CropKit_Pepper_English 1 28-11-2006 10:26:18

We hereby would like to thank all our SQM, Dr Tarsa, Yara and Akzo Nobel
colleagues, as well as the following persons and organizations for having
provided excellent pictures:

Applied Plant Research, Naaldwijk (NL):

Figures n° 48-51, 53-55, 58-62.

Mr G. Sir - Seminis Seeds Mexico: Figures 6, 7 and 11.

Yara (Norway):
Figures n° 27, 45 and 57.

Mario Esteban Berríos Ugarte (Agr. Eng.)

Carlos Arredondo Belmar (Agr. Eng.)
Harmen Tjalling Holwerda (M. Sc.)

©2006 by SQM S.A.

Reproduction in any form (printed matter or digital) without the written permission of SQM S.A. is prohibited.

CropKit_Pepper_English 2 28-11-2006 10:26:19

 Foreword
SQM is a major supplier of specialty plant nutrition and related services to distribu-
tors and growers around the world.

As part of its commitment to the agricultural community, the company has

developed a comprehensive series of Crop Kits. Each Crop Kit consists of a
Specialty Plant Nutrition Management Guide, a PowerPoint presentation and a
CD with relevant pictures.

These guides compile the results of yearlong research and development activities,
as well as the practical experiences of the company’s specialists from around
the world, in order to provide comprehensive Specialty Plant Nutrition
Management Information to SQM’s distributors, agronomists, growers and
farmers.

This Capsicum Pepper Nutrition Management Guide summarizes the main

market requirements and the nutrient management needed to produce high yields
of top quality fresh and processing Capsicum peppers.

More information is available through SQM agronomists or SQM’s alliance

partners Yara and Akzo Nobel. SQM recognizes that there is no universal blueprint
for Capsicum pepper production – hence no detailed plant nutrition programme
is included in this guide. However, by working together with your local agrono-
mist you can be sure to achieve excellent crop performance. For area specific
programmes consult your local SQM distributor or agronomist.

This guide, which has been developed with the full support of the world's leading
specialty plant nutrition specialists, is part of a range of the most comprehensive
Specialty Plant Nutrition Management Guides available.

CropKit_Pepper_English 3 28-11-2006 10:26:20



Table of Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1. Crop nutritional status as it relates to performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2. Pepper crop description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.1 Botanical name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2 Heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.3 Pepper varieties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.4 Morphology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.5 Global production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.6 Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.6.1 Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.6.2 Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.7 Water and soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.7.1 Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.7.2 Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.8 Organic matter and manure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.9 Salinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.10 Phenology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.11 Physiological disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.11.1 Cuticular cracking in bell pepper fruit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.11.2 Sunscald . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.11.3 Blossom End Rot (BER) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.11.4 Pepper Spot, Black Spot or Stip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.12 Pests and diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.13 Quality parameters for the fresh and the industry pepper market . . . . . . 42
2.13.1 Quality parameters for the fresh pepper market . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.13.2 Quality parameters for the pepper industry – powder . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.13.3 Quality parameters for the sliced pepper freezing industry . . . . 44
3. Role of nutrients with emphasis on potassium and calcium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.1 Potassium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.1.1 Potassium for quality and quantity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.1.2 Effects of increased potassium levels in pepper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.2 Calcium for strong plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.3 Main problems in pepper growing in relation to a lack of potassium
and calcium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.4 Effect of plant nutrition on pepper growth and development
characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.5 Summary of the main roles of nutrients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
4. Guideline data facilitating nutrition management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

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 4.1 Nutrient uptake and nutrition of soil grown pepper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.1.1 Nutrient uptake of soil grown pepper in a greenhouse . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.1.2 Nutrition of soil grown pepper in a greenhouse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.2 Nutrient uptake and nutrition of greenhouse grown pepper in
substrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.2.1 Nutrient uptake of pepper, cultivated in wood fibre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.2.2 Nutrition of greenhouse pepper grown in inert substrates . . . . . . 55
4.3 Summary of nutrition of pepper, grown in open air or in a
greenhouse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4.4 Nitrogen management in pepper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4.5 Leaf norms for pepper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
5. Visual nutrient deficiency and excess imbalances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
6. SPN product characteristics regarding imbalance rectification
effectiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
6.1 Fertiliser selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
6.2 Specialty Plant Nutrition per nutrient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
6.2.1 Nitrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
6.2.1.1 Urea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
6.2.1.2 Ammonium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
6.2.1.3 Nitrate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
6.2.1.4 Specialty Plant Nutrition products containing
nitrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
6.2.2 Phosphorous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
6.2.3 Potassium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
6.2.4 Calcium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
6.2.5 Chloride . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
6.2.6 Magnesium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
6.2.7 Sulphur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
6.2.8 Water-soluble and granular NPKs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
6.2.9 Summary of most used water-soluble and granular
fertilisers with macro- and mesonutrients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
6.2.10 Micro-nutrients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
7. Plant nutrition practices and effective programmes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
8. Research results demonstrating the need for balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
9. Proven cost effectiveness of balanced nutrition programmes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
10. Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

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Introduction
The target of this Capsicum Pepper Nutrition Management Guide is to provide
comprehensive Pepper Nutrition Management information to SQM’s business
partners such as the pepper industry, distributors, agronomists and growers.

Chapter 1 describes how nutrition management in pepper can optimize plant

performance (yield, quality) thus generating a maximum financial income for the
grower.

A general crop description is given in Chapter 2, followed by an overview of the

role of nutrients with emphasis on potassium and calcium in Chapter 3.

Chapter 4 features guideline data to facilitate nutrient management. A photo gal-

lery of visual nutrient deficiency and excess imbalances is presented in Chapter
5. Specialty Plant Nutrition (SPN) product characteristics regarding imbalance
rectification effectiveness (Chapter 6) form the base for plant nutrition practices
and effective programmes (Chapter 7). A scientific back-up with research results
demonstrating the need for balance is given in Chapter 8.

Chapter 9 summarizes the economic results of SQM’s demonstration fields,

during which a traditional pepper nutrition programme was compared to a
balanced nutrition programme. The demo was carried out in open field grown
pepper for the fresh market.

Chapter 10 features a literature overview.

Note on booklet value-expression convention:

(.) Period: indicates thousands.
(,) Comma: demarcates the place of the decimal.
The number 1.500,5, stated in words, is
"One thousand five hundred and five tenths".

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 1 Crop Nutritional Status
as it Relates to Performance
This chapter describes how pepper nutrition management can optimize the
performance of the plants (yield, quality), thus generating a maximum financial
income for the grower.

Balanced plant nutrition means offering all the essential nutrients in well-balanced
proportions and in the correct amounts, following the growth curve of the plant in
order to optimize its potential. Plant performance, in terms of revenue generation,
is fundamentally related to plant health, whereby the balance of the nutrient levels
in the various tissues in each growth stage is a determinative factor for that health.
In case of imbalance, a reduction in performance will occur, both with respect to
deficiency (deficiency imbalance) and excess (excess imbalance).

As a result of the general removal of mineral nutrients from the production site, via
harvest, leaching and water runoff, nutrient replenishment is generally required.
Thus, nutritional status management generally entails the supply of mineral
nutrients in correct proportions and at opportune times.

An ideal fertilisation programme shall take into account a perfect nutritional-

status balance, both contents wise and time wise. Guideline information, procured
from focused research, can be used to facilitate nutrient-balance management.
This information can take the form of leaf norms, for leaves sampled at a specific
stage and adopting a particular method of sampling. Nutrient incorporation, in
quantitative and relative terms, in the various plant parts as growth and devel-
opment occurs (nutrient uptake curves) can also serve as valuable information
to maintain balance. Soil attribute and soil nutritional status norms are also
useful. The provision of guidance data should be such that its procurement is from
superior performing plants.

Fertilisers, whether applied on the aboveground parts or to the soil, should

be viewed as nutritional-balance management tools. Fertilisation products can
be expected to differ vastly in their ability to maintain nutrient status balance,
whereby of course some are more effective than others.

Plant revenue generation relates both to yield and quality. Quality is dictated by
the target market, relating to the attributes required by the buyer. (Each nutritional
balance has a quality/yield (revenue) ratio in quantitative terms). Guideline data
should therefore be procured from superior performing plants, in terms of revenue
generation, revenue being a function of target market requirement and yield.

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2 Pepper Crop Description

This chapter describes the pepper crop with regard to: botanical family, heat,
varieties, morphology, world production and crop statistics, climate (temperature,
light), water and soil, organic matter and manure, salinity, phenology, physio-
logical disorders, pests and diseases, and quality parameters for the fresh market
and the industry. This information should lead to an optimal understanding of
the pepper crop in general and will help to make proper nutrition management
decisions.

2.1 Botanical Name

Capsicum peppers have been grown in Central and South America long before the
arrival of Columbus, specifically in Peru and Bolivia.

Capsicum peppers belong to the family of the Solanaceae, which includes tomato,
potato and eggplant. There are five domesticated species of Capsicum (Dewitt and
Bosland, 1996):
Capsicum annuum: Bell Pepper, Serrano Chili, Jalapeños.
Capsicum chinense: Habaneros, Datil.
Capsicum frutescens: Tabasco, Malagueta.
Capsicum baccatum: Christmas Bells, Ajis and Piquins.
Capsicum pubescens: Rocotos.

2.2 Heat
Peppers can be segmented by their heat into sweet pepper and hot pepper:
1. Sweet pepper or bell pepper fruit contains little or no capsaicin. This alkaloid
causes a burning sensation when it comes in contact with the sense receptors in
your tongue. The capsaicin level determines the heat or pungency of pepper.
Therefore bell pepper fruit is sometimes referred to as 'sweet' pepper.
2. Hot pepper or chilis. Collectively, these hot types are sometimes referred to as
'chilis'. Chilis is a generic name, given to a broad range of over 200 varieties of
hot peppers. Shapes vary from the large Anaheim and Poblano types to the short,
chunky Jalapeño, the small round Habanero, and finally the short, slim Serrano
Chili and Thai types. Capsaicin content also varies from mild to extremely hot.

Two methods exist to express the heat or pungency of peppers:

1. Scoville Heat Units (oral test).
2. American Spice Trade Association (ASTA) units (HPLC test).

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 Mr Wilbur Scoville soaked each different variety of pepper separately in alco-
hol overnight. Because capsaicin is soluble in alcohol, the soaking extracted the
pungent chemicals from the pod. Then he took a precise measure of the extract
and to it added sweetened water in incremental portions until the presence of
pungency was barely detectable on his tongue. In the case of Japan chilis, it
took sweetened water in volumes between 20.000 to 30.000 times the pepper
extract before the pungency was barely discernable. He thus rated the Japan chilis
20.000 to 30.000 Scoville Heat Units. If all known peppers were measured using
this technique, their scale of pungency would range from 0 Scoville Heat Units,
for the bell pepper, to 350.000 units, for the Mexican Habanero (www.tabasco.
com, 2006).

The American Spice Trade Association (ASTA) uses the HPLC machine
(High Pressure Liquid Chromatograph). Measurements are expressed in so called
ASTA units. ASTA Pungency expresses the amount of capsaicin in ppm. Pure
capsaicin equals 1 million ppm capsaicin. Figure 1 expresses the conversion from
one measurement to the other.

The conversion from ASTA to Scoville Heat Units is:

ppm capsaicin x 15 = Scoville Heat Units.

1 ppm capsaicin = 1 ASTA unit = 15 Scoville Heat Units.
1.000.000 ppm capsaicin (pure capsaicin) = 15.000.000 Scoville Heat Units.

The conversion from Scoville Heat Units to ASTA is:

1.000 Scoville Heat Units equal 66,7 ASTA units.

Figure 1. The conversion from ASTA to Scoville Heat Units and the conversion
from Scoville Heat Units to ASTA units.

Genetic make-up, growing conditions, maturity at harvest and any stress the plants
endure have an effect on pungency. Too little or too much water, temperature
extremes, low soil fertility or other stress conditions can significantly increase the
capsaicinoid content.

Table 1 on Page 10 gives an overview of selected pepper varieties and their

Scoville values.

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10

Table 1. Selected pepper varieties and their Scoville values. A low Scoville value
is referred to as being a sweet pepper, and high Scoville Heat Unit as being a
hot pepper.

Scoville Heat Unit Type of Pepper

0 Bell Pepper
Sweet Italian
Pimento
100-500 Pepperoncini
500-1000 New Mexican
Anaheim
Mulato
1.000-1.500 Española
Poblano
1.000-2.000 Ancho
Pasilla
1.000-2.500 Cascabel
Cherry
1.500-2.500 Rocotillo
2.500-5.000 Jalapeño
Mirasol
Puya
Guajillo
5.000-10.000 Hungarian Wax
5.000-20.000 Serrano
12.000-30.000 Manzano
15.000-30.000 Chile de Arbol
30.000-50.000 Rocoto
Cayenne
50.000-100.000 Tabasco
Chiltepin
Santaka
100.000-200.000 Thai
Jamaican
100.000-350.000 Habanero
Scotch Bonnet
575.000-600.000 Red Savina
15.000.000 Pure Capsaicin

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 2.3 Pepper Varieties
Sweet peppers vary in size (bell, elongated, rectangular) and colour. Commercial
bell peppers are harvested when green, but if left on the bush, fruit will turn red.
Specialty cultivars which ripen to yellow, orange, or purple as well as red have
become popular because of the attractive, tender fruit (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Various shapes and colours of sweet pepper.

11

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12

Hereunder follows a description of various hot pepper varieties:

Jalapeño (Capsicum annuum) is a mildly hot pepper (Scoville: 4.000–6.000),

used for fresh market consumption and processing (pickled, sauces, dried over
smoke ‘chipotle’). The fruit is maturing from dark green to red (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Jalapeño pepper.

Serrano Chili (Capsicum annuum) is a mildly hot pepper (Scoville: 4.000–

6.000), used for fresh market consumption (fresh table sauce). The pepper fruit is
cylindrical with a tapered tip and green to red in colour (Figure 4).

Figure 4. Serrano Chili pepper.

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 Guero (Capsicum annuum) is a generic term for yellow chilis. It usually applies to
pale yellow tapered chilis such as Hungarian Wax or Banana chilis or the Santa
Fe grande. Guero type of peppers are mildly hot with Scoville 2.500–4.000 for
Banana or Hungarian Wax type of pepper, and Scoville 5.000–8.000 for Santa
Fe type. Guero is used for fresh market consumption (Figure 5).

