> CHAPTER 7 ACTIVE FILTERS AND OSCILLATORS OBJECTIVES After completing this chapter, the reader should be able to: . oe the:three ways filters can be classified and explain the characteristics of each, + Draw the'frequency response of an ideal low-pass, a high-pass, a band-pass, a band-reject, and an all-pass filter. * Discuss the differences among a Butterworth, a Chebyshev, and a Cauer filter, + Design a first-order low-pass and a high-pass Butterworth active filter to sat- isfy the given requirements. * Design a second-order low-pass and a high-pass Butterworth active filter ac- cording to the given specifications. * Apply to a filter'the procédures for frequency scaling, +. Analyze or design a wide band-pass and a narrow band-pass filter to satisfy the given objectives. * Analyze or design a wide band-reject and a narrow band-reject filter. + Analyze or design an all-pass filter, * Discuss oscillator principles, oscillator types, and frequency stability as it re- Jates to its operation, **Analyzé or design a phase shift oscillator, * Analyze or design a Wien bridge and a quadrature oscillators. 265N + Analyze or design a square wave and a triangular wave generators, | + Draw the schematic diagram for and analyze the operation of a SaWLooth generator. Way + Draw the schematic diageam. for and analyze the operation of a volta trolled oscillator and make necessary modifications in the circuit to say given requirements. * iy 7-1 INTRODUCTION In Chapter 6 you saw how op-amp circuits are used to provide acide amplifg tion, perform such mathematical operations as summing, averaging, differents. tion, and integration, convert /-to-V and V-to-/ signals, and provide very high jy. put impedance. This chapter presents another important field of application usi, op-amps: filters and oscillators. The chapter begins with the analysis and desigy ‘of basic and inexpensive filter types and then discusses the various oscillator cj. cuits. At the end of the chapter, a voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO) using the NEJSES66 integrated circuit is presented. 7-2 ACTIVE FILTERS * *, 266 An electric filter is oTien a frequency-selective circuit that passes a specified band of frequencies and blocks or attenuates signals of frequencies outside this band, Filters may be classified in a number of ways: 1, Analog or digital 2. Passive or active ‘ 3, Audio (AF) or radio frequency (RF) Analog filters are designed to process analog signals, while digital filters process analog signals using digital techniques. Depending on the type of ele- ments used in their construction, filters may be classified as passive or active. El- ements used in passive filters are resistors, capacitors, and inductors. Active fil- ters, on the other hand, employ transistors or op-amps in addition to resistors and capacitors. The type of element used dictates the operating frequency range of the filler. For example, RC filters are commonly used for audio or low-frequency op- eration, whereas LC of crystal filters are employed at RF or high frequencies. Es- pecially because of their high Q value (Figure of merit), the crystals provide more stable operation at higher frequencies. rst, this chapter presents the analysis and desigh of analog active-RC (au dio-frequency) filters using op-amps. In the audio frequencies, inductors are of ten not used because they are very large, costly, and may dissipate more power. Inductors also emit magnetic ficlds. Active Filters and OscillatorsAn active filter offers the following advantages over 4 passive filter: 1. Gain and frequency adjustment flexibility. Since the op-amp Is cap: providing a gain, the input signal is not attenuated as it is in a pass ter, In addition, the active filter is casier to tune or‘adjust. / 2. No loading problem. Because of the high input resistance and baw output resistance of the op-amp, the active filter does not,cause loading 0 source or load. * . Cost. Typically, active filters are more is because of the variety of cheaper op-amps and the ab Although active filters are most extensively used in the field of communica. tions and signal processing, they are employed in one form or another in almost all sophisticated electronic