under supervisions of qualified trainers. They must be familiar
with rules and regulations of aviation authority.

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134
Aircraft Maintenance & 9.6 MORNING MEETING
Crew Management
Morning meeting is one of the important operations of M&E. this is the first thing
held in the morning, this consists of (a) the days flight schedule, (b) the maintenance
status of each aircraft in service, (c) specific needs of maintenance and (d) any
significant problems or changes which may affect the days flight of work schedules.
This might include discussion on upcoming hangar and shop maintenance attitudes of
problems. The purpose of these meetings is that M&E can keep close check in the
maintenance area to solve the problems as soon as possible.

Check Your Progress 2

Fill in the blanks:
1. Training methods should be focused on …………………………
2. CRM training usually takes place in ………………………
3. In the early years of aviation, the main cause of accidents was attributed
to …………………… defects.
4. ………………… mechanics have to face the different problems on
different aircraft, each flight comes.
5. The ………………… assigned must be well qualified for their profession.

9.7 LET US SUM UP

Professional aircrew should demonstrate high standards of Crew Resource
Management. Consistent with other aspects of aircrew performance, these standards
should be well defined, objective and measurable. The knowledge, skills and attitudes
required to meet these standards should be equally well specified, so that they can be
thoroughly and systematically integrated with other aspects of aircrew training and
training standards.
CRM standards of performance have a bearing on flight safety and the efficiency of
aircraft operations, and are essentially more explicit and refined versions of
professional standards implicit in the common sense definition of 'airmanship'. These
knowledge, skills and attitudes have wide applicability and should be incorporated
into basic training of all personnel and their respective managers who are involved in
the operation and dispatch of aircraft.
The training methods and content to develop the knowledge, skills and attitudes
should be appropriate to the culture and operation, and be focused on achieving the
training objectives.
Crew Resource is concerned not so much with the technical knowledge and skills
required to fly and operate an aircraft but rather with the cognitive and interpersonal
skills needed to manage the flight within an organised aviation system. In this context,
cognitive skills are defined as the mental processes used for gaining and maintaining
situational awareness. CRM training should be based on the JAR-OPS Subpart N
syllabus. The operator or training provider should include a detailed CRM course
syllabus, based on the JAROPS syllabus, in their Operations Manual It should be
stressed that these are only examples and an operator may wish to use other sources of
information when formulating a detailed CRM syllabus appropriate to their own type
of operation.
Where possible, it may be appropriate to assess the level of knowledge of potential
course participants in advance of the training course, and adapt the theoretical content

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accordingly. To maintain the integrity of the training process, training methods should 135
Crew Resource
be focused on objectives; rather than be activity driven, which tends to encourage a Management Training
'tick in the box' mentality. The objectives would be to ensure that participants develop
the right knowledge, skills and attitudes. CRM training has developed over the last
two decades and has now reached a sufficient stage of maturity to benefit from a more
formal structure. In order to formalize the training and to further enhance the
effectiveness of CRM it is essential that instructors of CRM meet certain performance
standards. Line mechanics have to face the different problems on different aircraft,
each flight comes.

9.8 LESSON END ACTIVITY

Prepare a curriculum indicating training syllabus for air crew.

9.9 KEYWORDS
Cognitive: Of or relating to cognition. The mental action or process of acquiring
knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses.
Instructors: A person who teaches something.
Interpersonal: Of or relating to relationships or communication between people.
Line mechanics: The branch of applied mathematics dealing with motion and forces
producing motion.
Technical: It is related to a particular subject, art, or craft, or its techniques.

9.10 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. Discuss the training methods for CRM.
2. Explain maintenance crew requirements.
3. Define morning meetings.
4. Explain training standardisation.