Figure 5. Guero pepper.

Ancho (Capsicum annuum) or Poblano peppers can be used for fresh market
consumption or are dried and used in the manufacture of pastes (mole) and in
the extraction of pigment. Ancho, Mulato, Miahuateco and Chorrón chili peppers
all belong to the same group of peppers with only small differences in the type of
crop, preferred growing conditions and use. Fruit shape, colour and large size are
of importance, but more essential are the organoleptic characters of aroma and
flavour, particularly in this type of pepper. Thickness of pericarp is an indicator for
high dry matter content which produces higher quality upon drying. Peppers are
mildly pungent with Scoville: 500–2.000 (Figures 6 and 7).

Figure 6. Fresh Ancho pepper. Figure 7. Dried Ancho pepper.

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14

Pasilla (Capsicum annuum) is a hot pepper, used for processing (drying – used
in the manufacture of "molés" and dark sauces). Peppers are mildly pungent with
Scoville: 500–2.000 (Figure 8).

Figure 8. Pasilla pepper.

Mirasol (Capsicum annuum) is a hot pepper, used for processing. Peppers are
mildly pungent with Scoville: 2.500–5.000 (Figure 9).

Figure 9. Mirasol pepper.

CropKit_Pepper_English 14 28-11-2006 10:26:32

 Puya and Guajillo (Capsicum annuum) are other types of hot pepper, used for
processing (hot sauces, "molés", pigment extraction). Scoville of both peppers is
5.000 (Figures 10 and 11).

Figure 10. Puya pepper. Figure 11. Guajillo pepper.

Habanero is the main variety within the Capsicum chinense group, followed by
Scotch Bonnet and Jamaican Hot. It is used for fresh consumption and for
processing into sauces. Scoville ranges from 100.000-350.000 for these varieties.
Habanero and Scotch Bonnet have a strong aroma (Figures 12 and 13).

Figure 12. Habanero pepper. Figure 13. Scotch Bonnet pepper.

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16

Rocoto (Scoville 30.000-50.000) is the main variety within the Capsicum pubes-
cens group, followed by Manzano pepper (Scoville 12.000-30.000). It is used for
fresh consumption (Figures 14 and 15).

Figure 14. Rocoto pepper. Figure 15. Manzano pepper.

Tabasco is the main variety within the Capsicum frutescens group, followed by
Malagueta and Tezpur. Scoville ranges from 50.000-100.000 (Figure 16).

Figure 16. Tabasco pepper.

Ajies Amarillos and Ajies Cristal are the main varieties within the Capsicum
baccatum group (Figure 17).

Figure 17. Aji Cristal Estandar pepper.

CropKit_Pepper_English 16 28-11-2006 10:26:35

 2.4 Morphology
Figure 18 describes the morphology of the plant.

Flower

Stem
Fruits

Leaves

Figure 18. Morphology of the pepper plant.

Outer wall
Epidermis of pericarp
(ovary wall)
Seeds
Radial wall
of pericarp
Septum
(septum)

Locular cavity Placenta

with seeds

Figure 19. Cross section of pepper fruit.

In general, peppers are bilocular, trilocular or tetralocular (as in Figure19),

although pentalocular and hexalocular morphotypes also exist. In hot chili pep-
pers, the placental region contains up to 89 percent of the alkaloid capsaicin.
This alkaloid causes a burning sensation when it comes into contact with the sense
receptors in your tongue.

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18

2.5 Global Production

Six countries are responsible for 76,6% of the world pepper production (in
tonnes). China produces 50,1% of the world production (Table 2). Mexico, Turkey,
Spain, the USA and Nigeria are accountable for another 26,5% of the world
production.

Table 2. Overview of the major pepper producing countries, their production

(x thousand tonnes) and their relative market share (MS) in the global pepper
production (%).

Ranking Country Production (*1.000 t) MS (%)

1 China 12.028 50,1
2 Mexico 1.854 7,7
3 Turkey 1.790 7,5
4 Spain 1.006 4,2
5 United States of America 978 4,1
6 Nigeria 720 3,0
7 Indonesia 629 2,6
8 Egypt 390 1,6
9 Italy 362 1,5
10 Korea, Republic of 340 1,4
11 Netherlands 318 1,3
12 Ghana 270 1,1
Subtotal 1-12 20.685 86,2
Rest of the world 3.321 13,8
TOTAL 24.006 100,0

Source: FAOSTAT data, 2005.

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 Five countries are responsible for 65,2% of the world harvested area (Table 3):
China, Indonesia, Mexico, Nigeria and Turkey.

Table 3. Overview of the major pepper producing countries, their harvested area
(x 1.000 ha) and their relative market share (MS) in world harvested area (%).

Ranking Country Harvested Area (ha) MS (%)

1 China 602.500 36,5
2 Indonesia 154.537 9,4
3 Mexico 140.693 8,5
4 Nigeria 91.000 5,5
5 Turkey 88.000 5,3
6 Ghana 75.000 4,5
7 Korea, Republic of 65.000 3,9
8 United States of America 34.400 2,1
9 Benin 27.500 1,7
10 Egypt 26.000 1,6
11 Korea, Dem People's Rep 25.000 1,5
12 Spain 21.800 1,3
Subtotal 1-12 1.351.430 81,8
Rest of the world 301.086 18,2
TOTAL 1.652.516 100,0

Source: FAOSTAT data, 2005.

In Table 4 the production of sweet pepper per growing system and typical range
of yield are summarized.

Table 4. Type of growing system and typical range of yield of sweet pepper
(t/ha) that is obtained under such a specific growing system.

Growing system Yield in t/ha

Average world* 14,5
Open field rain fed 20-50
Open field drip/fertigation 50-80
Greenhouse non-heated (9 months cycle) 100-150
Modern greenhouse Netherlands year round 250-300

Source: FAOSTAT data, 2005.

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20

2.6 Climate
Proper management of climate factors, like day and night temperature, relative
humidity and radiation play a fundamental role in the correct generative develop-
ment of the crop. Knowing their optimal and limiting values and the relationships
among these factors will highly facilitate a proper crop management.

2.6.1 Temperature

Pepper is a warm-season crop and needs higher temperatures as compared to

tomato, and lower temperatures as compared to eggplant (IFA, 2006).

Ideal temperature range

The ideal temperature for pepper ranges between 18 and 28 °C (Table 5). For this
reason, most outdoor crops are grown in temperate climates, between 30th and
40th parallels in both the northern and the southern hemisphere.

The combination of a night and day temperature regime of 15,6-21,1 °C and

a high moisture level in the soil gave highest fruit set (Cochran, 1936). A night
temperature of 20 °C after flowering enhanced fruit size and number of seeds,
and accelerated fruit development. Fruit weight increased along with the increase
in the number of seeds per fruit (Rylski, 1973).

Table 5. Critical temperatures in different growth stages of pepper.

Temperature (°C)
Growth stage Optimal Minimum Maximum
Germination 20-25 13 40
Vegetative growth 20-25 (day)
15 32
16-18 (night)
Flower and fruiting 26-28 (day)
18 35
18-20 (night)

Night temperatures
The night temperatures determine the growth of the pepper plant in general and
flowering and fruit set in particular.

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 Low night temperatures ensured fruit set, but at the same time prevented normal
fruit growth and promoted fruit set without or with few seed (Rylski and Spigelman,
1982) (Figures 20 and 21). Low night temperatures (15 °C) increased fruit set
in general and that of parthenocarpic (seedless) fruit in particular (Rylski and
Spigelman, 1982). The number of seeds produced at low temperature only
reached 50% of the potential number of seeds as determined by ovule count
(Rylski, 1973). Parthenocarpic fruit is generally smaller than fertile fruit. When
conditions are not conducive to fertility, flowers usually abscise; but, occasionally
when night temperature after anthesis is low, these flowers set parthenocarpic fruit
(Rylski, 1973).

At low day temperatures below 16-18 °C flower formation is negatively affected,

while night frost will result in serious crop damage.

Figure 20. Abnormal fruit growth (left) and flattened, seedless bell pepper fruit
caused by low night temperatures in the winter production season in Almería,
Spain (right).

Figure 21. Normal pepper fruit

full of seeds (left) as compared
to a deformed pepper fruit with
almost no seeds (right).
Deformed fruit with reduced
seed formation can be caused
by low night temperatures after
anthesis.

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22

High night temperatures (24 °C) increase blossom drop (Rylski and Spigelman,
1982)(Figure 22). Excessively high, as well as low night temperature results in the
production of non – productive pollen. Seedless fruits are generally accompanied
by various degrees of deformation in fruit shape (Rylski, 1973).

Figure 22. Increased flower abortion and blossom drop can be caused by high
night and day temperatures.

High day temperatures

Temperatures above 32 °C in combination with low humidity will lead to flower
abortion (Figure 22), while pollen viability is strongly reduced by drying out.

The air temperature at 15 days before anthesis is positively correlated with the
percentage of sterile pollen. A daily temperature over 30 °C will result in poor
fruit set, while fruit set increases when the daily temperature drops to 20 °C, being
the optimal temperature for fruit set. Possible reasons for decreased fruit set at
higher temperatures may be found in an excess in transpiration or insufficient
sugar translocation.

A balanced plant nutrition programme instead of an unbalanced one has proven

to reduce the loss of flower clusters under these high temperature conditions.

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 2.6.2 Light
Plants absorb radiation of 400-700 nm in their chlorophyll cells and use it as
energy for photosynthesis (to transform CO2 gas into sugars). Therefore radia-
tion of 400-700 nm is called PAR (Photosynthetic Active Radiation, expressed in
Joules/s/m2). PAR determines the amount of sugars produced in the leaves during
the photosynthesis. The higher the amount of sugars produced, the more fruits a
plant can support, thus the higher the pepper yield can be.

PAR accounts for about 45-50% of the global radiation (300-1100 nm). Many
control computers use radiation measurements. For instance an irrigation cycle
is started when a certain sum of radiation is measured, expressed in J/cm2 or
MJ/m2 or a derived unit (Nederhoff, 2001).

Pepper is a light demanding species, especially at the beginning of the reproduc-

tive phase (Prieto et al, 2003).

If the intensity of solar radiation is too high, cracking, sunscald and uneven
colouration at maturity can result. Sufficient foliage will help to prevent sunburn.
Adequate potassium and calcium levels will maintain cell turgor and cell strength,
thus making the plant cell more resistant to water loss and consequently also more
sunburn-resistant.

In greenhouse growing it would be ideal to utilise the light, while keeping the tem-
peratures down and maintaining optimal transpiration for leaf cooling. Shading
or whitewashing a greenhouse reduces the temperature, but inadvertently also
reduces the light influx. Table 6 shows that shading resulted on average in 42%
more flower and bud loss and 13,5 tonne/ha (65%) less yield (Wien, 1994). A
better method is to use roof sprinklers (Figure 23), because they cool the roof and
the incoming air without reducing the light level (Nederhoff, 2001).

Table 6. Shading effects on pepper fruit set and yield.

Variety Flower and bud loss in % Yield in tonne/ha

Shaded Unshaded Difference Shaded Unshaded Difference
Ace 44 13 31 52,8 53,0 -0,2
North Star 86 37 49 39,4 46,8 -7,4
Mayatta 97 46 51 20,8 48,2 -27,4
Merlin 95 46 49 20,6 35,6 -15,0
Shamrock 95 68 27 10,0 27,6 -17,6
Camelot 99 55 44 6,8 20,6 -13,8
Average 86 44 42 25,1 38,6 -13,5

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24

Figure 23. Roof sprinklers cool the roof and the incoming air without reducing
the light level.

The light intensity inside the greenhouse can be reduced to 65% as compared to
the light intensity outside the greenhouse (Figure 24). Crops grown under dirty
cover, winter crops grown under double roof and greenhouses with old or dirty
polyethylene cover considerably reduce the entrance of light into the greenhouse
or under the shading cover (Aloni et al, 1999). Shading reduces the sugar concen-
tration in the flower buds, increases ethylene production by the buds and enhances
flower bud abscission (Aloni et al, 1999).

Figure 24. Shading can reduce the light intensity inside the greenhouse can be
reduced to 65% as compared to the light intensity outside the greenhouse.

The length of the photoperiod affects the earliness in pepper. Short day varieties
with photoperiods around 10 hours will have earlier flowering as compared to 15
or 24 hours. Long day varieties with photoperiods over 16 hours will have earlier
flowering as compared to 10 hours (Somos, 1984). However, as day length is
not a critical factor in producing peppers, greenhouses occur across a very wide
range of latitudes.

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 2.7 Water and Soil
2.7.1 Water

Proper irrigation management is essential to assure high yield and quality. In open
field, pepper may need up to 4.500 m3/ha of water, in greenhouses up to 8.000
m3/ha.

Daily fertigation with small amounts of nutrients will avoid salt stress in the rooting
zone (salinity) or early nutrient depletion (lack of nutrition), as could be the case
with weekly fertiliser applications.

Water shortage will lead to reduced growth in general and reduced uptake of
calcium in particular, leading to calcium deficiency imbalance, shown by the fruit
as Blossom End Rot (BER) (Figure 25). Flowering and fruit setting is negatively
affected and clusters might get lost (Katerji et al, 1993). Imposing stress up to the
first step of fruit growth reduced yield similar to imposing uniform stress throughout
the whole crop cycle. Differences in fruit yields among irrigation regimes were due
to significant variations in the number of fruits per plant (Pellitero et al, 1993).

Water shortage stress affects pepper growth, reducing the number of leaves and
the foliar area, resulting in less transpiration (Abou-Hussein, 1984). Water short-
age stress affects the growth of green pepper plants so that leaf number and area
are reduced and canopy architecture modified. Implications on radiation regime
of the canopy may be expected (Giulivo and Pitacco, 1993). Root density is
reduced with 20% under water shortage stress conditions, compared to sufficiently
irrigated plants (De Lorenzi et al, 1993).

Figure 25. Blossom End Rot in Jalapeño pepper.

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26

On the other hand, excess of water will cause root death in anaerobic soil condi-
tions, delayed flowering and fruit disorders (cracking, Figure 26).

Figure 26. Cracking.

