Unit – III

Air Pollution & its Measurable Techniques

Trace gas refers to a gas or gases which make up less than 1% by volume of the earth’s
atmosphere, and therefore includes all gases except nitrogen (78.1%) and oxygen (20.9%). the most
abundant trace gas at 0.934% is argon, which is being continually produced by radioactive decay of
earth’s rocks. water vapor also occurs in the atmosphere with highly variable abundance.
Several atmospheric trace gases such as ozone (O3), Sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides
(NOx) and carbon monoxide (CO) are anthropogenic, chemically reactive factors of air quality at a
regional level. others such as carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4) are important greenhouse gases
and are produced anthropogenically but also by plants, microorganisms and from natural geothermal
sources.
What is Air Pollution?
Air pollution refers to any physical, chemical or biological change in the air. It is the
Contamination of air by harmful gases, dust and smoke which affects plants, animals and Humans
drastically.
There is a certain percentage of gases present in the atmosphere. An increase or decrease in the
composition of these gases is harmful to survival. This imbalance in the gaseous Composition has
resulted in an increase in earth’s temperature, which is known as global warming.
The Types of Air Pollutants
There are two types of air pollutants:
Primary Pollutants
The pollutants that directly cause air pollution are known as primary pollutants. Pollutants are formed and
emitted directly from particular sources.
Ex: Particulates, Carbon monoxide, Nitrogen oxide, and Sulfur oxide.
Secondary Pollutants
The pollutants formed by the intermingling and reaction of primary pollutants are known as secondary
pollutants. Smog, formed by the intermingling of smoke and fog, is a secondary pollutant.