Check Your Progress: Model Answers

CYP 1
1. Operators
2. Human Performance
3. CRM training
4. Recurrent
5. be focused
CYP 2
1. Objectives
2. Groups
3. Technical
4. Line
5. Crew

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136
Aircraft Maintenance & 9.11 SUGGESTED READINGS
Crew Management
Kanki, B.G. et. al. (2010) Crew Resource Management Academic Press
Harvey, G. and Turnbull, P.J. (2006) ‘Employment Relations, Management Style and
Flight Crew Attitudes at Low Cost Airline Subsidiaries: The Cases of British
Airways/Go and big/bmibaby’, European Management Journal, 24(5), pp. 330-337.
LeSage, P. et al. (2010) Crew Resource Management; Jones & Bartlett Learning 2012
FAR for Flight Crew Book – ASA

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137
LESSON Hangar

10
HANGAR

CONTENTS
10.0 Aims and Objectives
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Hangar Maintenance
10.3 Types of Hangar
10.3.1 Type I Hangar
10.3.2 Type II Hangar
10.3.3 Type III Hangar
10.4 Organisation of Hangar Maintenance
10.5 Individual Performance: Upgradation and Automation
10.5.1 Guidelines on the use of Automation
10.5.2 Assessment of Training Requirements
10.6 Tailoring of CRM and LOFT Training
10.7 Let us Sum up
10.8 Lesson End Activity
10.9 Keywords
10.10 Questions for Discussion
10.11 Suggested Readings

10.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

After studying this lesson, you should be able to:
z Discuss hangar maintenance and its types
z Identify automation and upgradation of skills

10.1 INTRODUCTION
Aircraft hangars comprise of three distinct areas; the hangar bay (OH space), the
Shop/Maintenance Area (O1 level); and the Squadron Administration and Operations
area (O2 level). The levels are designations from shipboard levels and are not specific
to the hangar design.
The hangar bay provides “O” level maintenance to aircraft within the hangar bay. O
level maintenance includes removing engines, changing tires, etc. Layout of this space
is determined by the planning documents for the module configuration identified. The
net area of the hangar bay is defined in the module layout and is considered a fixed

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138 area. The hangar bay may not be increased in size nor shall the dimensions be
Aircraft Maintenance &
Crew Management modified.

10.2 HANGAR MAINTENANCE

Hangar maintenance refers to the maintenance which is done on out-of-service-
aircraft. This includes maintenance or modifications of that part which is temporarily
removed from the flight schedule. This includes activities like
(a) Schedule checks above the “A” check
(b) Modifications aircraft systems by services bulleting airworthiness directive or
engineering order
(c) Fleet campaigns
(d) Special inspections required by the airline
(e) Painting of aircraft
(f) aircraft interior modifications
A hangar visit includes combinations of the activities listed above activities. This is
done to minimize maintenance downtime. Scheduling is done using PP&C.
Washing is done outside on the ramp or in approve areas. Painting of aircraft is done
in a separate hangar areas. The maintenance is done on a specially assigned hangar.
The facility should be designed in such a way that it should be large enough with the
door closed. The hangar should have height for the vertical tail section as well as
space around. The aircraft to place stands of other work units necessary
accomplishments of the maintenance work. Sometimes airlines are required to work
on aircraft with the vertical tail sections sticking out of the hangar with hangar doors
closed partially.
The building provides space for support shops and overhaul shops and ground support
equipment. This includes work cards which are kept for the purpose of assigning work
and signing off the various job tasks. This is also the point for supervisors and
inspection personnel. It is centre of activity and control. There is a separate space
assigned for the removed items and new items to be installed. All items are tagged
here. There is a separate hangar for each type of aircraft.
Large and small airlines have different hangar capabilities and needs but the
operations are same:
(a) Hangar space must be adequate for the work to perform
(b) Work is accomplished and is completed on time

10.3 TYPES OF HANGAR

10.3.1 Type I Hangar
A Type I maintenance hangar is primarily designed for carrier aircraft, but is
adaptable to meet requirements for rotary wing and various types of smaller aircraft.
The O1 and O2 level spaces in this type of hangar are configured for a typical strike
fighter squadron, two carrier airborne early warning squadrons, or a helicopter
antisubmarine warfare squadron. The Type I hangar bay module is 210’ (64.01
meters) wide by 95’ (28.96 meters) deep. All Type I hangars shall have one bridge
crane per module.