Irrigation water with a high pH generally contains high levels of calcium and mag-
nesium bicarbonates and carbonates. Acidification of such water is recommended
to reduce the pH to 5-6 as it will go to the plant. This will improve the availability
of certain nutrients, like P, Fe, Zn, Cu, Mn and B and will avoid the precipitation of
insoluble salts that might block the drip irrigation system.

The addition of acid (H+) to bicarbonate (HCO3-) or carbonate (CO32-) will result
in carbonic acid, an unstable compound that will be transformed immediately into
water and carbon dioxide.

1 HCO3- + 1 H+ ➞ 1 H2CO3 ➞ 1 H2O + 1 CO2

1 CO32- + 2 H+ ➞ 1 H2CO3 ➞ 1 H2O + 1 CO2
(Bi)carbonate + acid ➞ carbonic acid ➞ water + carbon dioxide

It is recommended to neutralize with an acid about 90 to 95% of the (bi)carbonates

in the water. By this, the water will keep a small pH buffering capacity that helps
to avoid a further drop in pH. A very acidic pH of the irrigation water is undesired
and might lead to the dissolution of toxic elements present in the soil, like for
example aluminium (Al3+).

CropKit_Pepper_English 26 28-11-2006 10:26:42

 2.7.2 Soil

The ideal soil has good drainage capacities and a good physical soil structure.

The root system consists of a deep tap root with branches spreading laterally
about 50 cm, and has adventitious roots.

The ideal pH of the soil is 6,0-6,5 (Figure 27). At a pH > 6,5 the metal micronu-
trients (Fe, Zn, Mn, Cu), boron (B) and phosphorous (P) become less available for
plant uptake. At pH < 5,5 phosphorous (P) and molybdenum (Mo) become less
available for plant uptake.

Figure 27. The influence of soil pH on nutrient availability.

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28

Alternative growing media in greenhouses are rockwool (Figure 28) and bags
filled with coco peat (Figure 29).

Figure 28. Greenhouse grown pepper on rockwool substrate.

Figure 29. Greenhouse grown pepper in bags filled with coco peat.

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 2.8 Organic Matter and Manure
Organic matter and manure are applied to increase the water holding capacity of
the soil, and to improve soil structure and microbiological activity. Attention should
be paid to the fact that manure may contain substantial amounts of nutrients, thus
increasing the risk of getting an excess of nutrients in the rooting zone (risk of
salinization) and of getting certain nutrient imbalances. Manure of low quality (not
fully composted) may contribute to the spread of diseases.

Applications of 10-50 tonne manure/ha will contribute to an essential part of the

total nutrient demand. Dry chicken manure (Table 7) is more concentrated than
dry cow manure (Table 8). With 10 tonne of chicken manure 243 kg N/ha is
applied. If 50 tonne of dry cow manure/ha is applied, approximately 50 tonne/ha
x 5,5 kg N-total/tonne = 275 kg N-total/ha will be given.

Table 7. The average nutrient contribution in dry chicken manure.

N total N-min N-org P2O5 K2O MgO Na2O

in kg per 100 kg manure
Chicken (dry) 2,4 1,1 1,3 2,8 2,2 0,4 0,3
Application (t/ha) 10 243 109 134 283 222 35 30

Source: Handboek Meststoffen NMI, 1995.

Table 8. The average nutrient contribution in cow manure.

N total N-min N-org P2O5 K2O MgO Na2O

in kg per 100 kg manure
Cow (dry) 0,55 0,11 0,44 0,38 0,35 0,15 0,10
Application (t/ha) 10 55 11 44 38 35 15 10

Source: Handboek Meststoffen NMI, 1995.

Most of the nitrogen is organically bound and will be released during the grow-
ing season as a consequence of microbiological activity. This will lead to a high
release of nitrogen later in the growing season, when the pepper is already in its
generative phase, possibly causing uneven ripening, increased risk of BER and
short shelf life.

As this is one of the major problems in farmers’ practice, it is recommended to limit

the dose of manure to maximum 25% of the total N requirement and to add the
remainder of the nutrients with specialty plant nutrition products.

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30

2.9 Salinity
Salinity is the accumulation of all salts in the rooting zone to such a level, that it
limits the potential yield of the crop.

Plants grown under saline conditions encounter two problems: to take water from
a soil with a negative osmotic potential and to live with high to toxic ionic con-
centrations of sodium, carbonates and chlorides. The sodium ions compete with
the potassium ions for the uptake sites in the roots. This will result in a potassium
deficiency imbalance in the plant, leading to a low fruit number per plant. The
presence of calcium is fundamental. When sufficient calcium is available, the roots
prefer potassium uptake over sodium uptake. Consequently, higher leaf K levels will
be present, while sodium uptake will be suppressed (Salisbury and Ross, 1994).

For example, salinity can be caused by wrong fertiliser management, lack of water
or lack of rainfall to flush the soil, and/or irrigation water with high EC levels.

Figure 30 shows that salts are moving to the soil surface due to the high evapora-
tion levels and the lack of soil cover to keep the moisture in the soil.

Figure 30. Fertiliser salt accumulation in the soil surface in Jalapeño pepper in
the desert of Torreón in northern Mexico.

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 It is not recommended to apply saline organic matter and/or to use fertilisers with
chloride and sulphates (KCl, ammonium sulphate, and potassium sulphate) under
saline conditions to avoid any further increase of the EC in the soil solution. Saline
sodic soils may prohibit any growth at all. The only alternative in that case would
be soil-less culture (hydroponics).

Other measures to avoid or to reduce salinity problems include the following:

Improve the soil drainage capacity.
Do not use granular fertilisers in base- or side dressing.
Mix water of bad quality with water of good quality.
Select salt tolerant varieties (Urtubia, 1997).
Do single row planting with double line drip irrigation.
Apply plastic mulching.
Design the irrigation system for over-irrigation with 35%, i.e. the required volume +35%.

Pepper is relatively sensitive to salinity. In order not to reduce its potential yield,
the EC in the saturated soil extract should be: ECse < 1,5 mS/cm and the EC of the
irrigation water < 1,0 mS/cm. An ECse = 2,5 mS/cm reduces the potential yield
with 10%, an ECse = 3,3 mS/cm reduces the potential yield with 25%, and an
ECse = 5,1 mS/cm reduces the potential yield with 50% (Table 9).

Table 9. Reduction in potential pepper yield, caused by salinity.

% EC saturated EC irrigation Necessary

soil extract water lixiviation
(mS/cm) (mS/cm) (%)
0 < 1,5 < 1,0 6
10 2,5 1,5 9
25 3,3 2,2 12
50 5,1 3,4 20

Source: Libro Azul, 2002.

Differences in sensitivity to an excess of NaCl are often linked to differential

accumulation of sodium in the shoot, and more particularly, in the leaf blade. Zinc
nutrition in plants seems to play a major role in the resistance to salt expressed by
several species.

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32

In pepper, Zn concentration generally increased with Na concentration in the leaf

blade (Cornillon and Palloix, 1997).

The very high percentages of Zn correspond to low growth, which could be due
to different causes:
Zn toxicity,
reduced transfer of water in the plant,
or, a too strong carbonic anhydrase activity.

Mengel and Kirkby (1982) noted that percentages of Zn greater than 120 ppm
of dry matter in the leaf blades must be considered as high to excessive in tomato,
corn, and apple. When the concentration of Zn in the leaf blade is very high,
growth is slowed down.

Table 10 shows the influence of NaCl on the mineral composition of pepper

leaf blades. At higher NaCl concentrations, K% decreased, and Na% and Zn%
increased.

Table 10. The influence of NaCl on the mineral composition of pepper leaf
blades of four varieties.

Variety NaCl (mM) K (%) Na (%) Zn (ppm)

Y.Wonder 0 6,1 0,02 61
50 6,2 0,84 98
100 5,7 1,26 190
HDA 103 0 6,0 0,02 56
50 5,6 1,02 83
100 4,8 1,50 142
HDA 174 0 5,8 0,05 45
50 4,2 1,96 62
100 3,2 3,64 89
SC 81 0 6,2 0,02 75
50 5,4 0,78 114
100 4,9 1,22 200

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 Different levels of salinity did not affect the number of seeds per fruit. This is
because the pepper fruit regulates its fruit load in relation to its vegetative growth,
without reducing the total number of seeds per individual fruit (Espinoza, 1998).
However, there was a clear increase in seed necrosis with the big seeds, when
plants are subjected to EC levels of 10 mS/cm (Table 11, Figure 31).

Table 11. The relation between EC of the soil solution and the number of necrotic
big seeds per fruit.

EC Soil solution Number of necrotic

(mS/cm) big seeds per fruit
2,6 10,9
5,0 8,7
7,5 10,6
10,0 44,3

Figure 31. Serrano Chili pepper with necrotic seeds due to high EC in the soil
solution.

During a period of water shortage, pepper plants accumulate the aminoacid

proline in the leaves and especially in the roots. This is done to maintain sufficient
turgor in order to overcome this stress situation (El Sayed, 1992).

Salinity (provoked by NaCl) markedly decreased plant growth. Increasing salinity

levels increased stomatal resistance and sodium (Na), chloride (Cl) and proline
contents of plants. Potassium (K), total-nitrogen (N) and chlorophyll content of
the plants were decreased under high salinity conditions (Gunes and Alpasian,
1996).

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34

2.10 Phenology

Pepper has various development stages in its growth cycle: seedling, transplant
(speedling) and young plant establishment, development and vegetative growth,
flowering, fruit initiation, fruit development, and ripening and maturation (Figure
32), each stage being different with respect to its nutritional needs. Hereunder the
phenological stages for pepper, grown in open field, are discussed. The informa-
tion is purely indicative, as timing will depend on variety, environmental conditions
and crop management.

Seedling, transplant (speedling) and young plant establishment:

focus on firm root development and the formation of the initial aerial parts of the
plant.

Vegetative growth: takes place in the first 40-45 days, after which the fruits
start to develop continuously.

Flowering and fruit set: depending on the variety, environmental conditions

and crop management, flowering and fruit set starts around 20-40 days after
transplanting and continues during the rest of the growing cycle.

Pepper plants are usually considered to be a self-pollinated crop, but their ability
to cross-pollinate is far greater than expected. Pollination can also be done by
bees and wind in order to promote fruit set.

The number of fruits set depends on the following factors:

Genetics: plants with small fruits have more fruits set (Nuez, 1996).
Environment (light and temperature):
- low light intensities reduce fruit set.
- day temperature is ideally in between 20-25 °C (Quagliotti, 1979) with
abortion when T > 34 °C (Cochran, 1936).
- night temperature is ideally in between 18-21 °C, while abortion takes place
at T > 24 °C (Rylski and Spigelman, 1982).
Physiological load: the presence of fruits in development reduces the proportion
of fruits set (Nuez, 1996).
Hormones: ethylene production favours flower abortion (Tripp and Wien, 1989).
Nutrition: avoid an excess of nitrogen before the first fruits are set.
Nutrition: sufficient available B promotes fruit set (Alarcón, 2002).

CropKit_Pepper_English 34 28-11-2006 10:26:47

 Fruit development: after flowering and fruit set, the fruit starts to develop and
grow, achieving in this period major accumulation of dry matter in the fruit, at a
relatively stable rhythm.

Physiological ripeness and harvest: on average, fruit ripeness is achieved

at 80 DAT. Harvesting continues permanently, unless being stopped for climatic
reasons (frost) or for economical reasons (price of the pepper).

seedling and transplant

young plant establishment

development and
vegetative growth

flowering

fruit development

fruit ripening and maturation

Figure 32. The phenological stages in pepper.

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36

2.11 Physiological Disorders

This Chapter describes possible causes and symptoms of various physiological dis-
orders, like cuticular cracking in bell pepper fruit, sunscald, blossom end rot, and
pepper spot, black spot or stip. They are mainly caused by extreme environmental
conditions (high or low temperatures, high humidity) at critical plant stages (flower-
ing, fruit set). Fruit deformations can also be the result of the absence of seeds, as
described in Chapter 2.6. Climate.

2.11.1 Cuticular cracking in bell pepper fruit

Fruit expansion and turgor play a role in the formation of cracks, because expan-
sion of the epidermis cannot keep pace with fruit enlargement.

Cracks in bell peppers may appear as splitting of the pericarp at the end of the
fruit (Figure 33) or as longitudinal cracks along the entire fruit (Figure 34). The
initiation of fruit cracking in bell pepper is by formation of mini-cracks on the cuticle
layer.

Pepper cultivars differ in their sensitivity to cracking, partly because of differences

in fruit pericarp thickness. Pepper cultivars with thick-walled fruits (>8 mm) are
more susceptible to cracking than cultivars with thinner fruit walls (Jovicich et al,
2004).

The predominant factor which causes fruit cracking is inadequate water balance
in the fruit. Limitation of night transpiration by high humidity or low temperature
enhanced cracking. Likewise, leaf pruning suppressed night transpiration and
concomitantly increased cracking (Aloni et al, 1998).

In a study about cuticular cracking in bell pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) it was
concluded that it is the magnitude of the diurnal fluctuations in fruit turgor and
diameter, continuing over a long period which may cause the splitting of the cuticle
(Aloni et al, 1999).

Figure 33. Sweet pepper fruit

with radial, star-shaped cracks.

CropKit_Pepper_English 36 28-11-2006 10:26:50

 Figure 34. Micro-cracking in bell
pepper grown in non-heated greenhouses
in the Culiacán Valley in the Northwest
of Mexico.

The percentage of cracked fruits was highest in the greenhouse with the lowest
night vapour pressure deficit (VPD) (Table 12). At night, pepper plants transpired
at a rate proportional to the vapour pressure difference (leaves to air). Direct
radiation and the temperature of the fruit inner space were well correlated with
diurnal expansion and shrinkage of the fruit. The fruit with the higher expansion-
shrinkage amplitude had more severe cracking symptoms (Aloni et al, 1999).

Table 12. The effect of night temperature and vapour pressure deficit (VPD) on
fruit cracking incidence.

Cracking Incidence Treatments of Night Temperature and VPD

12 °C, low VPD 18 °C, high VPD 18 °C, low VPD
total nº fruits 58 29 62

Source: Aloni et al, 1999.