Causes of Air Pollution

Following are the important causes of air pollution:
Burning of fossil fuels
The combustion of fossil fuels emits a large amount of Sulphur dioxide. Carbon monoxide released by
incomplete combustion of fossil fuels also results in air pollution.
Automobiles
The gases emitted from vehicles such as jeeps, trucks, cars, buses, etc. pollute the environment. These are
the major sources of greenhouse gases and also result in diseases among individuals.
Agricultural Activities
Ammonia is one of the most hazardous gases emitted during agricultural activities. The insecticides,
pesticides and fertilizers emit harmful chemicals in the atmosphere and contaminate it.
Factories and Industries
Factories and industries are the main source of carbon monoxide, organic compounds, hydrocarbons and
chemicals. These are released into the air, degrading its quality:
Mining Activities
In the mining process, the minerals below the earth are extracted using large pieces of equipment. The
dust and chemicals released during the process not only pollute the air, but also deteriorate the health of
the workers and people living in the nearby areas.
Domestic Sources
The household cleaning products and paints contain toxic chemicals that are released in the air. The smell
from the newly painted walls is the smell of the chemicals present in the paints. It not only pollutes the air
but also affects breathing.
Effects of Air Pollution
The hazardous effects of air pollution on the environment include:
Diseases
Air pollution has resulted in several respiratory disorders and heart diseases among humans. The cases of
lung cancer have increased in the last few decades. Children living near polluted areas are more prone to
pneumonia and asthma. Many people die every year due to the direct or indirect effects of air pollution.
Global Warming
Due to the emission of greenhouse gases, there is an imbalance in the gaseous composition of the air.
This has led to an increase in the temperature of the earth. This increase in earth’s temperature is known
as global warming. This has resulted in the melting of glaciers and an increase in sea levels. Many areas
are submerged underwater.
Acid Rain
The burning of fossil fuels releases harmful gases such as nitrogen oxides and Sulphur oxides in the air.
The water droplets combine with these pollutants, become acidic and fall as acid rain which damages
human, animal and plant life.
Ozone Layer Depletion
The release of chlorofluorocarbons, halons, and hydrochlorofluorocarbons in the atmosphere is the major
cause of depletion of the ozone layer. The depleting ozone layer does not prevent the harmful ultraviolet
rays coming from the sun and causes skin diseases and eye problems among individuals.
Effect on Animals
The air pollutants suspend in the water bodies and affect aquatic life. Pollution also compels the animals
to leave their habitat and shift to a new place. This renders them stray and has also led to the extinction of
a large number of animal species.
Air Pollution Control
Following are the measures one should adopt, to control air pollution:
Avoid Using Vehicles
People should avoid using vehicles for shorter distances. Rather, they should prefer public modes of
transport to travel from one place to another. This not only prevents pollution, but also conserves energy.
Energy Conservation
A large number of fossil fuels are burnt to generate electricity. Therefore, do not forget to switch off the
electrical appliances when not in use. Thus, you can save the environment at the individual level. Use of
energy-efficient devices such as CFLs also controls pollution to a greater level.
Use of Clean Energy Resources
The use of solar, wind and geothermal energies reduce air pollution at a larger level. Various countries,
including India, have implemented the use of these resources as a step towards a cleaner environment.
Primary Pollutants
The pollutants that directly cause air pollution are known as primary pollutants. Pollutants the are formed
and emitted
Directly from particular sources.
Ex: Particulates, Carbon monoxide, Nitrogen oxide, and Sulfur oxide.
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
 Carbon dioxide (CO₂) is a colorless and non-flammable gas at normal temperature and pressure
 A molecule of CO₂ consists of one carbon atom and two oxygen atoms.
 CO₂ also plays a role in the Earth’s carbon cycle, the set of processes that cycle carbon in many forms
throughout the environment.
 Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the most important of all radiantly active or “greenhouse” (apart from water
vapor) gases, and is considered to contribute 70% of the enhanced greenhouse effect that has been
experienced to date.
 This contrasts with much smaller enhancements from compounds such as methane (24%) and nitrous
oxide (6%).
 The turnover of carbon is vast in scale, with an estimated 60Gtyr-1 processed via photosynthesis and
respiratory processes and around 90Gtyr-1 via ocean-atmosphere exchange.
 This cycle results in an atmospheric loading of around 750Gt of carbon, comprised almost entirely of
CO2.
 CO₂ is an important heat-trapping (greenhouse) gas which is released through human activities such as
deforestation and burning fossil fuels.
 Without CO₂, our planet would be an unlivable environment because it would be very cold.
 CO₂ emissions can also be released from natural processes like respiration and volcanic eruptions.
 Carbon dioxide is not considered an air pollutant, as it occurs naturally in the air. However, the CO₂
concentration in the atmosphere has significantly increased due to human activity.
 Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas; The increase in greenhouse gas emissions causes the average
temperatures to continue to rise, warming the climate of our planet. The so-called greenhouse effect
increases the global temperature and results in a complex chain of events known as global climate
change.
Sources of carbon dioxide
There are both natural and anthropogenic (man-made) sources of CO₂ emissions
Natural:
 Natural sources include decomposition, ocean release, respiration, and photosynthesis.
 Respiration, the process by which organisms liberate energy from food, also emits CO₂.
 Photosynthesis, the biochemical process by which plants and some microbes create food, acts as
respiration’s natural counterpart by drawing CO₂ from the atmosphere.
Man-made sources of CO₂
 There are many sources of direct anthropogenic CO2 emissions to the atmosphere, but most originate
from the combustion of fossil fuels as biomass, coal, oil, or gas.
 Land use change is responsible for the rest of the emissions.
 Almost all this combustion is related to the production of energy for human needs: for example, in
Europe 32% of CO2 is emitted from the energy sector (mainly power and heat generation), followed
by transport (22%) and industry (21%).
 Man-made sources of CO₂ mainly consist of the burning of fossil fuels, such as coal, oil and gas, by
directly releasing the stored carbon into the air while releasing the stored energy as heat.
 Cement production emits CO₂ when using energy from fossil fuels to fire the cement’s base materials
in a kiln, and the chemical reaction produced from the mixture when it is exposed to heat.
 Deforestation also releases stored carbon from forest landscapes into the atmosphere.
 Other land use changes such as agriculture and forestry contribute to about 23% of anthropogenic
emissions of CO₂ as well as other air pollutants.
What is the health impact of carbon dioxide?
Exposure to CO₂ can produce a variety of health effects. These may include:
 Headaches  Increased heart rate
 Dizziness  Elevated blood pressure
 Restlessness  Coma
 A tingling “pins and needles” feelings  Asphyxia (the state of being unable to breathe, which

 Difficulty breathing causes somebody to die or to become unconscious)

 Sweating  Convulsions (rapid, involuntary muscle contractions that

 Tiredness cause uncontrollable shaking and limb movement)

What is the environmental impact of carbon dioxide?