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10.3.2 Type II Hangar 139

Hangar
A Type II hangar is primarily provided for US Marine Corps Aviation. The hangar is
designed to accommodate CH-53 Helicopters, V-22 Ospreys and C-130 Hercules
aircraft. This type of hangar may also accommodate Navy versions of the C-130, V-22
and H-53 aircraft. The type II hangar bay module is 119 feet (36.27 meters) deep by
325 feet (99.06 meters) wide. All Type II hangars shall have one bridge crane per
module

10.3.3 Type III Hangar

A Type III maintenance hangar is principally designed for land based patrol and large
transport aircraft. The Type III hangar module is 165 feet (50.29 meters) deep by 165
feet (50.29 meters) wide. Type III hangars are not authorized to have a bridge crane.

Check Your Progress 1 2

Fill in the blanks:
1. …………….. refers to the maintenance which is done on out-of-service-
aircraft.
2. The facility should be designed in such a way that it should be
…………….. enough with the door closed.
3. A …………….. maintenance hangar is primarily designed for carrier
aircraft.
4. All Type II hangars shall have …………….. crane per module.
5. A Type III maintenance hangar is principally designed for land based
…………….. and large transport aircraft.

10.4 ORGANISATION OF HANGAR MAINTENANCE

It is the manager level position which comes under the director of airplane
maintenance. These are three supervisory positions:
z Aircraft maintenance
z GSE and facilities
z Support shops
The supervisor is responsible for all the hangar maintenance activities. He or she
controls the flow of aircraft in and out of the check as well as the maintenance crews
working the checks and coordinates with head and support shops, material, PP & C.
the supervisors of GSE and facilities is responsible for all ground support equipment
used to support hangar as well as line maintenance. The supervisor of support shops is
responsible for all support activities for aircraft service and maintenance that is not
designated as overhead shops. The support shops include support of welding
composite materials sheet metals seats and interiors etc.
Width of hangar shall be determined as the dimension to the inside face of the exterior
walls at the hangar floor level. This may be the face of a CMU knee wall or the face of
the girts.
The depth of the hangar bay shall be determined as the dimension between inside face
of the rear wall and the face of the interior face of the fabric door. In hangars with
steel doors, the distance will be to the face of the innermost door panel.

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140 Area allocated to sliding door pockets is not included in the Gross Area Calculations,
Aircraft Maintenance &
Crew Management however area required for depth of staggered door panels are included in the Gross
Area Calculation. Allowed gross area is provided to allow for various wall types.
Excess area may not be reallocated to 01 or 02 spaces.
Hangar door width shall be determined by the structural elements at the edge of the
door opening. The width of the opening shall not be less than 3' less than the width of
the hangar bay.
Clearances are measured from the face of walls and columns or permanent
obstructions such as power points, bollards, and similar features. Floor markings will
be moved to reflect the clearance requirement.
Height of hangar door may be reduced to provide a clearance of 4' above the tail
height of the aircraft anticipated to be the hangar bay. Reduction in the height of the
door may only with the permission of NAVFAC Atlantic CI ENG.
Dimensions for width, depth and height are considered to be "standard". Variations in
hangar bay sizes are not permitted without authorization of the NAVFAC Atlantic CI
ENG. Additionally, Marine Corps hangar bay configurations may be modified by
Headquarters, USMC (LF).
Hangar Maintenance is a position under director of aircraft maintenance Aircraft
maintenance is responsible for all hangar maintenance activities. This controls flow of
aircraft into & out of check, maintenance crews, coordinates with overhaul & support
shops, materiel, PP&C, flight line maintenance and OPS regarding aircraft in hangar
GSE and facilities are also responsible of aircraft maintenance. All GSE required, and
hangar facilities and flight line maintenance Support Shops Welding shops, avionics,
engine, mechanical, upholstery, seats & interior.