2.11.2 Sunscald

The total yield with sunscald (Figure 35) was lower with Ca supplement than
in those receiving no supplemental Ca. Although in a study of 15 bell peppers
cultivars, no difference was found in tissue Ca concentration between sunscald-
affected and unaffected fruit tissue (Table 13) (Alexander and Clough, 1998).

Table 13. The effect of calcium fertiliser rate on sunscald incidence.

Ca rate Sunscald Incidence

early yield total yield
(kg/ha) (tonne/ha) (tonne/ha)
0 0,28 2,85 a
34 0,18 2,15 b
68 0,13 2,18 b

37

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38

Figure 35. Sunscald in pepper.

2.11.3 Blossom End Rot (BER)

BER is a common physiological disorder in pepper, and occurs mainly during hot
weather conditions (Figure 36). Fruits are affected in their early stage of develop-
ment (10-15 days after fruit set). The cause is related to the speed of calcium
supply to the fruit, which is lower than the speed of the fruit growth itself. This
results in the collapse of certain tissues in the fruit, demonstrated as BER (Aloni et
al, 2004).

Factors that favour BER are directly related to limiting the calcium uptake and
transport to the fruit, like high salinity, high temperature and high light intensity,
and water shortage.

Figure 36. Blossom End Rot in pepper.

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 Under high salinity conditions (EC = 3,2 mS/cm) a clear difference exists in the
calcium content of healthy fruits and those affected by BER. Under low salinity
conditions (EC = 1,7 mS/cm) fruits with BER have only slightly lower calcium levels
as compared to healthy fruits (Figure 37). Therefore, BER is a disorder that cannot
only be attributed to the (lack of) calcium supply to the fruit.

Figure 37. Calcium content in 3 cross sections of pepper fruit without and with
BER, grown under 2 salinity levels.

Two mechanisms were proposed by Bar-Tal et al (2003) for the development of

BER under irrigation with saline water, which are related to anti-oxidative minerals,
of which Ca can be one.

Low uptake of anti-oxidative minerals (e.g. Mn, Zn, Ca) may impose dual effects:
It may impair lignin synthesis in the fruit peduncle and fruit organ and may there-
fore affect xylem function. Consequently, the water and possibly mineral supply to
the fruit tip are disturbed.
In addition, free oxygen radicals and hydrogen peroxide may cause cellular and
cell wall rupture in the fruit tip where the levels of anti oxidants are low (anti oxida-
tive enzymes, and minerals).
The differences between cultivar sensitivity may depend on the capacity of the
cultivar to combat oxidative stress.

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40

The activity of oxygen radicals in the bell pepper fruits is higher under salinity and
in fruits affected by BER (Figure 38) (Bar-Tal et al, 2003).

0,6
+ BER
nmole / g FW / min

0,5

0,4

0,3

0,2
Control Salt

Figure 38. The activity of oxygen radicals in the bell pepper fruits is higher under
salinity and in fruits affected by BER.

A reduction in the incidence of BER was seen by elevating Mn concentration in the

nutrient solution or by foliar application (Figure 39).

16
14 BER in pepper fruits
12
Low = 0,5 ppm Mn
10
High = 1,0 ppm Mn
% 8
6
4
2
0
(0,0125%)

(0,0125%)
1/10 Mn-

1/10 Multi-

1/10 Mn-
(0,14%)

1/10 Multi-
Mn SO4
Multi Mn

(0,14%)

Mn SO4
Multi Mn
Control

(0,2%)

Control

(0,2%)
Met.

Mn

Met.

Mn
Met.

Met.

Low High

Figure 39. The effect of elevating the Mn concentration in the nutrient solution or
by foliar application on the incidence of BER.

Table 14 on page 41 shows that a salinity increase reduced Mn concentration in

all parts of the fruit, whereas no effect was found on Ca concentration in the fruit.
Bar-Tal et al (2003) concluded that the results indicated that Mn rather than Ca
deficiency may be the major cause for BER under saline conditions.

CropKit_Pepper_English 40 28-11-2006 10:26:53

 Table 14. Dry weight and minerals content distribution in young pepper fruit as
affected by salinity.

Dry wt. K Na Ca Mg Mn Fe
Variable (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (ppm) (ppm)
EC (dS/m)
0.2 - 2.0 5,06c 3,65 1,08 0,15 0,28b 38,0a 44,9
1,7 - 4,0 5,36b 3,64 1,10 0,16 0,30ab 31,4b 47,3
3,2 - 7,5 5,77a 3,86 1,12 0,15 0,31a 19,6c 44,9
Location
Dorsal 4,67b 2,99c 1,30a 0,18a 0,33a 34,7a 49,9a
Middle 4,29c 4,04a 1,06b 0,15b 0,27b 30,4b 47,2a
Blossom end 4,67b 4,33a 1,15b 0,12c 0,27b 27,0c 49,7a
Probability of F
EC <0,0001 NS NS NS 0,0027 <0,0001 NS
Location <0,0001 <0,0001 <0,0001 <0,0001 <0,0001 <0,0001 <0,0001
EC *Location NS NS NS NS NS 0,004 NS

2.11.4 Pepper Spot, Black Spot or Stip

Pepper Spot, Black Spot or Stip is shown in the fruit as grey/black spots, which
develop under the skin in the fruit wall about the time the fruit attain a size dia-
meter of 8 centimeters or more (Figure 40). As the fruits ripen, the spots slightly
enlarge and turn green or yellow. Stip is a Ca disorder, by excess of N-NH4 and
K rates. Susceptibility greatly varies by variety.

Figure 40. Pepper Spot,

Black Spot or Stip is shown in
the fruit as grey/black spots,
which develop under the skin
in the fruit wall.

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42

2.12 Pests and Diseases

If the plant’s nutritional status is unbalanced, it becomes more susceptible to pests
and diseases. For example an excess imbalance of nitrogen will make the plant
grow very fast, and because the new cells are relatively weak, they are more
susceptible to penetrating insects.

Also a calcium deficiency imbalance leads to weaker plant cells, making it more
susceptible to Anthracnose (caused by the fungus Colletotrichum gloeosporioides
and C. capsici) and other fungi (Figures 41 and 42).

Figure 41. The addition of calcium Figure 42. Pepper fruit affected by
nitrate to the fertiliser programme Anthracnose, caused by the fungi
reduced the incidence of Anthracnose Colletotrichum gloeosporioides and
in pepper fruit. Anthracnose is caused C. capsici.
by the fungi Colletotrichum gloeospo-
rioides and C. capsici.

2.13 Quality Parameters for the Fresh and

the Industry Pepper Market
The income of the farmer largely depends on both yield and quality of the har-
vested crop, which may include characteristics that positively affect human health,
such as for example a high lycopene content. Balanced plant nutrition plays a key
role in meeting the quality standards of the fresh market and of the pepper indus-
try (powder, sauces, sliced pepper freezing industry).

CropKit_Pepper_English 42 28-11-2006 10:26:54

 2.13.1 Quality Parameters for the Fresh Pepper
Market

The following quality parameters are essential for the fresh pepper market:
Well-coloured and bright (non-green varieties without immature green spots or
blotches).
Uniform in shape (Figure 43).
Texture or firmness of bite (firmer peppers are less prone to damage and have a
longer shelf life).
Flavour and aroma, which are determined by the presence of pyrazines.
Pungency: from mild to extremely hot.
Clean and free of external defects and holes.
Only small defects are allowed for Class 1.

Figure 43. Class I high quality yellow, green, red and orange pepper fruit mix.

2.13.2 Quality Parameters for the Pepper Industry

– Powder

Paprika powder is obtained by the grinding of pods from the dried sweet red pep-
pers (Capsicum Annuum). The quality of paprika, used for producing powder, is
described by:
Organoleptic characteristics (colour, flavour and aroma).
The cleanliness of the product (including light filth and microbiology). The cleanest
dried peppers are dried inside under controlled conditions and sterilized. Paprika
from many origins is routinely made from raw material dried outdoors, in the sun,
thus often unclean.

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44

Only the highest quality, ripe, intensely coloured pods are used to make paprika
powder. Such pods have the highest content of carotenoids such as capsanthin,
capsorubin, carotene, criptoxanthin, and zeaxanthin and xantophyll in traces.
Several grindings are necessary to achieve the correct powder texture. This
aromatic powder is deep red to red-orange in colour; its flavour is mildly sweet
and non pungent.

The recommended colour method for paprika is the ASTA Official Method 20.1,
Extractable Colour in Capsicums and Their Oleoresins. Paprika is normally classi-
fied by its extractable colour (see ASTA Colour Rating in Table 15). Paprika with
a brighter red colour will normally have a higher extractable ASTA Colour (meas-
ured in units) and is more expensive. Lighter colour product (more orange-red) will
have a lower ASTA Colour rating and consequently a lower price. Some producers
even offer paprika which has ASTA Colour 50. That quality has mostly a culinary
application, where colour of the product is not the most important parameter.
What paprika quality will be used is determined by the final application. If the
final product colour is the main organoleptic attribute, the highest quality paprika
and the more expensive one will be used and vice versa (www.astaspice.org,
www.occidentalfoods.com, www.ntfkii.uni-lj.si).

Paprika Classification
in ASTA Colour Units
Minimum 160 (160-180)
Minimum 140 (140-160) Table 15. Paprika classification by its
Minimum 120 (120-140) extractable colour, measured in extract-
Minimum 100 (100-120) able ASTA Colour units.
Minimum 80 (80-100)
Minimum 60 (60-80)

2.13.3 Quality Parameters of Sliced Pepper for

Freezing Industry

The following quality parameters are important for sliced pepper for freezing
industry:
Well-coloured.
Free of external defects (before and after the industrial process).
Uniform calibre.
High organoleptic quality of the final product.

CropKit_Pepper_English 44 28-11-2006 10:26:55

 3 Role of Nutrients with
Emphasis on Potassium and Calcium
An adequate nutrition management programme can only be made when there
is a clear understanding of the main roles of all nutrients. Special attention is
paid to potassium and calcium, which have proved to be key elements in all our
demonstration fieldwork when aiming to improve yield and quality (also see
Chapter 9). However, it still remains important to consider all nutrients for a
well-balanced nutrition programme.

3.1 Potassium
The roles of potassium in pepper are directly related to quality and quantity.
Increased K levels will improve plant performance.

3.1.1 Potassium for Quality and Quantity

Essential roles of potassium are to be found in the protein synthesis, the photo-
synthetic process and the transport of sugars from the leaves to the fruits. A good
potassium supply shall therefore sustain the leaf function all along fruit growth
and shall contribute to the positive effect of K on yield and on a high soluble solid
content (more sugars) in fruits at harvest time. About 50 % of K absorbed by the
plant is found in the fruit (Table 16). The action of potassium on protein synthesis
enhances the conversion of absorbed nitrate into proteins contributing to a better
efficiency of the N fertiliser supplied.

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46

Table 16. Nutrient accumulation in the dry matter of different plants parts in %
of nutrients uptake by plant.

Plant Parts Nutrients Content in % of Dry Matter

N P K Ca Mg
Marketable crop 50 60 50 15 25
Fruit set 7 9 7 3 5
Subtotal generative parts 57 69 57 18 30
Foliage 25 17 21 60 45
Stem 13 10 18 17 21
Roots 5 4 4 5 4
Subtotal generative parts 43 31 43 82 70
Total plant parts 100 100 100 100 100

Source: Somos, 1984.

Potassium is a cation that is involved in the maintenance of plant osmotic potential

(cell turgescence), one implication of this being the movement of stomata, the
openings that allow plants to exchange gas and water with the atmosphere. This
enables plants to maintain an adequate hydric status under stress conditions such
as salinity or water shortage. Indeed, pepper crops with a high potassium content
generally show a better water use efficiency, that is, they consume relatively less
water than K deficient crops to produce the same amount of biomass.

In addition potassium is involved in maturation processes of the fruit such as the

synthesis of the pigment lycopene, responsible for the red colour of the pepper
fruit.

Summary of the role of potassium in the pepper plant:

Promotes the production of proteins (faster conversion to proteins).

Promotes the photosynthesis (more CO2 assimilation, more sugars).

Intensifies the transport and storage of assimilates (from leaf to fruit) (Figure 44).

Prolongs and intensifies assimilation period (higher fruit quality).

Improves the efficiency of N fertilisers.

Improves the water use efficiency (less water needed per kg per plant mass).

Regulates the opening and closure of stomata (guard cells).

Is responsible for the synthesis of lycopene (red colour).

CropKit_Pepper_English 46 28-11-2006 10:26:56

 Sap flow in the phloem
2.5 ml/plant

2.0 High in K

1.5

1.0
Low in K
0.5

0
30 60 90 120 150 180
minutes

Figure 44. K intensifies the transport and storage of assimilates from the leaf to
the fruit, as shown here as an example in tomato.

3.1.2 Effects of Increased Potassium Levels in

Pepper

Research has shown that increased potassium levels in pepper will lead to the
following effects:
Improved number of fruit and weight per fruit (Pimpini, 1967).
Increased wall thickness (Pimpini, 1967).
Higher proportion of high quality fruit (Iley and Ozaki, 1967).

3.2 Calcium for Strong Plants

Calcium has three main functions in the plant:
It is essential for cell walls and plant structure. About 90% of the calcium is found
in the cell walls. It acts as a cohesion factor that cements cells together and holds
their structure in plant tissues. Without Ca, the new tissue development (cell divi-
sion and extension) of roots and shoots is stopped. As a consequence the crop
yield is badly affected. Calcium is the key element responsible for the firmness
of pepper fruits. It delays senescence resulting in long lasting leaves capable to
continue the photosynthesis process.

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48

It maintains the integrity of cell membranes. This is important for the proper
functioning of uptake mechanisms as well as for preventing leakage of elements
out of the cells.

It is also at the heart of plant defence mechanisms that help plants to detect and
react against external stresses. Both roles in plant defence and on tissue firmness
are important for resistance against pathogen attacks and decay during fruit
storage.

One particularity of calcium is that it is almost exclusively transported with the

transpiration stream along the xylem, i.e. it is mainly distributed from the roots up
to the leaves, the main transpiring organs (Figure 45). On the other hand, fruits
with a low transpiration rate are poorly supplied with calcium. Only 15% of the
calcium goes to the fruit (Table 16). Thus, transient Ca deficiency can occur easily
in fruits and especially at periods when growth rate is high, leading to the necrosis
of the apical end of the fruits identified as BER.