systems. Radio, television, telephone, radar, space satellites, and biomedical equipment are but a few systems that employ active filters. The most commonly used filters are these: 1. Low-pass filter 2. High-pass filter 3, Band-pass filter 4, Band-reject filter 5. All-pass filter : Each of these filters uses an op-amp as the active clement and resistors and capacitors as the’ passive elements. Although the 741 type op-amp works satis- factorily in these filter circuits. high-speed op-amps such as-the LM318 or ICL8017 improve the filter's performance through their, increased slew rates and higher unity gainbandwidths, —“” Figure 7-1 shows the frequency response characteristics of the five types of filters, The ideal response is shown by dashed curves, while the solid lines indi- cate the practical filler response. A low-pass filter has a constant gain from O Hz to a high cutoff frequency fy. Therelure, the bandwidth is also fy. At fy the gain is down by 3 dB; after that (/ >, fy) it decreases with the increase in input fre- quency. The frequencies between 0 Hz and fy are known as the passband, fre~ quencies, whereas the range of frequencies, those beyond fy, that are attenuated Includes the stopband frequencies. a Figure 7—I(a) shows the frequency response of the low-pass filter. As indi- cated by the dashed line. an ideal filter has zero loss in its passband and infinite * loss in its stopband. Unfortunately, ideal filter response is not practical because linear networks cannot produce the discontinuities. However, it is possible to ob- tain a practical response that approximates the ideal response by using special de- sign techniques, as well as precision component values and high-speed op-amps. Butterworth. Chebyshev, and Cauer fillers are some of the most commonly used, practical filters that approximate the ideal response, The key characteristic of the Butterworth filter is that it has a flat passband as well as stopband. For this able of ive fil- economical than passive filters. This sence of inductors. . 7-2 Active Fillers 267Guin, 268 — a tw te FIGURE 7-1 Frequency response of the major octve fiers. {a} Low pass. (b) High poss. {c} Bond poss. (4) Bond reject. fe) Phose shit between input ond output voltages of en all poss filer : reason, it is sometimes called a fla-fla filter, The Chebyshev filter has a rippl passband and flat stopband, while the Caver filter has a ripple passband and 21 ple stopband. Generally, the Cauer filter gives the best stopband response smont re thie, Because of their simplicity of design, the low-pass and high-pas: Butterworth filters are discussed here. Active Filters and OscillatorsVigne 71h) abiowe a high ree filter with a atop O < 7% f, sents net: Awad > fy fe 18 the how eto frequency, anol fic the: operating Cormmemey A nnd. panee Filtet has a paseband between two cxtofl frequencies fy 200 for where fy > fe nd two stopebande: 0 < f-< fy wend f > fy The anew of tae bare pass filter, therefore, is equal 10 fyy ~ fy, The band-reyect filter performs enethy ‘oppoxite to the band-pass; that is, it has a bandstop between (wo cutor freeqen: cies fy and J, and two passbands: 0 << f, and f > fir The baedereject is aloer called a bandestop ot hand-climination filter, The frequoncy responses of band pass and band-reject filters are shown in Figure 7~:(c) aod (U). respectively. Ie these figures, fis valled the conter frequcncy since it is approximately at the en tor of the paxsbind ar Mopband. Figure 7- Ite) shows the phase shift between inpot and output weltages of an all-pass filter. This filter passes all frequencies equally wells that is, output and aput_voltayses 3 in amplitude for all frequencies, with the phase shift be- ween the two a function uf frequency. The highest frequency up to which the in- pat and output amplitudes remain equal is dependeat oa the unity gain~band- ‘width of the op-amp, ALthis frequency, however, the phase shift between the input and ouput ts maximum, Before proceeding with specific filter types, fet ws reexamine the filter ehar- y-epecially in the stopband regina Ay shown in Figure 71a), the response curves of the filters in the stopband either steadily deereave or i= ein frequcisy. The tate at which the gain of the