10.5 INDIVIDUAL PERFORMANCE: UPGRADATION AND

AUTOMATION
CRM in highly automated aircraft presents special challenges, in particular in terms of
situation awareness of the status of the aircraft. Many researchers and practitioners
have looked at training for modern automated aircraft, in particular Mica Endsley, in
the context of situation awareness of automation modes.
Pilot training is very important and it is also very expensive. There is no argument
regarding its importance, but there is not always agreement on the kind and amount of
training required to enable pilots to operate new and different aircraft safely and
efficiently.
The controversy regarding the effect of automation on training is an entirely separate
issue. Some claim that automation requires additional skills, while others propose that
automation reduces training costs and also reduces the level of traditional flying skills
required in older (conventional flight deck) aircraft; in contrast, others propose that
one of the greatest misconceptions about automation is that it reduces training
requirements.
Notwithstanding these conflicting opinions, there is little doubt about the importance
of training. The interface between transport aircraft and the pilots who operate them is
of great importance, as are the interfaces between the pilot and the manufacturer,
procedures, Standard Operating Procedures and company operating philosophies. This
identifies some issues that have been raised regarding training in advanced flight deck
technology aircraft.

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One controversial issue already mentioned has been the changing role of the flight 141
Hangar
crew in automated flight deck aircraft.
It comprises at least two basic questions:
z Is the pilot a control operator, a systems manager, or both?
z If a difference exists, is it in the pilot's role, or in the elements of that role?
Analysis suggests that the primary role of the transport pilot has not changed at all:
since the goal is (as it has always been) to complete the planned flight safely and
efficiently and with a maximum of passenger comfort, the role is to achieve that goal-
to fly safely and efficiently from point A to point B. The functions still include
monitoring, planning, and making decisions in reference to the operations, and the
tasks are those traditionally performed (communicating, navigating and operating).
The question is how best to train pilots for advanced technology aircraft. The
consensus seems to indicate that, as a general approach, automation should take a
greater role in maintaining basic stability and control of the aircraft. Higher-level
functions, such as flight planning/pre-planning, system status management and
decision-making, should be performed primarily by humans with the help of
automation. Training should reflect the increased emphasis on the pilot's decision-
making, knowledge of systems, monitoring and crew co-ordination. One point is clear,
however: automation has not reduced the need for the basic airmanship skills and
knowledge which have always been required of airline pilots. The importance of those
fundamentals should be emphasised in the early phases of training, and general
aircraft instruction should always precede detailed instruction in automatic features.
The training should be sensitive to the varying needs of a pilot population that differs
widely in areas such as total flight experience, corporate experience, recency of last
transition training, computer literacy, etc.

10.5.1 Guidelines on the use of Automation

Guidelines on the use of automation should be provided. They should indicate to the
crew when to use automation, and, more importantly, when not to use it. Even when
guidelines are available (usually through company policy or standard operating
procedures), they reflect preferred practices in the context of particular operational
environments. The existence of such guidelines does not necessarily mean that they
are universally applicable, nor is the purpose of this to provide them.

10.5.2 Assessment of Training Requirements

One of the lessons learned regarding advanced technology aircraft is that assessment
of training requirements should be made when a new aircraft type is designed.
Determination of the general training requirements needed to enable pilots to operate
new equipment safely and efficiently should be considered an integral part of the
design process. These requirements need not be – and probably should not be – very
detailed. They should clearly indicate what the designer of the system believes the
pilot should know in order to operate that system safely and efficiently.
The next occasion to do this would be when the new type is introduced. This gives an
opportunity to introduce operational changes, but any inefficient practices existing at
the time of introduction will tend to endure. This is the time to appreciate and
understand the manufacturers' design and operating intents, since they heavily
influence training and operational issues.
Those responsible for the introduction of new types, or charged with the responsibility
of training development, should possess more background information with regard to
the basic design philosophy than was needed in the past. This is important since most

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142 of the existing training programmes for new technology aircraft were originally
Aircraft Maintenance &
Crew Management developed for conventional aircraft.