Figure 45. Calcium transport in the plant, as shown here as an example in

tomato.

Factors that either increase the transpiration stream towards the leaves (climatic
conditions) or decrease the Ca availability for plant uptake (drought, high EC/
salinity, nutrition imbalance) will increase the risk of BER development. Only
sufficient and constant calcium supply in a water-soluble form with calcium nitrate
can prevent calcium deficiencies.

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 3.3 Main Problems in Pepper Growing in
Relation to a Lack of Potassium and Calcium
Table 17 describes the main problems in pepper growing, which are related to a
deficiency imbalance of potassium and calcium.

Table 17. The main problems in pepper growing and their relation to a deficiency
imbalance of potassium and calcium.

Main problems in pepper growing Related to

K Ca
Plant Low yield x x
Performance Heterogeneity in size, uneven ripening x
Limited fruit set x
No bulking / small pepper fruit x
External Lack of colour x
quality Soft fruit / no firmness x x
Limited storability / shelf life x x
Internal Low °Brix (Soluble solids) x x
quality (taste) Lack of acidity x
Disorders BER (blossom end rot) x
and defects Cracking x x
Sunburn x x
Tolerance / Water status (drought / transpiration) x x
Resistance Diseases (fungal) x x
Salinity x x

3.4 Effect of Plant Nutrition on Pepper

Growth and Development Characteristics
The moment of flowering and number of flowers is affected by ammonium.
Ammonium supply enhances flowering. Ammonium changes the phytohormone
level in general and of cytokinins (CYT) in particular (Marschner, 1995). P supply
is positively correlated with flower formation (Menary and Van Staden, 1976).
The positive correlations between the number of flowers and CYT level on the one
hand, and between the P supply and CYT level on the other hand, provide addi-
tional evidence that CYT also contributes to the enhancing effect of P on flower
formation (Marschner, 1995).

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50

The number of seeds and/or fruits is related to N (Hassan et al, 1993) (Schon et
al, 1994), P, B, and Zn (Marschner, 1995).

There is a highly positive relation between fruit size and number of seeds per fruit
(Rylski, 1973), whereas the number of seeds is related to P and B.

Wall thickness is positively related to K and Ca.

3.5 Summary of the Main Roles of Nutrients

Table 18 summarizes the main roles of all nutrients.

Table 18. The main roles of all nutrients.

Nutrient Symbol Main Roles

Nitrogen N Chlorophyll and protein synthesis
(growth and yield).
Phosphorous P Cell division, energy transfer.
Potassium K Sugar transport. Water regime regulation.
Calcium Ca Storage quality, reduced disease susceptibility.
Sulphur S Synthesis of essential amino acids: cysteine,
methionine.
Magnesium Mg Central part of the chlorophyll molecule.
Iron Fe Chlorophyll synthesis.
Manganese Mn Required for photosynthesis.
Boron B For cell wall formation (pectin and lignin),
B is a structural component of the cell wall.
For sugar metabolism and transport.
For flowering, fruit set and seed development
(pollen germination + pollen tube growth).
Zinc Zn Early growth and development (auxins).
Copper Cu Influences carbohydrate and N metabolism.
Enzyme activator for lignin and melanin
production.
Molybdenum Mo Component of the enzymes nitrate
reductase (NO3 ➞ NO2 ➞ NH3) and
nitrogenase (N2 ➞ NH3 conversion in
N fixing Rhizobium bacteria).

CropKit_Pepper_English 50 28-11-2006 10:26:57

 4 Guideline Data
Facilitating Nutrition Management
Guideline data are essential for the agronomist in order to make objective recom-
mendations in relation to the target market and buyer request. Nutrient uptake
curves for pepper grown in soil, grown on wood fibre and on rockwool in a
greenhouse are given.

Nutrient absorption curves describe the nutrient uptake per nutrient per
phenological phase. The nutrient uptake curve is the base for a fertiliser recom-
mendation.

4.1 Nutrient Uptake and Nutrition of Soil

Grown Pepper

4.1.1 Nutrient Uptake of Soil Grown Pepper in a

Greenhouse

Table 19 describes the uptake of N, P, K, Ca and Mg during the growing cycle of

soil grown pepper for an estimated yield of 100 tonne/ha (Rincón et al, 1993).

Table 19. The uptake of N, P, K, Ca and Mg during the growing cycle of soil
grown pepper for an estimated yield of 100 tonne/ha.

Period N P2O5 K2O CaO MgO N P2O5 K2O CaO MgO

days kg/ha/day kg/ha/period
0-35 0,05 0,009 0,10 0,06 0,025 2 0 3 2 1
35-55 0,35 0,07 0,80 0,35 0,17 7 1 16 7 3
55-70 1,20 0,23 2,25 0,98 0,45 18 3 34 15 7
70-85 1,30 0,23 2,60 0,98 0,41 20 3 39 15 6
85-100 2,60 0,78 4,82 2,80 1,41 39 12 72 42 21
100-120 2,75 0,57 5,50 1,12 1,16 55 11 110 22 23
120-140 3,75 1,08 4,82 1,40 1,00 75 22 96 28 20
140-165 3,15 0,78 4,80 1,68 1,19 79 19 120 42 30
Total/100 t 294 73 491 173 111
Total/t 2,9 0,7 4,9 1,7 1,1

N P K Ca Mg
Total/100 t 294 32 407 123 67
Total/t 2,9 0,3 4,1 1,2 0,7

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52

4.1.2 Nutrition of Soil Grown Pepper in a

Greenhouse

Table 20 shows the target values for base dressing in the 1:2 volume extract in
water for greenhouse grown sweet pepper in soil in The Netherlands. The amounts
of nutrients that are lacking to match the target values for base dressing are
applied with fertilisers in the base dressing. P is normally applied with the base
dressing at a rate of 0-920 kg P2O5/ha, depending on the P soil reserve and avail-
ability. Except for B, all other trace elements are only applied in case of a proven
deficiency imbalance. B is applied during fertigation.

Table 20. Target values for base dressing in the 1:2 volume extract in water for
greenhouse grown sweet pepper in soil in The Netherlands.

Pepper N K Ca Mg SO4 H2PO4

soil mmole/l
Target values base dressing 4,5 2 2,5 1,2 2 0,1

Pepper N-NO3 K Ca Mg S P
soil ppm
Target values base dressing 63 78 100 29 64 3

Source: Van den Bos et al, 1999.

Table 21 demonstrates the standard nutrient solution for side dressing for
greenhouse grown sweet pepper in soil in The Netherlands. No P is needed when
P > 0,10 mmole/l in the 1:2 volume extract. B is applied during fertigation at a
rate of 0-40 µmole/l depending on soil and water analysis. Standard dose is 10
µmole B/l. All other trace elements are only applied in case of a proven deficiency
imbalance.

Table 21. Standard nutrient solution for side dressing for greenhouse grown
sweet pepper in soil in The Netherlands.

Pepper NO3 K Ca Mg SO4 H2PO4 NH4 B

soil mmole/l µmole/l
Standard nutrient solution 8,4 4 2 1 1 0,4 10

Pepper N-NO3 K Ca Mg S P N-NH4 B
soil ppm ppm
Standard nutrient solution 118 156 80 24 32 0 6 0,11

Source: Van den Bos et al, 1999.

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 The goal is to maintain the desired nutrient target values in the soil (Table 22) by
using the recommended standard nutrient solution. Hereto each 4-6 weeks a soil
sample is taken to verify the nutrient status. If necessary, corrections should be
made in the standard nutrient solution. Guidance tables are available to make
these corrections. No P is needed when P > 0,10 mmole/l in the 1:2 volume
extract. 10 µmole B/l is applied when B (measured in the 1:2 volume extract) is
21-40 µmole/l. The target EC = 1,1 mS/cm in the 1:2 volume extract.

Table 22. Desired nutrient target values in the soil as measured in the 1:2 volume
extract.

Pepper N K Ca Mg SO4 H2PO4 B

soil mmole/l µmole/l
Target values 1:2 volume extract 4,5 2 2,5 1,2 2 >0,1 21-40

Pepper N-NO3 K Ca Mg S P B
soil ppm ppm
Target values 1:2 volume extract 63 78 100 29 64 >3 0,23-0,43

Source: Van den Bos et al, 1999.

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54

4.2 Nutrient Uptake and Nutrition of

Greenhouse Grown Pepper in Substrates
4.2.1 Nutrient Uptake of Pepper, Cultivated in Wood
Fibre

Figures 46 and 47 describe the uptake of macro- and micronutrients during the
growing cycle of pepper, cultivated in wood fibre.
nutrient uptake (g/plant)

days after sowing

Figure 46. The uptake of macronutrients during the growing cycle of pepper,
cultivated in wood fibre (Heuberger and Schnitzler, 1998).
nutrient uptake (mg/plant)

days after sowing

Figure 47. The uptake of micronutrients during the growing cycle of pepper,
cultivated in wood fibre (Heuberger and Schnitzler, 1998).

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 4.2.2 Nutrition of Greenhouse Grown Pepper in
Inert Substrates
The standard nutrient solution for greenhouse grown pepper on rockwool with
open drain and changes per phenological stage is presented in Table 23. The
EC = 2,1 mS/cm. The changes are expressed in mmole/l and ppm (as the diluted
nutrient solution goes to the plant).

Table 23. The standard nutrient solution (EC = 2,1 mS/cm) for greenhouse grown
pepper on rockwool with open drain and changes per phenological stage.

Sweet pepper open drain NO3 K Ca Mg SO4 H2PO4 NH4 Fe Mn Zn B Cu Mo

rockwool, 1 cycle/year mmole/l µmole/l
Standard nutrient solution 15,5 6,75 5 1,5 1,75 1,25 0,5 15 10 5 30 0,75 0,5

Changes per phenological phase
1 saturation rockwool slabs 16,5 4,8 5,8 2,3 1,8 1,3 0,5 15 10 5 46 0,75 0,5
2 starter scheme (first weeks) 15,5 5,8 5,5 1,5 1,8 1,3 0,5 15 10 5 30 0,75 0,5
3 until harvest first fruits 15,3 6,8 5,0 1,5 1,8 1,5 0,5 15 10 5 30 0,75 0,5
4 heavy fruit load 16,5 7,8 5,0 1,5 1,8 1,3 0,5 15 10 5 30 0,75 0,5

Sweet pepper open drain N-NO3 K Ca Mg S P N-NH4 Fe Mn Zn B Cu Mo
rockwool, 1 cycle/year ppm ppm
Standard nutrient solution 217 263 200 36 56 39 7 0,84 0,55 0,33 0,32 0,048 0,048

Changes per phenological phase
1 saturation rockwool slabs 231 185 230 55 56 39 7 0,84 0,55 0,33 0,50 0,048 0,048
2 starter scheme (first weeks) 217 224 220 36 56 39 7 0,84 0,55 0,33 0,32 0,048 0,048
3 until harvest first fruits 214 263 200 36 56 47 7 0,84 0,55 0,33 0,32 0,048 0,048
4 heavy fruit load 231 302 200 36 56 39 7 0,84 0,55 0,33 0,32 0,048 0,048

Adapted from: Bemestingsadviesbasis substraten, 1999.

The goal is to maintain the desired nutrient target values in the rooting zone in the
substrate (Table 24) by using the recommended standard nutrient solution. Hereto
each 2 weeks a substrate solution sample is taken to verify the nutrient status. If
necessary, corrections should be made in the standard nutrient solution. Guidance
tables are available to make these corrections.

In sweet pepper, B should accumulate to high levels in the root environment (80
µmole/l), to force the plants to absorb sufficient quantities of this element. In
tomato the target value in the rooting zone is 50 µmole/l.

Table 24. Desired nutrient target values (EC= 2,7 mS/cm) in the rooting zone for
greenhouse grown pepper on rockwool with open drain.

Sweet pepper open drain NO3 K Ca Mg SO4 H2PO4 NH4 Fe Mn Zn B Cu

rockwool, 1 cycle/year mmole/l µmole/l
Target values in the rooting zone 17 5 8,5 3 3 1,2 <0,5 15 5 7 80 0,7

Sweet pepper open drain N-NO3 K Ca Mg S P N-NH4 Fe Mn Zn B Cu
rockwool, 1 cycle/year ppm ppm
Target values in the rooting zone 238 195 340 73 96 37 <7 0,84 0,27 0,46 0,86 0,045

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4.3 Summary of Nutrition of Pepper, Grown

in Open Air or in a Greenhouse
Table 25 shows the nutrient requirement of the whole plant to produce 1 tonne of
fresh fruit for different varieties, grown in open air or in greenhouses, according
to various authors.

Table 25. Nutrient requirement of the whole plant to produce 1 tonne of fresh
fruit for different varieties, grown in open air or in greenhouses, according to
various authors.

Author and growing condition Variety N P2O5 K2O CaO MgO

kg/tonne fresh fruit
Open air Doux des Landes 3,7 1,0 5,0 3,0 0,6
Open air Bola y negral 3,3 0,9 5,8
Belrubi y Datler 2,3 0,7 4,5
Open air (1) Morrón de Conserva 2,3 0,8 3,6
Greenhouse (2) Yolo Wonder 4,1 0,5 5,1 3,8 0,5
Heldor 5,3 0,7 6,7 4,8 0,6
Greenhouse (3) Lamuyo 2,9 0,8 4,6 1,7 1,1
Greenhouse, rockwool , recirc. with 3,4 1,9 6,1
100% efficiency, 250 t/ha/yr (4)
Greenhouse, wood fibre (5) 2,5 1,0 3,6 2,8 0,5
Average 3,31 0,92 4,99 3,21 0,65

Sources:
1. Martínez-Raya and Castilla, 1989.
2. Graifenberg et al, 1985.
3. Rincón et al, 1993.
4. Voogt, 2003.
5. Heuberger and Schnitzler, 1998.

4.4 Nitrogen Management in Pepper

Nitrogen is the main nutrient responsible for the development of leaf area and
should be present from the first stages of plant development onwards. Therefore
the nitrogen applied as fertiliser should be immediately available for the plant and
ideally in the nitrate form (N-NO3-), because nitrate is the nitrogen form which the
plant prefers to absorb. It is recommended to apply no more than 20% of the total
N as ammonium and at least 80% as nitrate. In hydroponic systems the maximum
recommended ammonium level should not exceed 7% of the total N input in order
to avoid BER (Table 26).