CO2 emissions have strong evidence as a greenhouse gas to cause global warming. Climate change will
have a range of impacts that causes an increase of the global sea level, extreme weather shifts, shifting
wildlife populations and habitats, and a range of other impacts.
One of the human sources originates from the urbanization process. Urbanization is a dynamic process
that changes rural areas into urban areas. The built environment provides infrastructure and facilities for
human activities but also plays a considerable role in rising CO, emissions in the building sector. The
environmental impact of this sector can be categorized into ecosystem, natural resource, and public
impacts.
How can carbon dioxide be lessened?
Two fundamental areas to progress reduction in greenhouse gas emissions are:
Energy (electricity, heat, transport, and industrial activities)
1. Shift towards low-carbon electricity (reduce carbon intensity)
2. Shift sectors such as transport towards electricity
3. Develop low-cost low-carbon energy and battery technologies
4. Improve energy efficiency (energy per unit GDP)
Food and agriculture (agriculture and land use changes)
1. Reduce meat and dairy consumption, especially in higher-income countries
2. Promote lower-carbon meat and dairy production
3. Improve crop yields
4. Reduce food waste
Key Points
 Methane is a colourless, odourless, highly flammable gas.
 It is the primary component of natural gas and biogas.
 Methane is used in homes for cooking, heating and generating electricity
 It is also used as a power source and to produce other chemicals in industry
 It is produced naturally from the decay of natural material such as plant and animal matter
 Methane levels are generally low in the atmosphere methane is the second most significant greenhouse
gas in the UK.
 High levels of methane can cause mood changes, slurred speech, vision problems, memory loss,
nausea, vomiting, facial flushing and headache B skin or eye contact with liquefied methane released
under pressure may cause frostbite.
 Low level exposure to methane in the environment or from the correct use of natural gas products
appliances would not be expected to cause any adverse health effects.
What is Methane?
Methane is a colourless, highly flammable gas which is the primary component of natural gas. It may also
be referred to as biogas, or marsh gas. It may be stored and/or transported under pressure as a liquid-gas.
Natural gas is odourless therefore, to help people detect any leaks a harmless chemical is added to it to
make it easier to smell. It is described as a rotten egg or hydrogen sulphide smell.
What is Methane used for?
Domestic gas in the UK is mostly composed of methane. Being a major constituent of natural gas,
methane is used for cooking, and heating. In industry, methane is also used to refine petrochemicals and
to produce plastics, fertilisers, anti-freeze and fabrics. Methane gas from animal and landfill waste is
captured and used to generate heat and electricity.
Sources:
 Natural methane is found below the ground and under the sea bed. It is present at lower levels in the
Earth’s atmosphere. It is produced naturally from the decay of natural material such as plant and
animal matter. Sources of methane include wetlands and volcanoes.
 Methane may also be formed and released to the environment as a result of human activities.
Livestock, manure, leaks from gas distribution networks and landfill waste all represent sources.
When released into soil or water methane will eventually escape into the air where it is slow to
degrade.
Methane is the second most significant greenhouse gas in the UK. Greenhouse gases trap and hold heat in
the atmosphere which warms the Earth’s surface.
Effect on health?
 High levels of methane can reduce the amount of oxygen breathed from the air. This can result in
 Mood changes,
 Slurred speech,
 Vision problems,
 Nausea,
 Memory loss,

 Vomiting,

 Facial flushing and headache.

 In severe cases, there may be changes in breathing and heart rate, balance problems, numbness, and
unconsciousness.
 If exposure is large or continues for a longer period it can kill. Skin or eye contact with liquefied
methane released under pressure may cause frostbite
Effect on climate:
Methane is responsible for around 30% of the rise in global temperatures since the industrial revolution,
and rapid and sustained reductions in methane emissions are key to limit near-term warming and improve
air quality.
Two key characteristics determine the impact of different greenhouse gases on the climate:
(1) The length of time they remain in the atmosphere and
(2) Their ability to absorb energy.
Methane is the second most significant greenhouse gas in the UK. Greenhouse gases trap and hold heat in
the atmosphere which warms the Earth’s surface. Methane has a much shorter atmospheric lifetime than
carbon dioxide (CO2) – around 12 years compared with centuries – but absorbs much more energy while
it exists in the atmosphere.
Methane also affects air quality because it can lead to ground level (tropospheric) ozone, a dangerous air
pollutant. Methane leaks can also pose explosion hazards.