10.6 TAILORING OF CRM AND LOFT TRAINING

It has previously been assumed that Crew Resource Management (CRM) training
programmes are model-independent. However, there is increasing evidence that at
least some aspects of crew co-ordination and communication in the automated flight
decks are qualitatively different from the flight decks of older aircraft. Recent
experiments suggest, for instance, that there is a trend towards less verbal inter-pilot
communication as the degree of flight deck automation increases. If this hypothesis
can be confirmed through research, then customised modules of CRM training
programmes should be developed to deal with such differences. These customized
modules should also take account of the nature and the needs (culture) of the
organisation. The following areas of concern in CRM of automated aircraft are the
result of observations during actual flights.
They indicate that highly automated flight decks may require special scrutiny in the
areas of crew coordination and resource management, both in the assignment of tasks
and the standardisation of their performance.
z Compared to traditional models, it is now physically difficult for one pilot to see
what the other is doing. For example, in previous generation aircraft the autopilot
mode control panel was easily observable by both pilots; in automated flight decks
the selections are made in the Control Display Unit (CDU), which is not visible to
the other crew member unless the same CDU page is selected. Proper procedures
and intra-cockpit communication appear to be the answers to this problem.
z It is more difficult for the captain to monitor the work of the first officer, and vice-
versa. New or revised procedures and intra-cockpit communication are again the
apparent answer.
z Automation can induce a breakdown in the traditional roles of the controlling pilot
and monitoring pilot, and there is a less clear demarcation of who does what. This
is particularly relevant, since it has already been mentioned that standardisation is
one of the foundations of safety. The answer to this problem might be found in
procedures and standard operating procedures
z Automated flight decks can produce a redistribution of authority from the captain
to the first officer. This is unintended, and is a product of an apparently greater
proficiency of some first officers in CDU data entry compared to that of the
captains, plus the delegation of these duties to the first officer. Particularly in
times of high workload, the captain may surrender some responsibility to the first
officer in order to accomplish the task. A somewhat shallower trans-authority
gradient may be the result, although captains, recognizing the superior CDU skills
of their first officers, may follow good CRM principles and use them to their
advantage.
z There is a tendency of the crew to help each other with programming duties when
workload increases, which can dissolve a clear demarcation of duties. This seems
to be computer-induced behaviour, since no similar situation is observed in
traditional aircraft.
Although little is known about the implications of automation for the design and
conduct of Line-Oriented Flight Training, some particular issues can be highlighted.
The automated flight deck offers new opportunities for scenario design. In
conventional flight decks it was necessary to introduce system failures to elevate the

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workload and stress of the crew in a realistic manner, but the automated flight deck 143
Hangar
has enough built-in stressors to do this job, especially in the area of ATC instructions.
The “glass cockpit” presents new opportunities for scenario design that does not
require abnormal conditions or emergencies – difficult problems at the human-
automation interface will suffice. There now exists the opportunity to design scenarios
that will address the problems and opportunities of working in automated flight decks,
where their peculiar characteristics can be stressed and where CRM principles can be
easily exercised. For example, an ATC instruction including an unexpected,
non-depicted holding pattern over a fix defined by a radial/DME value provides
considerable opportunities to practice CRM principles without the necessity of
introducing any system failure.
Aircraft manufacturers are giving more importance to human performance issues in
automated flight decks. At least one of them has joined efforts with a training
development company to integrate present and future training programmes in Cockpit
Resource Management into the transition training courses for its aircraft. The
manufacturer's instructor pilots will receive CRM training. Current training courses
for pilots and maintenance technicians will also incorporate CRM programmes. This
particular manufacturer claims that CRM courses to be developed will be airplane-
tailored, with a different CRM course for each specific model of aircraft in the
production line. The justification for this decision is based on the need to align
training with longer-term behavioural education, as well as to concentrate on the
assigned duties and responsibilities of the flight crews. Most importantly, it is the tacit
recognition that Human Factors education is no longer an exclusive responsibility of
the operators, but an integral part of present-day system operations.
Adequate instructor/check pilot training is necessary, and must be emphasised, since
some instructors may have only a little more meaningful (i.e. operational) experience
and knowledge than the students. A strong case can be made for practical experience
input to instructor and student training. The need for more emphasis on behavioural
issues (CRM and LOFT training) has also been suggested. Though the Human Factors
profession has recognised the problem, the issue of instructor training in relation to
automation has not yet been properly addressed, and training specialists have no
source to consult for guidance on the question of training for automation. Instructor
selection and training continues to be determined by the same time-honoured methods
and criteria applied for conventional flight decks, although the training issues are quite
different on automated flight decks.