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 Table 26. The maximum recommended levels of ammonium in hydroponics and
soil to avoid BER.

Pepper Max. NH4+ level Reason

Growing in % of
System N total
Hydroponics 5-7 to avoid BER
Soil 20 to avoid BER

Source: Voogt, 2002.

Figure 48 shows that pepper plant growth is reduced when plants are fed only with
ammonium nitrogen as compared to a mix of ammonium and nitrate-nitrogen.

Figure 48. Pepper plant growth is reduced (plant on the right side) when plants
are fed only with ammonium nitrogen as compared to a mix of ammonium and
nitrate-nitrogen (plant on the left side).

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58

4.5 Leaf Norms for Pepper

Table 27 presents guideline data for the macro- and micronutrient content in the
leaf dry matter. The total iron content in the leaf is not a reliable indicator for Fe
status.

Table 27. Guideline data for the macro- and micronutrient content in the leaf
dry matter.

% Leaf Dry Matter

deficient normal high
N 2,0-2,5 3,0-4,0 4,0-5,0
P 0,25 0,3-0,4 0,4-0,6
K 2 3,5-4,5 4,5-5,5
Ca 1 1,5-2,0 5,0-6,0
Mg 0,25 0,25-4,0 0,4-0,6
Na 0,1

Ppm Leaf Dry Matter

deficient normal high
Fe 50-100 200-300 300-500
Mn 25 80-120 140-200
Zn 20 40-50 60-200
Cu 5-10 15-20 20-40
B 40-60 60-100
Mo 0,4 0,6

Source: Weir and Cresswell, 1993.

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 5 Visual Nutrient Deficiency
and Excess Imbalances
A visual description of nutrient deficiency and excess imbalances is a useful
tool to determine the cause of such an imbalance. It is recommended to get a
confirmation and better understanding of the nature of the symptoms via plant,
soil and/or water analysis, performed by a qualified laboratory. For example a
visual deficiency imbalance of a certain nutrient might be provoked by an excess
imbalance of another nutrient.

Hereunder the nutrient deficiency imbalance symptoms are described and

illustrated by pictures. In some cases nutrient excess imbalance descriptions and
pictures are presented.

Nitrogen deficiency imbalance results in:

Stunted growth, the leaves being small and light yellowish green (Figure 49).
Stems are less branched and thinner.
The proportion of flowers that set is reduced.
The number of fruits formed is reduced.
The fruit is yellow-green in colour.

Figure 49. N deficiency imbalance,

shown as stunted growth, the leaves
being small and light yellowish green.

N excess imbalance provoked by an excess of ammonium generating and ammo-

nium containing fertilisers will lead to increased vegetative growth, more BER,
delayed fruit formation and colouring problems in non-green picked peppers.

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60

P deficiency imbalance is shown in the plant as follows (Figure 50):

Growth is restricted and, in contrast to N-deficiency, the foliage remains dark

green.
The leaves of P-deficient plants are small and dark grey-green in colour and the
margins tend to curl upwards and inwards.
Overall growth is weak (Miller, 1961).
Fruits are reduced in both diameter and length, many of which were misshapen
(Miller, 1961). Less fruits are formed per plant, while harvesting is delayed
(Vereecke, 1975).

+P -P -P +P

Figure 50. P deficiency imbalance.

In case of K deficiency imbalance, growth is restricted and small reddish-brown

spots develop on the mature leaves (Figure 51). On young plants these spots
usually spread from the leaf tips. Leaf margins turn yellow.

Figure 51. K deficiency imbalance.

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 In case of Ca deficiency imbalance, there is marginal yellowing of the youngest
leaves, which usually develops first near the leaf tips, then spreads interveinally.

Pale brown sunken areas develop on the fruit, usually near the blossom end
(Figure 52).

Figure 52. Ca deficiency imbalance.

When Mg deficiency imbalance occurs, the mature leaves develop interveinal

yellowing. An interveinal yellow-green chlorosis develops on mature leaves,
though some dark green areas may remain beside the main veins (Figure 53).

Figure 53. Mg deficiency imbalance.

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62

S deficiency imbalance manifests itself through a pale yellow-green colour in the

younger leaves (Figure 54) and growth is restricted. The new leaves may become
narrow and more pointed.

Figure 54. S deficiency imbalance (pepper plant on the right).

In case of Fe deficiency imbalance, the youngest leaves are yellow and may turn
almost white (Figure 55). The tips remain green at first whilst the yellowing spreads
from the base of the leaf. On mature plants, an interveinal yellowing develops near
the base of the leaves.

Figure 55. Fe deficiency imbalance.

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 When Zn deficiency imbalance occurs, the dark green leaves develop small purple
areas which are scattered at random interveinally. These areas turn pale brown as
they enlarge (Figure 56).

Figure 56. Zn deficiency imbalance.

In case of Mn deficiency imbalance, the young leaves turn bright yellow-green and
may develop dark brown interveinal areas. Small, somewhat diffuse yellow areas
develop on the mature leaves; these may turn brown later. Persistence of a uniform
dark green veinal network in the yellow leaves is characteristic for this deficiency
(Figure 57) and distinguishes it from Fe-deficiency.

Figure 57. Mn deficiency imbalance,

shown in the leaf as diffuse yellow areas
within a uniform dark green veinal
network.

Figure 58 describes Mn excess imbalance. The oldest leaves turn yellow-orange

and die prematurely.

Figure 58. Mn excess imbalance.

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64

The new leaves of young plants become distorted when the supply of B is
inadequate. Yellowing on the tips of the mature leaves gradually spreads around
the margins, and the main veins turn reddish-brown (Figure 59).

Figure 59. B deficiency imbalance.

Figure 60 describes boron excess imbalance symptoms with severe marginal

scorch.

Figure 60. B excess imbalance.

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 In case of Cu deficiency imbalance, growth is restricted, but the leaves remain dark
green. The leaf margins tend to curl upwards, but no other characteristic foliar
symptoms have been identified.

In case of Mo deficiency imbalance, the foliage turns yellow-green, and growth is

somewhat restricted. The deficiency occurs most commonly on acidic (pH < 5,0)
substrates.

Figures 61 and 62 show NaCl (salt water) and sodium excess imbalances.

Figure 61. NaCl (salt water) excess imbalance.

Figure 62. Na (sodium carbonate) excess imbalance.

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6 SPN Product Characteristics

Regarding Imbalance
Rectification Effectiveness
This chapter describes which fertiliser products are available and why certain
fertiliser products are better than others in correcting nutritional imbalances by
meeting the needs of the plant during its growth and development.

6.1 Fertiliser Selection

There are various possibilities to select fertilisers for pepper fertilisation. This can
be done with granular specialty plant nutrition for field applications (QropTM), with
water-soluble specialty plant nutrition for fertigation (UltrasolTM) or combinations
of both, possibly complemented with specialty plant nutrition for foliar applications
(SpeedfolTM).

The selection will mainly depend on:

Type of pepper growing (e.g. rain fed, flood irrigation, drip irrigation).

Economy (cost:benefit ratio).

Access to the fertiliser.

Knowledge about the product and its uses (farmer, consultant, distributor).

Convenience.

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 6.2 Specialty Plant Nutrition per Nutrient
6.2.1 Nitrogen

Urea, ammonium and nitrate, being the 3 main forms of nitrogen in N fertilisers
will undergo different processes in soils (Figure 63).

Figure 63. The chemical transformation process in the soil when using urea,
ammonium and nitrate containing fertilisers.

6.2.1.1 Urea

Urea cannot be used directly by the plants. However once applied on soil, it will
be quickly hydrolyzed into ammonium. Before or during this hydrolysis, N losses
can occur as urea leaching or as ammonia emission. Urea is electrically neutral
and thus will not be adsorbed to the charged layers in the soil. Consequently it
will easily move to the borders of the wet bulb in drip irrigation systems, becoming
out of reach of the roots.

6.2.1.2 Ammonium

Ammonium is easily fixed at soil particles, making it less susceptible to leaching. At

the same time it is therefore almost immobile in soil, which restricts its availability
for plants. Most of the ammonium is transformed into nitrate prior to plant uptake.
Before this nitrification process, significant amounts of ammonium can be lost as
ammonia (NH3) on high pH soil.

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68

The conversion from urea and ammonium into nitrate can last from one to several
weeks depending on pH, humidity, temperature and the presence of certain bac-
teria (Nitrosomas, Nitrobacteria). This implies a delay in N availability and results
in a greater imprecision in N management.

A high amount of ammonium in the rooting zone can lead to root starvation under
high temperature in the rooting zone as a consequence of oxygen depletion due
to the nitrification process.

Ammonium competes for the uptake by the roots with other cations (antagonism)
like potassium, magnesium and calcium and this may induce nutritional disorders.
In particular, an excess of ammonium may lead to blossom end rot (BER) problems
(Figures 25 and 52), resulting from a shortage of calcium in fruits, even if ample
calcium is present in the nutrition solution.

Ammonium applied on a calcareous soil with pH > 7,5 will lead to ammonia (NH3)
formation and volatilization.

6.2.1.3 Nitrate

On the other hand, plants can directly take up nitrate applied to the soil. It does
not require any transformation, and, because nitrate is soluble in the soil solution,
it easily comes into contact with roots. Split application of nitrate fertilisers allows
a very precise management of the N supply to the crop. Nitrate is not volatile,
which means there is no N-loss as ammonia emission. A synergy in nutrient uptake
exists between anions and cations. Nitrate, being an anion, promotes the uptake
of cations (K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, and NH4+) (Figure 64). The conversion of nitrate
into amino acids takes place in the leaf. This makes it an energy efficient process,
because solar energy is used for the conversion. The conversion of ammonium
mainly takes place in the roots. The plant has to burn sugars to fuel the conver-
sion. This means that fewer sugars are available for growth and fruit development.
Nitrate is not fixed to the soil particles and is therefore susceptible to leaching.
However, proper irrigation management can reduce to a minimum the risk of
losing nitrogen via leaching.

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 Figure 64. Synergism and antagonism in the nutrient uptake in the rooting zone
of the plant between cations and nitrate or ammonium as nitrogen source.

6.2.1.4 Specialty Plant Nutrition Products Containing

Nitrogen

Nitrate containing fertilisers are potassium nitrate, magnesium nitrate, calcium

nitrate and ammonium nitrate. Calcium nitrate (15,5% N = 14,3% N-NO3- +
1,2% N-NH4+) also partly provides ammonium nitrogen which can be enough for
pH control in hydroponics. Ammonium nitrate is used in small quantities in green-
houses for pH control in the rooting zone and in open field fertigation as part
of the total nitrogen fertilisation (Table 28). Urea is the less preferred N-source
because of its inefficiency.

Table 28. The main nitrogen fertilisers split per type of nitrogen.

Main N-form Common name Formula

in the
fertiliser
Nitrate Potassium nitrate KNO3
Calcium nitrate solid (5(Ca(NO3)2).NH4NO3).10H2O
Calcium nitrate liquid Ca(NO3)2 in solution
Magnesium nitrate Mg(NO3)2.6H2O
Ammonium nitrate NH4NO3
Nitric acid HNO3
Ammonium Ammonium sulphate (NH4)2SO4
Mono ammonium phosphate (MAP) NH4H2PO4
Di ammonium phosphate (DAP) (NH4)2HPO4
Urea Urea CO(NH2)2
Urea phosphate CO(NH2)2.H3PO4

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6.2.2 Phosphorous

Table 29 describes the most common phosphate fertilisers. All phosphate fertilisers
are pH buffers. However, some of them are stronger acidifiers than others. Another
difference is found in its chemical purity and solubility (i.e. the amount of insolu-
bles). For example MAP is available as a field and fertigation grade. Therefore the
choice of which phosphorous fertiliser should be used is mainly decided in function
of its desired effect on pH of water and soil, and its solubility.

Table 29. Characteristics of phosphorous fertilisers.

Common name Formula Characteristics

Mono ammonium phosphate (MAP) NH4H2PO4 for soils with pH > 7,5
Di ammonium phosphate (DAP) (NH4)2HPO4 for soils with pH 6-7,5
Mono potassium phosphate (MKP) KH2PO4
Triple super phosphate (TSP) mainly Ca(H2PO4)2 for soils with pH < 6
Urea phosphate CO(NH2)2.H3PO4 strong acidifier in solid form
Phosphoric acid H3PO4 strong acidifier in liquid form

In fertigation systems phosphate must not be mixed with calcium in the highly
concentrated mother solution. This would result in the precipitation of calcium
phosphates. However, urea phosphate may be mixed with calcium nitrate at
certain concentrations.

6.2.3 Potassium
Table 30 presents the most common potassium fertilisers and their characteristics.

Table 30. Characteristics of potassium fertilisers.

Common name Formula Characteristics

Potassium nitrate KNO3 Is the ideal K fertiliser during all growth
stages and also supplies part of the
nitrate demand of the plant. High
solubility of 320 g/l at 20 °C.
Potassium sulphate K2SO4 Ideal fertiliser for the final growth phase
when no N is required. SOP has a limited
solubility in farmer’s practice of about 6%
(when mixed with other fertilisers).
Potassium bicarbonate KHCO3 Mainly used as a pH corrector to increase
the pH.
Potassium chloride KCl See 6.2.5 Chloride

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 6.2.4 Calcium

Table 31 presents the most common calcium fertilisers and their characteristics.

Table 31. Characteristics of calcium fertilisers.

Common name Formula Characteristics

Calcium nitrate solid (5(Ca(NO3)2).NH4NO3).10 H2O By far the most used water
soluble calcium source.
Solid calcium nitrate contains
some ammonium for pH
control in hydroponics.
Calcium nitrate liquid Ca(NO3)2 in solution Is free of ammonium and can
be used when no ammonium
is required.
Calcium chloride CaCl2 See 6.2.5 Chloride

6.2.5 Chloride

The major chloride sources are CaCl2, MgCl2, KCl and NaCl. Cl is not recom-
mended in pepper growing, because pepper is sensitive to high salt concentrations
in the rooting zone. The use of Cl containing fertilisers will lead to competition for
the uptake sites of the root with other anions (NO3-, H2PO4-, SO42-), resulting
in nutrient imbalances.

6.2.6 Magnesium

Table 32 presents the most common magnesium fertilisers and their characteris-
tics.