fi nied by the erase of the fitter, For example, for the Hirstonder fow-payy fil ‘lf at the tate of 20 dii/deeade in the stupband, that iy, tor {2,00 the other hand, for the secund-order low-pass f ter the rolloit cate ty 1 dBidecade, and sa un, By contrast, for the firstorder ancy al the tate of 20 UWAdceade in the stopband, that Ulidecade for the second-order high-pass file pass flict the gs Hf = fra the mereare i te: ain so on, vil RDER LOW-PASS BUTTERWORTH FILTER pete 1 2 stay at fi J, ov filtering, Note that the op it dacs tral toad dow . gain of the filter. According to the vol nal (across capacitor C) is iiler low-pass Butterworth filter that uses ant RC net- 1 is used in the noninverting configuration; werk. Resistors X, and Ry determine the ge-divider rule, the Voltage at the noninverting termi- where 1 Wot Once Lara Pay Matters Pier 289Vortage gain FIGURE 7-2 Fistordor lowpass Dutrwoth fier. fa} Circuit. (b) Frequency raspy,” \ Simplifying Equation (71a), we get Yin. M1 T+ j2mfRC and the output voltage That is, or (7-10) assband gain of the filterof the low-pass filter can be ob- equivalent polar form, as follows: (7-20) (7-20) where ¢ is the phase angle in degrees. The operation of the low-pass filter ¢ equation, (72a): 1. At very iow frequencies, that is, f < fin be verified from the gain magtiiuide || il 2 At f=fy, [=| = 48 = 0701, Vin! 2 2 ALS > Sin : Yo [=| = passband gain of the filter , (f= frequency of the input signal (Hz) | ow cutoff frequeney (Hz) Hence the magnitude of the voltage gain is _ Ath) Vit: ; a (7-4) 278 Active Filters and OscillatorsSince high-pass filters are formed from low-pass filters simply by interchanging R's and C’s, the sign and frequency scaling procedures of the low-pass filters are aiso applicable to the high-pass filters (sec Sections 7-3-1 and 7-3-2). “SOLUTION , a. Use the same values of R and C that were determined for the low-pass fil ter of Example 7-1, since f, = fy = | kHz. That is, C = 0.01 uF and R= 15.9 kQ. Similarly, use Ry = Rp = 100, since Ap = 2. b. The data for the frequency response plot can be obtained by substituting for the input frequency f values from 100 Hz to 100 kHz in Equation (7-6). These data are included in Table 7-3. Equation (7-6) is repeated here for convenience: : || {fu nl V+ ff)? where Ay = 2 and f, = I kHz, The frequency response data of Table 7-3 are plotted in Figure 7-7. In the stopband (from 100 Hz.to 1 kHz) the gain increases at the rate of 20 B/decade. However, in the passband (af- ter f= f, = 1 kHz) the gain 1 rains constant at 6.02 4B. Moreover, the upper-frequency limit of the pa sband is set by the closed-loop bandwidth of the op-amp. TABLE 7-3. Frequency Response Dota forthe FirstOrder HighPass Filter of Example 7-5. Frequency. f Gain ragnitude, ‘Magnitude (dB) = (Hy) lngfah 20 log|u,/vg] 100 020 =14.02 200 039 8.13 400 0.7m 258 700 1A5 119 1,000 Lal 301 3,000 1.90 5.56 . 000 1.98 593 10,000 199 5.98 30,000 2 602 100,00 2 6.02 Sa 7-5 First-Order High-Pass Butterworth Filer - 279 ' é10 10k Frequency (Ha) 7 5, FIGURE 7-7 Frequency response for Example 7” 7=6 SECOND-ORDER HIGH-PASS BUTTERWORTH FILTER ‘Asin the case of the first-order filter, a second-order high-pass filter can be formed from a second-order low-pass filter simply by interchanging the frequency- foo Any input freuen Basically, there are We 7 (2) narrow band poss, However, we will define a filer as factor Q < 1G, On the other hand, ppass filter, Thus Q isa meas the more selective is the filter or the mar ship between Q. the 3-dB bandwidtis, and the ‘ (7-92) For the wide band-pass filter the center frequemey. fe fe= Whuh (7-90) where fy = high cutoff frequency (H2) low cutoff frequency of the wide band-pass filter (Hz) at the center frequency.7-8-1 le Band-Pass Filter A wide band-pass filter can be formed by simply ss Sections and is gencrally the choice for simpli To obtain a & 2 dB/decade band-pass, first-order high-pass pass sections are cascaded; for a +t 40-dB/decade band-pass, filter, high-pass and second-order low-pass sections are connected in series, and so on, In other words, the order of the band-pass filter depends on the order of the high- iss «and low-pass filter sections, ap Figure 7-11 shows the + 20-dB/docade wide band-pass filter, which is composed of first-order high-pass and first-order low-pass filters. ‘To realize a band-pass response, however, fy must be larger than fi, as illustrated In Example 7~7. sading high-pass and low- of design and performance and first-order low- filter, second-order Fintorder \ flare a po ott en i con . ' %, % & ! { ox | i : { S ' 20x pore os | 16.02 c a mh 0a + [oobur ev | aoiye =o! " ‘ R: Vee 1 ‘« 20: pot at ! - text ' ! ' =2hHe FIGURE 7-11 (o) +20 d8/decade-wide bond pass filer, (b) Its frequency response. Ay cond A; duol opamp: 1458/353. 