Carbon Monoxide (CO)

What is carbon monoxide?
Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colourless, odourless, and tasteless toxic gas. It is produced by the
incomplete combustion of carbonaceous fuels like wood, petrol, coal, natural gas, and kerosene.
What are sources of carbon monoxide?
Outdoor sources of carbon monoxide include:
 Vehicle and combustion engines (diesel  Forest fires
and petrol)  Volcanos
 Power plants  BBQ
 Biomass burning
Indoor sources of carbon monoxide include:
 Incense  Cooktops
 Boilers  Cooker hoods
 Fireplaces  Central vacuum systems
 Kerosene, propane, and gas heaters  Tobacco smoke
 Ovens
Man-made emissions are responsible for approximately two thirds of the carbon monoxide in the
atmosphere today; natural emissions account for the other third.
What is the health impact of carbon monoxide?
Upon entering the bloodstream, carbon monoxide inhibits the body’s ability to carry oxygen to organs
and tissues. Hemoglobin is usually responsible for binding to oxygen molecules and carrying them
through the human body. However, the bond carbon monoxide forms with hemoglobin is 245 times
stronger than the bond usually formed by oxygen. Carbon monoxide therefore stays much longer bound
to the hemoglobin, blocking the limited amount of possible “docking sites” for oxygen, leading to an
undersupply of the body with oxygen. As such, extremely high concentrations can cause death. Infants,
the elderly, and those with heart and respiratory diseases are particularly susceptible to carbon monoxide
poisoning.
Symptoms of carbon monoxide poisoning at low concentrations include:
Fatigue in healthy individuals
Chest pain in individuals with heart disease
At moderate concentrations:
 Angina  Reduced brain function
 Impaired vision
At higher concentrations:
 Impaired vision and coordination  Headaches
  Dizziness  Weak pulse
 Flu-like symptoms  Fainting
 Confusion  Coma
 Nausea
What is the environmental impact of carbon monoxide?
Carbon monoxide affect the amount of greenhouse gases when it is emitted into the atmosphere. This
change in atmosphere is linked to climate change and global warming, as land and sea temperature
increases changing to ecosystems, increasing storm activity, and causing other extreme weather events.
On a global scale, CO does not have a significant environmental effect. However, near the site of
emission, CO can also react with other air pollutants. It can either form harmful ground level ozone
during the summer months, or it can oxidize to form carbon dioxide (co,), an important greenhouse gas
that helps trap heat in our atmosphere. At different levels, CO, can also have serious air and health
problems that may include:
How can carbon monoxide emissions be lessened?
The best way to reduce carbon monoxide emissions is to target its sources, which, by extension, would
also combat the release of other harmful air pollutants. When it comes to indoor exposure, however, here
are some steps you can take yourself against carbon monoxide poisoning:
 Install carbon monoxide detectors.
 Use gas/kerosene/propane appliances as instructed.
 Keep fuel-burning appliances and engines properly vented
 Have vents, chimneys, heating system, and water heater regularly serviced by a technician.
 Never use a generator or a portable gas stove indoors.
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Sources and sinks of CO

 Carbon monoxide (CO) is released as a by-product of the incomplete combustion of carbon containing
materials and from the photochemical conversion of atmospheric CH4 and other hydrocarbons.
 Chemical production from the oxidation of CH4 and other VOCs represents a significant contribution

on the global scale.

 This CH4 oxidation representing 53% and the oxidation of isoprene, terpenes, and other hydrocarbons
representing 20, 4, and 23% respectively of this chemical production.
 The model results also shows the contribution of human activities to the CO surface concentration, and
unexpectedly this was seen to be highest over the polluted areas of the northern hemisphere.
Carbon Monoxide (CO)
 Carbon monoxide (CO) is an odourless, colourless gas which forms when the carbon in fuels doesn’t
completely burn.
 It is usually generated by motor vehicles and industry but can also be formed during bushfires.
Indoors, carbon monoxide is formed by unflued (without chimney) gas heaters, wood-burning heaters,
and are contained in cigarette smoke.
 The largest anthropogenic source of carbon monoxide is emissions from automobiles, boats, ships, and
aeroplanes.
 Carbon monoxide levels are typically highest during cold weather, because cold temperatures make
combustion less complete and traps pollutants close to the ground.
Impact on Human Health:
 Continuous exposure to CO leads to chest pain, impaired vision, and dizziness. Cigarette smoking is
responsible for the greatest exposure to carbon monoxide
 Exposure to air containing even 0.001 percent of carbon monoxide for several hours can ause collapse,
coma, and even death.
 As carbon monoxide remains attached to hemoglobin in blood for a long time, it accumulates and
reduces the oxygen-carrying capacity of blood. This impairs perception and thinking, slows reflexes,
and causes headaches, drowsiness, dizziness, and nausea.