Table 32. Characteristics of magnesium fertilisers.

Common name Formula Characteristics

Magnesium sulphate MgSO4.7H2O The most used Mg source. It must not be
mixed with calcium in the mother tank
(formation of gypsum (CaSO4)).
Magnesium nitrate Mg(NO3)2.6H2O Has a quick dissolution and high solubility,
also at low temperature. It is compatible with
all other fertiliser sources at the normally
recommended doses.

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72

6.2.7 Sulphur

Table 33 presents the most common sulphur fertilisers and their characteristics.

Table 33. Characteristics of sulphur fertilisers.

Common name Formula Characteristics

Magnesium sulphate MgSO4.7H2O To complete the sulphate and magnesium
demand.
Potassium sulphate (SOP) K2SO4 Can be used to supply the remainder of the
S demand and part of the K demand in
pepper nutrition.
Ammonium sulphate (NH4)2SO4 Its use should be limited to the recommended
amounts of S and ammonium to avoid salinity
and nutritional imbalances in the root zone.
Sulphuric acid H2SO4 Strong acid. Its use should be limited to the
recommended amounts of S and acid.

Sulphate must not be mixed with calcium in the highly concentrated mother
solution. This would result in the precipitation of calcium sulphate (gypsum).

6.2.8 Water-Soluble and Granular NPKs

Besides the mentioned straight fertilisers, there are also numerous formulae of
water-soluble and granular NPK mixes available in the market. NPKs are a good
alternative for the straight fertilisers as long as they meet the nutritional require-
ments of the plant during the different growth stages. They can be grouped by
phenological stage (UltrasolTM initial, development, growth, production, multi-
purpose, colour, quality, fruit, post-harvest, special) or by crop based formulae
(UltrasolTM tomato, sweet pepper, cucumber, flower, strawberry, lettuce). A similar
segmentation exists for QropTM specialty plant nutrition for field applications.

6.2.9 Summary of Most Used Water-Soluble and

Granular Fertilisers with Macro- and Mesonutrients

Table 34 summarizes the most used water-soluble and granular fertilisers and their
possible restrictions for use in fertigation. The table should be read as follows:
Each crosspoint of a row and a column represents a fertiliser. For example: where
nitrate and potassium cross, the fertiliser is potassium nitrate; where P and K cross,
the fertiliser is mono potassium phosphate, etc.

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 Table 34. Summary of most used water-soluble and granular fertilisers and their possible restrictions for use in pepper growing.

H N-NO3 N-NH4 N-NH2 P K Ca Mg S Cl

CropKit_Pepper_English 73
acid nitrate ammonium urea phosphor potassium calcium magnesium sulphur chloride

H acid X X X

N-NO3 nitrate X X X X X

N-NH4 ammonium X X X

N-NH2 urea X

P phosphor X X X X

K potassium X X X

Ca calcium X

Mg magnesium X X

S sulphur X X X X

Cl chloride

NPK X X X X X

X prefered source
X source with restricted use
not recommended

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74

6.2.10 Micro-Nutrients

Table 35 summarizes the main sources of micro-nutrients used in fertigation, foliar

and field applications. For fertigation and foliar applications, iron (Fe) should
be applied as a chelate. The type of chelate depends on the pH of the irrigation
water and soil: Fe-EDTA (pH < 6), Fe-DTPA (pH < 7) and Fe-EDDHA and EDDHMA
(pH > 7). In case of EDDHA and EDDHMA at least 50% of the Fe should be
chelated by the ortho-ortho isomer, whereas 80% ortho-ortho will provide the
highest stability of the Fe in the chelate. On top of the products listed in Table 35,
numerous trace element mixes and other specialty products are available. Contact
your local SQM agronomist or distributor to learn more about these products.

Table 35. Summary of the main sources of micro-nutrients used in fertigation,

foliar and field applications.

Symbol Nutrient Main sources Remarks

Fe Iron EDTA When pH<6 and as foliar.
DTPA When pH<7.
EDDHA, EDDHMA When pH>7.
Zn Zinc EDTA EDTA dissolves easier than sulphate.
Sulphate
Mn Manganese EDTA EDTA dissolves easier than sulphate.
Sulphate
Cu Copper EDTA EDTA dissolves easier than sulphate.
Sulphate
B Boron Boric acid Acidifying effect. Plants absorb
boron only as boric acid, thus
making it the most efficient boron
source.
Sodium borate Alkaline reaction.
Ulexite A sodium calcium borate with 32%
B2O3 for progressive release of
boron. This reduces the risk of boron
toxicity and secures a long period of
boron supply to the plant.
Mo Molybdenum Sodium molybdate Sodium molybdate is the cheaper
source.
Ammonium molybdate

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 7 Plant Nutrition Practices
and Effective Programmes
An effective plant nutrition programme for open field pepper and for greenhouse
pepper can now be designed, based on the information which has been presented
priory in this Specialty Plant Nutrition Management Guide.

Crop specific programmes will depend on a variety of variables. Consult your

local SQM distributor or agronomist to find out which nutrition management
programme is suitable for your area.

Hereunder we provide you with an example of how to calculate the fertiliser

recommendation for soil grown pepper.

To make a fertiliser recommendation for soil grown pepper one should follow the
following steps:

Analyze soil or soil solution and water before planting.

Balance the soil according to the analysis and add strategic reserves in the base
dressing.

When organic matter or manure is used, take into consideration that this can
release substantial amounts of nutrients during the growing phase. These amounts
have to be used in the calculation of the final fertiliser programme.

The fertiliser scheme should be based on the nutrient absorption per phenological
phase, in relation to the expected yield, nutrient reserves in the soil and the nutrient
absorption efficiency per irrigation system.

After calculating the total nutrient application needed for the expected yield,
fertilisers can be selected for each phenological phase.

It is recommended to analyze the soil again at 4-6 weeks and 8-10 weeks after
planting (flower initiation, fruit set), or to analyze the soil solution via alternative
methods on a regular base and correct the fertiliser dose if necessary.

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Table 36 shows the nutrient demand of pepper in relation to an expected yield

of 100 tonne of pepper/ha under drip irrigation. The data for nutrient need of
pepper were copied from Table 25 and adapted for an expected yield of 100
t/ha.

Table 36. Nutrient demand of 100 tonne pepper/ha under drip irrigation.

1 Nutrient need pepper plant Unit N P2O5 K2O CaO MgO S

Nutrient need (canopy + fruit
production) for 100 t/ha kg/ha 331 92 499 321 65 65

After having calculated the total nutrient need, one should deduct the amount of
nutrients present in the soil and irrigation water, available for plant nutrition (step
2 in Table 37). These should be measured as water-soluble nutrients. Acidification
of the irrigation water by using e.g. urea phosphate, nitric or phosphoric acid
might neutralize calcium and magnesium carbonates and bicarbonates, thus
increasing the availability of these nutrients for plant nutrition. The remainder has
to be divided by the nutrient uptake efficiency under drip irrigation (step 3 in
Table 37).

Table 37. Example deducting nutrient reserves from nutrient demand for 100
tonne pepper/ha under drip irrigation and correction for the efficiency of each
nutrient applied via drip irrigation.

2 Assumption Unit N P2O5 K2O CaO MgO S

Total (canopy + fruit production) kg/ha 331 92 499 321 65 65
Reserves in soil and water/
base dressing kg/ha 55 50 82 110 30 37
Remainder to be applied via
fertigation kg/ha 276 42 417 211 35 28

3 Nutrient uptake efficiency Unit N P2O5 K2O CaO MgO S

under drip irrigation
% 80 30 85 60 60 60
kg/ha 345 140 491 352 58 47

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 In step 4 the nutrients have to be divided per phenological phase. Table 38 is
showing a split per nutrient per phenological phase. Multiplying the total nutrient
application (step 3) (kg/ha) and the nutrient application per phenological phase
(step 4) (%) results in the nutrient need per phenological phase expressed in
kg nutrient/ha (step 5). From Table 38 the amount of water-soluble fertiliser/ha
can be calculated per phenological phase (step 5). Check with your local SQM
agronomist to see which products are best suited to match this calculation.

Table 38. Split of nutrients per phenological phase expressed in percentages

and in kg/ha for drip irrigated open field pepper with an estimated yield of 100
tonne/ha.
4 Fertiliser application phases DAT N P2O5 K2O CaO MgO S
% % % % % %
Transplant establishment 0-45 17 34 15 20 20 20
and early development
From flower initiation 45-90 40 33 40 40 45 45
to fruit formation
From fruit formation 90-150 43 33 45 40 35 35
to final harvest
Total 0-150 100 100 100 100 100 100

5 Fertiliser application phases DAT N P2O5 K2O CaO MgO S

kg/ha kg/ha kg/ha kg/ha kg/ha kg/ha
Transplant establishment 0-45 59 48 74 70 12 9
and early development
From flower initiation 45-90 138 46 196 141 26 21
to fruit formation
From fruit formation 90-150 148 46 221 141 20 16
to final harvest
Total 0-150 345 140 491 352 58 47

A similar calculation can be made for dry applied granular fertilisers in rain fed or
flood irrigated pepper. In that case the following nutrient efficiency percentages
can be used in Table 37 under step 3 (Table 39).

Nitrogen should be split into 3 to 5 applications. The first application (base

dressing) may contain more ammonium than nitrate, but the next applications
should contain more nitrate than ammonium. About 55-60% of all nitrogen should
be applied until the start of flowering, the remainder to be applied afterwards in
split applications.

All phosphorous may be applied during base dressing. A foliar application of

phosphorous during flowering is recommended in combination with boron and
zinc.

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78

Table 39. Nutrient efficiency percentages for dry applied fertilisers under rain
fed or flood irrigation pepper.

Nutrient %
N 40-50
P 10-20
K 50-60
Ca 35-45
Mg 30-40
S 30-40

Potassium may follow the same split applications as nitrogen. In the first applica-
tion a mix of 55% potassium nitrate and 45% potassium sulphate may be used,
but in the next applications prilled or granular potassium nitrate is the preferred
potassium source. About 40% of the total K should be applied until the start of
flowering, the remainder to be applied afterwards in split applications.

Calcium should be applied as calcium nitrate during all growth stages of the plant.
A small quantity may be included in the base dressing followed by higher amounts
during vegetative growth and fruit development.

Some magnesium could be included in the base dressing, followed by higher doses
during the vegetative growth and fruit formation phase.

Sulphur may be fully applied in the base dressing.

Trace elements should be applied according the need. The soil pH will decide for
the preferred source of trace element (chelate, salt) to be used.

Ask your local SQM agronomist for an adapted programme

in accordance with the local needs and requirements.

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 8 Research Results
Demonstrating the Need for Balance
This chapter shows a selection of scientific researches to demonstrate the effect
of nutrients and nutrient (im)balances on yield and quality and the importance of
selecting the proper plant nutritional products.

The effect on K, Ca and Mg uptake in various plant parts of sweet

pepper when fertilised with nitrate or ammonium fertilisers.

The highest levels of K, Ca and Mg in several plant organs of sweet pepper were
found with nitrate being the N source (Table 40) (Xu et al, 2001).

Organ N-Source Nutrient content

in the dry matter (meq/100g)
K Ca Mg
Leaf NO3 58 161 30
NH4 29 62 25
Petiole NO3 176 126 38
NH4 90 61 17
Stem NO3 162 86 35
NH4 54 50 18
Root NO3 93 44 40
NH4 43 38 11

Table 40. The effect on K, Ca and Mg uptake in various plant parts of sweet
pepper when fertilised with nitrate or ammonium fertilisers.

Effect of varying nitrogen form and concentration during the growing

season on sweet pepper flowering and fruit yield.

Flowering and fruit set of sweet pepper is sensitive to environmental condition

and nitrogen nutrition status. To clarify the N fertilisation effect on flowering, fruit-
ing and yield, four levels of total N concentrations and four nitrate-nitrogen and
ammonium-nitrogen ratios were supplied in three distinct physiological stages of
sweet pepper: Stage I – vegetative; Stage II – fruit set during cross pollination;
and Stage III – fruit developing period.

Gradually increasing the total N concentration with the progressing physio-

logical stages from 3 to 6 to 9 mM increased the total set of flowers and fruits, and
produced the highest total fruit yield (3.444 g/plant).

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80

From Autumn to Winter, Low N Induces Early Flowering

Table 41 shows that low N during all growth stages (3-3-3) gave the lowest values
for set flowers and fruits. Low N concentration during the vegetative growing stage
before fruit set tended to set more early flower and fruits. Gradually increasing
the N concentration (3 to 9 mM) yielded the highest number of set flowers and
fruits (Xu et al, 2001).

Table 41. Effect of varying nitrogen concentration during the season on pepper
flower and fruit set.
Autumn-Winter
N (mM) in growing stage Duration of cross pollination (days) Duration of fruit set (days)
I II III 1-12 26-37 Total 1-12 26-37 Total
Number of set flowers per plant Number of set fruits per plant
3 6 9 7,6 a 11,5 a 29 a 7,1 a 2,7 a 12,4 a
6 6 6 4,5 b 8,9 a 22,8 b 4,2 b 2,9 a 11,0 ab
9 6 3 6,3 ab 7,7 a 22,8 ab 5,4 ab 2,1 ab 11,5 ab
3 3 3 7,2 ab 6,6 a 20,6 b 6,8 ab 1,0 b 9,2 b

I from transplanting to initial of cross pollination

II during cross pollination
III fruit developing after pollination
N-NH4 constituted 15% N-total
Same letter in each column represented no significantly difference at 5% probability level.

From Spring to Summer, High N Reduces the Number of Set Fruits

Table 42 shows that the N concentration did not significantly affect the early
flowering and fruit set in the first 12 days of cross pollination. High N concentration
(12-12-12 mM) increased the flower set at the later cross pollination but signifi-
cantly reduced the number of set fruits (6,1 fruits out of 22,3 flowers per plant).