7-8 Band-Pass Filters 285SOLUTION (a) A low-pass filter with Jy = kHz was designed in Example 715 a fore, the same values of resistors and eapucitors ean be used here, tha RY = 15.9 kQ and C’ AE. As in the ease ofthe high-pass fit, f cca be designed by following the steps of section 7-3-1: 1, fy = 200 Hx, 2. Let C = 0.05 wR 3. Then — ~ Imp. (2m)(200)(5)(10) : = 15.9kD Since the band-pass gain is 4, the gain of the high-pass as well as low: s sections could be set equal to 2. That is, input and feedback resis- tors must be equal i ich. The complete band-pass fil ter is shown in . (b) The voltage gain magnitude of the band: uct of the voltage gain magnitudes of the high-pas Therefore, from Equations (7-2: filter is equal to the prod- id low-pass filters. (7-10) where Agr = total passband gain the input signal (Hz) if tiequency (Hz) equency.(Hz) f= 200 Hz, and fy = 1 kHz. The frequency response data in Table 7-5 are obtained by substituting into Equation (7—10) the of f trom 10 Hz to 10 kHz, The frequency response plot ‘rom Equation (7-9b), » ef [BEE de V(1000)(200) = 447.2 Hz. ters and Oscillators 286TABLE 7-5 Frequency Rosponte Dota for the Baud-PassFilor of Exomple 7-7. Input frequency, Site, ee 0 w oo ely 447.2 7 1,000 2,000 7.000 10,000 Go ‘Magnitude (dB) = magnitude, are 20 oll a7 - 13.99 05931 4st Lao 50) a 8861 333 Voda, 3I3t 9.909 2774 8.861 1.780 05655, 03979 — 89 Substituting this value in Equation (7-94), Volts gain (#8) * Joo = 200 “Thus @ is less than 10, as expected for the wide band-pass filter. 447.2 . = 0.56 FIGURE 7-12 Frequency response for Example 7-7. 7-8 Dand-Pass Filters 287,7-8-2 Narrow Band-Pass Filter “The narrow band-pass filter using multiple feedback is shown in Figure 7_), | “how inthis igure the filter uses only one op-anip. Compared to al he discussed so far, this filter is unique in the following respects: i 1. Iwhas two feedback paths, hence the name multiple feedback filter, 2, ‘The op-amp is used in the inverting mode. Generally, the narrow band-pass filter is designed for specific values of gy ter frequeney fe and Q or f- and bandwidth [sce Equation (7-9a)). The ei Hy ‘components are determined trom the following relationships. " To simply the design calculations, choose C, = Cy = C. 3 R en i. COO "4 R= Ara o-4, where Ap is the gain at fo, given by ae a ou “The gain Ay, however, must satisfy the condition Ap <2@ a-u ‘Another advantage of the multiple feedback filter of Figure 7-13 is that center frequency fe can be changed to a new frequency /~ without changing gain or bandwidth. This is accomplished simply by changing Ry to Rj so that 2 Ry= Rp (£) at (see Example 7-8). ‘Active Filters and Oscillatorshte ty Frequency o FIGURE 7-13 (o} Muliplofeedbock rarrow band pas filter. (b Is frequency response. SOLUTION ‘a. Choose the values of C, and C; first and then calculate the values of Ri, Ry, and Ry from Equations (7-11) through (7-13). Let C, = C= C= 0.01 BF. a = 47K. 10910-4910) eT 10°)(107*)[2(3)? — 10) 3 95.5 kQ Use Ry = 4.7 KO, Ry = 6.2.02, and Ry = 100k. 7-8 Bani-Passfiltes 289SOLUTION 290 tion (7-15); the value oF required fo change the wiz to 1.5 KH is 7 109 = 265k n= 697K (T5c0, b. Using Equat quency from (Use Ry = 2.72.) BAND-REJECT FILTERS: “The band-rejet iter is also called a band: filter, frequencies are attenuated in the SF : tal as shown in Figure 7—1(2). As with ‘band-pass filters, the band-rejectt eet of (2) narrow band-reject. Thy can also be classified as (1) wide band-rej " cam aso eet filler is uncommonly calcd the not filter. Because ofits Q (> 10), the bandwidth of the narrow band-reject filter is much smaller thy of the wide band-reject