NOx (Nitrogen Oxide)

Introduction
 At room temperature, nitrogen is a very inactive gas- a couch potato, you might say. In the presence of
lightning or a spark, nitrogen combines with oxygen to form several different oxides.
 Nitrogen monoxide or nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) are the most abundant. NO and
NO₂ are two kinds of gases and are referred as nitrogen oxides (NO₂). NOx molecules have nitrogen
and oxygen atoms in them.
 Nitrogen oxides (NOx) is a collective term used to refer to nitrogen monoxide (nitric oxide or NO) and
nitrogen dioxide (NO₂).
 Nitrogen monoxide (NO) is a colourless gas and one of the principal oxides of nitrogen.
 Nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) is a reddish-brown gas with a pungent, acrid odour and one of the several
oxides of nitrogen.
Sources of NOx – NO and NO2
 Nitrogen oxides are produced from the reaction of nitrogen and oxygen gases in the air during
combustion, especially at high temperatures. At normal temperatures, oxygen and nitrogen gases do
not react together.
 Nitrogen oxides are produced naturally from a lightning strike. A bolt of lightning can reach
temperatures of roughly 30,000 kelvins (53,540 degrees Fahrenheit). How many times does lighting
strike the earth you might ask? About 100 lightning bolts strike the earth’s surface every second. There
are 86,400 seconds in a day and 365 days in a year – you do the math…let’s just say it’s a lot.
 In large cities, nitrogen oxides are produced from fuel combustion in mobile and stationary sources.
The combustion of gasoline in automobiles emit nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere (mobile source).
Stationary emissions come from coal fired power plants, electric power plant boilers.
 Natural sources: Mainly thunderstorms due to the extreme heat of lightning. Forest fire is another
natural source.
 Biogenic: Agricultural fertilization and the use of nitrogen fixing plants (through nitrogen fixation by
microorganisms).
 Industrial sources: Thermal NO, fuel NO, and prompt NO.
 Thermal NO, - most relevant source of natural gas combustion
 Fuel NO, -transportation fuel is estimated to be 54% of NO, caused by humans
 Prompt NO, - occurs in the early stage of combustion, forming fixed species of nitrogen (like NH…
etc.) which can oxidize to NO
Impact on Human Health
 NOx from natural sources are typically found at altitudes higher than 5km. Man-made emissions, due
to fossil fuel combustion either from stationary sources (24%) and mobile sources (49%) are typically
found near the sources at near surface elevation where it can cause significant health effects.
 The impacts of NO, on human health include damage to the lung tissue, breathing and respiratory
problems.
 Nitric oxide (NO) is not considered to be hazardous to health at typical ambient conditions. However,
excess nitric oxide and its products may cause respiratory ailments, hematologic side effects,
metabolic disorders, low blood pressure, nausea, vomiting and diarrhea.
 Nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) at high concentrations causes inflammation of the airways. Breathing in high
levels of NO₂ can increase the likelihood of respiratory problems: wheezing, coughing, colds, flu and
 bronchitis. People with asthma are prone to have more intense attacks. Prolonged exposure to high
levels of NO₂ can cause irreversible damages to the respiratory system.
Impact on environment
 High levels of NOx can have a negative effect on vegetation by making it more susceptible to disease
and frost damage.
 Nitrogen oxides (NO) react to form smog and acid rain. NO, reacts with ammonia, moisture and other
compounds to form nitric acid vapour and related particles.
 While NO₂ is a primary pollutant, it is also a contributing component for secondary pollutants formed
from a chemical reaction. The most common is ozone. When NO₂ from gas combustion is exposed to
sunlight, splits and releases an oxygen ion (O). The released O combines with oxygen molecule (0₂)
forming ozone (O3). Ozone is one of the major secondary pollutants.
 Ozone at high concentrations also damage vegetation.