Table 42. Effect of varying nitrogen concentration during the season on pepper
flower and fruit set.
Spring-Summer
N (mM) in growing stage Duration of cross pollination (days) Duration of fruit set (days)
I II III 1-12 22-33 Total 1-12 22-33 Total
Number of set flowers per plant Number of set fruits per plant
3 6 9 6,3 a 14,9 b 29,6 a 3,4 a 10,2 a 18,6 a
6 6 6 6,8 a 16,3 b 30,9 ab 5,0 a 7,7 ab 17,6 a
9 6 3 7,4 a 17,4 b 32,4 ab 4,2 a 6,9 b 16,6 a
12 12 12 6,9 a 22,3 a 37,1 b 3,4 a 6,1 b 17,8 a

I from transplanting to initial of cross pollination

II during cross pollination
III fruit developing after pollination
N-NH4 constituted 15% N-total
Same letter in each column represented no significantly difference at 5% probability level.

CropKit_Pepper_English 80 28-11-2006 10:27:13

 Effect of Changing N-NH4 Ratio During the Autumn-Winter Season

Table 43 demonstrates the effect of ammonium nitrogen concentration during

three growth stages of pepper on duration of cross pollination (days) for the
number of set flowers per plant, and on duration of set fruits (days) for the number
of set fruits per plant in the autumn to winter period. N-total was 6 mM. N form
did not significantly affect the flowering and fruit set in the first 12 days of cross
pollination. The increasing N-NH4 ratio (0-15-30, %) severely impaired the set of
later cross-pollinated flowers and fruits during the 26 to 37 days after the begin-
ning of the pollination period (2,8 flowers and 0,2 fruits per plant).

Table 43. Effect of changing ammonium N ratio during the season on pepper
flower and fruit set.

Autumn-Winter
N-NH4 (%) in growing stage Duration of cross pollination (days) Duration of fruit set (days)
I II III 1-12 26-37 Total 1-12 26-37 Total
Number of set flowers per plant Number of set fruits per plant
0 0 0 7,2 a 7,3 a 24,9 a 5,9 a 2,4 a 11,8 a
0 15 30 7,9 a 2,8 b 16,0 b 6,9 a 0,2 b 9,7 b
30 15 0 6,4 a 8,5 a 23,6 a 5,6 a 2,3 a 10,9 ab
30 30 30 5,7 a 8,1 ab 22,8 ab 4,7 a 1,6 ab 10,1 ab

I from transplanting to initial of cross pollination

II during cross pollination
III fruit developing after pollination
N-NH4 constituted 15% N-total
Same letter in each column represented no significantly difference at 5% probability level.

Effect of Changing N-NH4 Ratio During the Spring-Summer Season

Table 44 shows the effect of ammonium nitrogen concentration during three

growth stages of pepper on duration of cross pollination (days) for the number of
set flowers per plant, and on duration of set fruits (days) for the number of set fruits
per plant in the spring to summer period. N-total was 6 mM. High N-NH4 (30%
and 50% over N-total) in the vegetative stage significantly stimulated the early
flowering and fruit set in the first 12 days of cross-pollination. High N levels in all
stages (50-50-50) impaired the flower setting in late cross pollination. Low total
fruit set (13,4/plant) was observed when N-NO3 was supplied as sole N source.

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82

Table 44. Effect of changing ammonium N ratio during the season on pepper
flower and fruit set.

Spring-Summer
N-NH4 (%) in growing stage Duration of cross pollination (days) Duration of fruit set (days)
I II III 1-12 22-33 Total 1-12 22-33 Total
Number of set flowers per plant Number of set fruits per plant
0 0 0 5,1 b 16,8 ab 28,9 a 3,8 c 6,2 a 13,4 b
0 15 30 6,3 b 14,7 ab 32,1 a 4,4 bc 7,2 a 17,4 a
30 15 0 7,6 a 19,5 a 33,6 a 6,6 a 7,8 a 18,0 a
30 30 30 7,3 a 14,1 b 31,7 a 5,4 ab 5,7 a 14,0 ab

I from transplanting to initial of cross pollination

II during cross pollination
III fruit developing after pollination
N-NH4 constituted 15% N-total
Same letter in each column represented no significantly difference at 5% probability level.

Figure 65 describes pepper fruit ripening as affected by varying N concentration

along the season.

In the autumn-winter season, the low N supply (3-3-3, mM) produced the
highest fruit yield during the first 28 days of picking. Limiting N supply induced
early ripening of fruits. High N concentration early and low N later in the season
(9-6-3, mM) severely reduced the yields of both early ripening and total fruits.

The highest total fruit yield in the winter season was obtained by gradually increas-
ing the supply (3-6-9, mM). In the pepper growing season from autumn to winter,
low N induces early flowering and high N later in the season is needed to supply
the nutrient to the developing fruits (Figure 65).

In the summer season, most of the cross-pollinated fruits were obtained in the
first three pickings (extended 10 days). Particularly the treatment when 9 mM N
were supplied before fruit set stimulated the early ripening of fruits.

In the summer season no significant difference of total number of fruit set and yield
was found between the four N regimes (Table 42). It seems that during the hot and
long day growing season, changing the N distribution during the growing stages
affects the duration of flowering and fruit set ratio (Table 42), time of fruit develop-
ing (Figure 65) more than the total number of set fruits and total fruit yield.

CropKit_Pepper_English 82 28-11-2006 10:27:13

 Fruit yield
N concentration
(g/pl)
I II III
6.000 Spring-Summer season 3-6-9
3-3-3
5.000 9-6-3

4.000 Autumn-Winter season

3.000

2.000

1.000

0 10 20 30 40 50
Time fruit picking (days)

Figure 65. Pepper fruit ripening as affected by varying N concentration along

the season.

When NH4-N was 30% during the vegetative stage and gradually reduced to 0%
(only NO3-N) during fruit filling period, the total fruit yield was significantly higher
than the other N form treatments in the autumn-winter season (Figure 66).

The beneficial effect on fruit yield of NH4-N supply in a gradually decreasing

order with plant development (30-15-0, %) was also obtained in the spring-
summer season (Figure 66).

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84

Fruit yield
(g/pl) N-NH4 % in stage
I II III
6.000 Spring-Summer season 0-0-0
0-15-30
5.000 30-15-0

4.000 Autumn-Winter season

3.000

2.000

1.000

0 10 20 30 40 50
Time fruit picking (days)

Figure 66. Pepper fruit ripening as affected by changing NH4-N ratio along the
season.

In conclusion, high yield of early ripening pepper fruits in hot and long photope-
riod season needs the supply of relative high concentration of N (9-6 mM N)
and partial NH4-N (30-15%) during vegetative growing and fruit set stages. In
spite of the difference of climate condition between seasons, both high total fruit
yield and N-use efficiency for pepper plant require the decrease of NH4-N ratio
from high (30%) in the vegetative growing stage to only NO3-N during the fruit
developing stages.

Calcium * boron interaction

There is a calcium * boron interaction. Table 45 shows the effect of Ca and B and
high salt levels on yield and BER on pepper. Highest marketable yield and no BER
incidence were found under relatively high levels of calcium and boron.

Table 45. The interaction of different calcium and boron levels under saline con-
ditions on the marketable yield and BER incidence.

Calcium/ Salts (ppm) Boron (ppm) Marketable Yield (kg) BER incidence
150/1.000 0,5 1,25 -
50/1.000 0,5 0,55 ++
150/1.000 0 0 +

Sources: Geraldson, 1957; Marsh and Shive, 1941.

CropKit_Pepper_English 84 28-11-2006 10:27:14

 9 Proven Cost Effectiveness
of Balanced Nutrition Programmes
Demonstration plots in many countries worldwide in open field pepper (fresh
market, industry) and in greenhouses have confirmed that a higher use of base
dressing and water-soluble fertilisers in a more balanced nutrition programme
result in a higher financial income for the farmer after deducting the extra costs
of fertilisers.

The first example is a trial in pepper for the fresh market, grown in open field.
SQM’s fertiliser programme was compared to a traditional fertiliser programme
in bell pepper, grown in Sinaloa in Mexico.

A second example is a trial in “Kapia” pepper for the industry, grown in the open
field. SQM’s fertigation programme was compared to a traditional fertiliser pro-
gramme in pepper, grown in Izmir area in Turkey (Table 50).

Table 46 describes the growing phases of bell pepper in the first trial.

Table 46. Growing phases of bell pepper.

Date Crop Stage Accum. Days

12-09-2001 1 Transplant 0
29-11-2001 2 Start Harvest 77
08-03-2002 3 End Harvest 175

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86

The SQM programme (Table 47) included higher amounts of potassium and
calcium, and lower amounts of phosphorous as compared to the traditional
programme (Table 48).

Table 47. SQM fertilisation programme.

Crop stage SPN N° Applied/ Total Nutrient input

Appli- appli- applied (kg/ha)
cations cation
(kg/ha) (kg/ha) N P2O5 K2O S CaO MgO
Base Dressing Qropmix™ 22-31-0 1 400 400 88 124 8
Ultrasol™ MAP 1 18 18 2 11
Ultrasol™ Micro B 1 1,8 2
Side dressing 1 Urea 1 36 36 17
Ultrasol™ Calcium 1 25 25 4 7
Ultrasol™ K 1 100 100 12 45
Ultrasol™ MAP 11 18 198 24 121
Ultrasol™ Micro B 11 1,8 20
Side dressing 2 Urea 11 36 396 182
Ultrasol™ Calcium 11 25 275 43 72
Ultrasol™ K 11 100 1.100 132 495
Side dressing 3 Ammonium Nitrate 2 50 100 34
Total nutrient input 2.670 537 256 540 0 78 8

Table 48. Traditional fertilisation programme.

Crop stage Products N° Applied/ Total Nutrient input

Appli- appli- applied (kg/ha)
cations cation
(kg/ha) (kg/ha) N P2O5 K2O S CaO MgO
Base Dressing Mix 24-33-0 1 400 400 96 132 8
1 Ammonium Nitrate 1 300 300 102
Potassium Sulphate 6 70 420 210 71
Magnesium Nitrate 6 30 180 20 27
2 Urea 6 80 480 221
10-34-0 6 100 600 60 204
3 Ammonium Nitrate 2 100 200 68
Total nutrient input 2.580 567 336 210 71 0 35

CropKit_Pepper_English 86 28-11-2006 10:27:15

 Figure 67 shows the yield differences, expressed in export boxes of 20 kg per
hectare. The SQM programme resulted in higher yields during each harvesting
date as compared to the traditional programme.

Yield (Export Boxes/ha)

Boxes/ha

6/12/2001 24/12/2001 12/01/2002 30/01/2002 18/02/2002 1/03/2002

Figure 67. Comparison of the yields between the SQM programme and the
traditional programme.

Although the total fertiliser cost increased with 50%, after deducting the extra
cost of fertilisers, the SQM fertigation programme resulted in 6.139-340= 5.799
US$/ha more net income as compared to the traditional fertiliser programme. The
benefit:cost ratio was 18,1:1, which means that for every 1 US$ extra investment,
18,1 US$ extra income was generated (Table 49).

Table 49. Comparison of the results between the SQM and traditional fertiliser
programme.

SQM Traditional
Fertiliser Cost (US$/ha) 1.020 680
Difference (US$/ha) 340
Boxes/ha 3.550 2.673
Revenues (7 US$/box) 24.850 18.711
Difference (US$/ha) 6.139
Total yield (kg/ha) 71.000 53.460
Benefit:cost ratio 18,1:1

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88

Another trial is presented in “Kapia” pepper for the industry, grown in open field.
SQM’s fertigation programme was compared to a traditional fertiliser programme
in pepper, grown in Izmir area in Turkey (Tables 50, 51, 52 and 53).

Figure 68. Kapia pepper is the most used pepper variety for the industry in
Turkey.

The SQM trial plot received higher quantities of fertilisers, with especially higher
doses of potassium, calcium and boron, which was reflected in the NPK ratios.

Ask your local SQM agronomist for an adapted programme

in accordance with the local needs and requirements.

CropKit_Pepper_English 88 28-11-2006 10:27:17

 Table 50. SQM fertilisation programme.

Fertilisers Dose Kg/ha
kg/ha N P2O5 K2O CaO MgO S B
Qrop™ SOP 80 41 14
Qrop™ DAP 200 36 92
Ultrasol™ K 80 11 36
Subtotal
360 47 92 77 0 0 14
base dressing

Ultrasol™ K 520 70 239
Ultrasol™ MAP 90 11 55
Ultrasol™ Calcium 420 65 111
Borax 4 0,61
Ammonium nitrate 280 92
Subtotal fertigation 1.314 239 55 239 111 0 0 0,61

Grand total 1.674 285 147 316 111 0 14 0,61

Nutrient ratio 1,9 1,0 2,2 0,8 0 0,1 0,004

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90

Table 51. Traditional fertilisation programme.

Fertilisers Dose Kg/ha
kg/ha N P2O5 K2O CaO MgO S B
15-15-15 600 90 90 90
DAP 100 18 46
Subtotal
700 108 136 90 0 0 0 0
base dressing

Ultrasol™ K 160 22 73
Urea 150 69
Ultrasol™ Calcium 30 4 8
Ammonium nitrate 240 79
Subtotal fertigation 580 173 0 73 8 0 0 0

Grand total 1.280 281 136 163 8 0 0 0

Nutrient ratio 2,1 1,0 1,2 0,1 0 0 0

Table 52. Differences between SQM and traditional fertilisation programme.

Dose Kg/ha
kg/ha N P2O5 K2O CaO MgO S B
Difference
394 4 11 154 103 0 14 1
SQM-Traditional
Difference
31% 1% 8% 94% 1.300%
SQM-Traditional

CropKit_Pepper_English 90 28-11-2006 10:27:18

 Table 53. Comparison of the cost:benefit ratios with fertiliser input in a
traditional and a balanced nutrition programme in open field Kapia pepper for
the industry.

Difference
Unit Traditional SQM Absolute %
Total Fertiliser Cost $/ha 501 1.061 559 112

Yield MT/ha 32,0 41,3 9,3 29
Price $/MT 196 196 0 0
Gross Income $/ha 6.285 8.111 1.827 29

Net Income $/ha 5.783 7.051 1.267 22

Increased Income 22%
Increased Yield 29%
Benefit:cost ratio 2,27:1

Yield was increased with 29% or 9,3 tonne/ha with the SQM fertilisation
programme. Although the total fertiliser input increased with 31%, and the total
fertiliser cost more than doubled in the SQM plot, after deducting the extra cost
of fertilisers, the farmer earned 1.267 US$/ha extra net income. For every 1 US$
extra investment in fertiliser, 2,27 US$ extra income was generated, which gives
a return on investment of 227%.

91

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92

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