filter. i 7-9-1 Wide Band-Reject Filter Figure 7-14(a) shows a wide band-reject filter using Filton and a surnming amplifier. To realize a band-reject resp frequency f. ofthe high-pass filter must be larger than the high the low-pass filter. In addition, i ss sections must be cq} ide band-reject filter is s Jow-pass filter, a high nse, the 10% In Example 7-7, a wide band-pass filter was designed with f, = 200 if, = | kHz, In this example these band frequencies are interchanged, 4. Lkbtz and fy = 200 He. This means that we ean use the same com 25 inn Example 7-7, but interchanged between high-pass and low-pass Therefore, for the low-pass section, A” = 15.9 kL and C’ = 0.05 HF, w the high-pass section * R = 159k and C = 0.01 pF Since there is no restriction on the pas: i i Sas tee passband gain, use a gain of 2 for Ry = Ry = 10kO ‘Active Filters and OscillatorsRy 10K. Y 10K fee VT =4472He Frequency rs) FIGURE 7-14 Wide bond-ejec! filter. (o} Cicui,(b) Frequency response. For Ay, An, ‘ond Ay use quad opamp AF774/MC34004, Furthermore, the gain of the summing amplifier is set at 1; therefore, Ry = Ry = Ry = 10KD Finally, the value of Rosy = yl] Ry lf Ry = 3.3 2. The complete circuit is shown in Figure 7-14(a), and its response is shown in Figure 7-14(b). The voltage gain changes at the rate of 20 dB/decade above Ju and below J, with a maximum attenuation occurring at fe. 7-9 Band-Rejeet Fiters 291Filter callod thetnarch filter, is commonly useq Me aed power line Frequency hun oy network shown in Figure 715 jiaped networks. Owe T networ two Capaitory fy maximum ation, 7-9-2 Narrow Band-Reject “The narrow band-rejeet filter, often the rgjection of a single frequency, such that gonnonty ased notch Hlter js the fe Tis fa passive filter composes of 0 T tie up af two resistors and a expatcite, while the other var Frequency is the Fygquency at Wh my : FIGURE 7-15 {o} TwinT notch fi Se fier. (b) Active notch filter. (c] Frequency response of! 292 Active Filters and OscillatorsUnfortunately, the sassive twin-T network has a relat The Q of the netv4irk can be increased significantly if ii weed & follower as shown in Figure 7-18(b). The frequcacy response of filer of Figure 7=15(H) is shown in Figure 7-15(@), The meet comenan wa of notch filters is in communications and biomedical instruments (or chanmating a desired frequencies. Ty desigi an active noch filer for # specific etch ont Fe quency fy. choose the value of C = 1 iF and thea calculate the coysed vai of A from Bquation (7-16). For the best respons, the circuit components should PE very close to their indicated values. TEXAN i | SEXAMPLE 7-10 f 2. Design a 60-Hz. active notch filter. is: i : SOLUTION ; Let C = 0.068 uF. Then, from Equation (7~16) the vaiue of Rts fee - = 39.01 kN ahve )(60)(08) 08%) parallel two 39-K2 resixiors: for the 2C component, par ‘tors, (Use 39 92.) For K/: allel two 0.068-jF 7-16 AiL-PASS FILTER ee eee eS y components of the yctable phase shifts for dif- Js are transmitted over trans- change in phase. To com phase changes, all-pass filters ited. The all-pass filters olay equalizers of phase correctors. Figure 7-16(a) shows an all- R,. The output voltage v, of the filter can be obtained ter passe provid input signal, Whe iclephone wires. th a1) ¢ for Xe and simplifying, TaN Alttsy Hite 293294 ._vollages. Phase ange (deg) wo) FIGURE 7-16 Allposs fier. (o} Circuit. b) Photo shit between inpu and output or Tenge (7-18) where f is the frequency of the input signal in hertz, Equation’ (7-18) indicates that the amplitude of v,/v,. is unity; that is, ¥o] = [vig] throughout the useful frequency range, and the phase shift between U, and vi, is « function of input frequency f£ The phase angle ¢ is given by af RC @ = -2tan™ (= ) (1-19) where ¢ is in degrees, fin hertz, R in ohms, and C in farads. Equation (7~19) is used to find the phase angle # iff, R, and C are known, Figure 7~16(b) shows a phase shift of 90° between the input van output ry. That is, 1, kgs yy by 90°, For fixed values of & and C, the phase angle ¢p changes from O'to 180° as the freqBency fis varied from 0 10 oo, In Figure 7-16(a), if the positions of & and C Active Filters and Oscillatotsam interchanged, the ¢nase shi i ive oe Shift between input