Check Your Progress 2 2

Fill in the blanks:
1. The supervisor is responsible for all the …………. maintenance activities.
2. The …………. include support of welding composite materials sheet
metals seats and interiors, etc.
3. Hangar door width shall be determined by the …………. elements at the
edge of the door opening.
4. …………. training is very important and it is also very expensive.
5. They should clearly indicate what the designer of the system believes the
pilot should know in order to operate that system …………. and
………….

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144
Aircraft Maintenance & 10.7 LET US SUM UP
Crew Management
Hangar maintenance refers to the maintenance which is done on out-of-service-
aircraft. This includes maintenance or modifications of that part which is temporarily
removed from the flight schedule. The maintenance is done on a specially assigned
hangar.
The knowledge, skills and attitudes required to meet these standards should be equally
well specified, so that they can be thoroughly and systematically integrated with other
aspects of aircrew training and training standards.
These knowledge, skills and attitudes have wide applicability and CRM standards of
performance have a bearing on flight safety and the efficiency of aircraft operations,
and are essentially more explicit and refined versions of professional standards
implicit in the common sense should be incorporated into basic training of all
personnel and their respective managers who are involved in the operation and
dispatch of aircraft.

10.8 LESSON END ACTIVITY

Identify the requirement of automation in aviation industry.

10.9 KEYWORDS
Hangar: A hangar is a closed structure to hold aircraft or spacecraft in protective
storage.
Hangar Maintenance: Hangar maintenance refers to the maintenance which is done
on out-of-service-aircraft.
Glass cockpit: A glass cockpit is an aircraft cockpit that features electronic (digital)
instrument displays, typically large LCD screens, rather than the traditional style of
analog dials and gauges.
Line-Oriented Flight Training (Loft Training): It is training in a simulator with a
complete crew using representative flight segments that contain normal, abnormal,
and emergency procedures that may be expected in line operations.
Automation: It is the use of various control systems for operating equipment such as
machinery, processes in factories, boilers and heat treating ovens, switching in
telephone networks, steering and stabilization of ships, aircraft and other applications
with minimal or reduced human intervention. Some processes have been completely
automated.

10.10 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. What are the core elements of hangar maintenance?
2. Discuss the organisation of hangar maintenance.
3. Describe the three main importance of automation.
4. Discuss different types of hangar maintenance.
5. Explain CRM and LOFT training.

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Check Your Progress: Model Answers 145

Hangar

CYP 1
1. Hangar maintenance
2. large
3. Type I
4. one bridge
5. patrol

CYP 2
1. hangar
2. support shops
3. structural
4. Pilot
5. safely efficiently

10.11 SUGGESTED READINGS

Kanki, B.G. et. al. (2010) Crew Resource Management Academic Press
Harvey, G. and Turnbull, P.J. (2006) ‘Employment Relations, Management Style and
Flight Crew Attitudes at Low Cost Airline Subsidiaries: The Cases of British
Airways/Go and big/bmibaby’, European Management Journal, 24(5), pp. 330-337.
LeSage, P. et al. (2010) Crew Resource Management; Jones & Bartlett Learning
2012 FAR for Flight Crew Book – ASA

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146
Aircraft Maintenance &
Crew Management

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MODEL QUESTION PAPER

BBA
Third Year

Sub: Aircraft Maintenance & Crew Management

Time: 3 hours Total Marks: 100
Direction: There are total eight questions, each carrying 20 marks. You have to
attempt any five questions.
1. Discuss the role of engineer and mechanic in maintenance of an aircraft.
2. Briefly explain Maintenance Steering Group (MSG) approach with suitable
examples.
3. What do you understand by production planning and control in aircraft
maintenance?
4. Define technical publications and airline library. Also explain the functions of
technical publications in detail.
5. What is the use of computers in airlines? Explain the various computer program
modules.
6. What is meant by maintenance resource management?
7. Describe the evolution of CRM in aviation and briefly explain the performance
standards for instructors in CRM.
8. Briefly explain human performance analysis and automation and upgradation of
crew skills.

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Logistic and
Supply Chain Management

148
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