Ozone
Introduction
Ozone is a gas composed of three atoms of oxygen. Ozone occurs both in the Earth’s upper
atmosphere and at ground level. Ozone can be good or bad, depending on where it is found called
stratospheric ozone, good ozone occurs naturally in the upper atmosphere, where it forms a protective
layer that shields us from the sun’s harmful ultraviolet rays.
This beneficial ozone has been partially destroyed by manmade chemicals, causing what is
sometimes called a “hole in the ozone.” The good news is, this hole is diminishing.
Ozone at ground level is a harmful air pollutant, because of its effects on people and the
environment, and it is the main ingredient in “smog.”
Sources:
Tropospheric, or ground level ozone, is not emitted directly into the air, but is created by
chemical reactions between oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOC).
This happens when pollutants emitted by cars, power plants, industrial boilers, refineries, chemical plants,
and other sources chemically react in the presence of sunlight.
Ozone is most likely to reach unhealthy levels on hot sunny days in urban environments, but can still
reach high levels during colder months. Ozone can also be transported long distances by wind, so even
rural areas can experience high ozone levels.

What are the health effects of ozone?

 Ozone in the air we breathe can harm our health, especially on hot sunny days when ozone can reach
unhealthy levels. People at greatest risk of harm from breathing air containing ozone include people
with asthma.
 Depending on the level of exposure, ozone can:
Cause coughing and sore or scratchy throat.
Make it more difficult to breathe deeply and vigorously and cause pain when taking a deep breath.
Inflame and damage the airways.
Make the lungs more susceptible to infection.
Aggravate lung diseases such as asthma, emphysema, and chronic bronchitis.
Increase the frequency of asthma attacks.
 Long-term exposure to ozone is linked to aggravation of asthma, and is likely to be one of many
causes of asthma development.
Effect on Environment:
 Elevated exposures to ozone can affect sensitive vegetation and ecosystems, including forests, parks,
wildlife refuges and wilderness areas.
 In particular, ozone can harm sensitive vegetation during the growing season.
What can I do to reduce ozone?
There are actions every one of us can take to reduce air pollution and keep the air cleaner and
precautionary measures you can take to protect your health.
Peroxyacyl nitrates (PAN) CH3C(O)OONO₂:
 Peroxyacyl nitrates or PANS, which are also referred to as acyl peroxy nitrates or APN, are a
component of photochemical smog, produced in the atmosphere when oxidized volatile organic
compounds combine with nitrogen dioxide

CH3C(O)OONO
2:
 PANS are a secondary pollutant since they form in the atmosphere after the emission of primary
pollutants. Sources of the pollutants required to create PANS include motor vehicles, tobacco smoke,
and he burning of fossil fuels.
Sources:
Sources of the pollutants required to create PANS include motor vehicles, tobacco smoke, and the
burning of fossil fuels.
PANs are secondary pollutants, which means they are not directly emitted as exhaust from power plants
or internal combustion engines, but they are formed from other pollutants by chemical reactions in the
atmosphere.
Free radical reactions catalyzed by ultraviolet light from the sun oxidize unburned hydrocarbons to
aldehydes, ketones, and dicarbonyl compounds, whose secondary reactions create pyrexical radicals,
which combine with nitrogen dioxide to form pyrexical nitrates.
Effects:
Human health:
 Human exposure to PANs typically occurs in urban centers where automobile and industrial emissions
are high. PANs have many adverse effects in the human body such as reduced respiratory function
(including emphysema and impaired breathing) and eye irritation.
Climate:
 PANS can remain in the atmosphere for about 3 months after formation, under cold conditions (-20°c
and lower). However, in warmer areas, pans persist only for a few hours. Pans that remain suspended
in the atmosphere for extended periods of time are of concern, since they can be transported large
distances by wind currents, thereby spreading their impact to other regions. Under these conditions,
PANs can contribute to air pollution in places far away from their source.
Ambient Air Analyzers Detection Methods
NO, NO2, NOx – Chemiluminescence.
O3-UV Photometry
SO2 – UV Fluorescence
CO/CO2 – IR Photometry Gas Filter Wheel Correlation
NH3 – conversion to NO then measured using chemiluminescence
H2S, TS & TRS – Conversion to SO2 then measured using fluorescence