and output becomes positive. That SAMPLBTEA oS 7 mea sis 2 pemmpgemene dN mt Co eh OU ARBB EEE He TRE ttt ee 7-16) nd te pase ane gif he fee TION From Equation (7-19), = 2 tan 2 2C1OV(15 9) 10910) 1 = —90° ‘This means that the output voltage v, has the same frequency and amplitude but Tags vi, by 90°, as showin in Figure 7-16(b). With the advance of integrated-cirouit technology, a number of manufactur ers now offer ready-to-use universal filters having simultancous low-pass, high- pass, and band-pass output responses. Notch and all-pass functions are also avail- able by combining these output responses in the uncommitted op-ainp. Because of its versatility, this filter is called the universal filter. t provides the user with casy control of the gain and Q factor, The universal filter, sometimes called & Sate-variable filter, is presented in Chapter 9. +11 OSCILLATORS ‘Thus far we have examined op-amps wired as amplifiers or fillers. This section will introduce the use of op-amps as oscillators capable of generating a variety of ‘output waveforms. Basically, the function of an oscillator is to generate alternat- ing current or voltage waveforms. More precisely, an oscillator is a circuit that generates « repetitive waveform of fixed amplitude und frequency without any ex- ternal input signal. Oscillators are used in radio, television, computers, and com- munications, Although there are different types of oscillators, they all work on the same basie principle. ; 7-11-1 Oscillator Principles ‘An oscillator is a type of feedback amplifier in which part of the output is fed back to the input via a feedback circuit. If the signal fed back is of proper mag- nitude and phase, the circuit produces alternating currents or voltages. To visual ize the requirements of an oscillator, consider the block diagram of Figure 7=17. ‘This diagram looks identical to that ‘of the feedback ampliliers of Chapter 3 (see Figures 3-3 and 3-9). However, here the input voltage is zero ( ). Also, 7-11 Osillators 295,296 FIGURE 7-17 Ox— yor | ove "5 “Ye 118 kA (ZOR oot) apr, 'Y to ot be aye at L16m, @ ow FIGURE 7-21 (0) Squore wave generator. copacitor volioge v2 of the — tof Wovelors of expat wohage vo and 7-15 Square Wave Generator 303i itive than 7. he ony cross cxpacitor C is slightly re pet ie oy pecan 18 fewced to switch toa negative a vy rom Ry cutout wrage tg stron, Va ative, since Ry Ry + Ry gative, which holds the g Thus the net differential voltage v4) = 1 — ¥, iS ro negative sa Ul Of the op-amp in negative saturation, The oe Oe a tion until the capacitor C discharges and then 7 a soon 3s the cope Mighily higher than ~v,. (See Figure 7-21(b).) eae “i voltage v, becomes more negative than —v,, the net di ak oie pee Comes positive and hence drives the output of the op-amp $V, vollage 1 at tration + V,.. This completes one cycle. With ouiput at +V.,, vollage », at thy Honinverting input is (Men) Oty R (+ Ma) Oy +R, ‘The time period T of the output waveform is given by 0-3 or 1 (7-264, BKC WOK, + Key ] Equation (7-26b) inulicates thatthe frecueney of the output f, is not only a func, ion of the RC time consi: between Ay and Ry, Rot j j om example, i Ry = 1168, Equation (7~27) shows that the smaller the RC ime constant, the higher the outs Put frequency Jf, and vice versa. As With sine wave oscillators, the highest fre quency generated by the s i the stew rate of the ; citcuit at relatively higher frequencies cates oui cach inverting and nom inal needs a series 1 sistance Ay ty PFeVEAt excessive differential curcat Now because the inputs of the ©p-amp are subjected ty lane (inferential voltages. The resistance Ry used should be 100 KO of higher, A reduced peak-to Peak output voltage swing can be obtained in the squane-y, We generator of Fig ure 7-211) by using back-to-back eencis at the output terminal, Active Filters and OncillatorsF intr 718 , 5 “ig oy pees bee “5 Design the square-w: ‘1 fi, AH op-amp is'8.741) ie ella, With de su puution Use Ry = 1.16 R; so that the simpli ion (7-27) can be apr plied. Let = 1060. Then te ees eeu Ry = (1.16)(10kQ) = 11.62 (Use Ry = 20-40 potentiometer) 27) Next, choose a value of Cand ealeulate the value of R from Equation (7-27) Hence let C = 0.05 pF. By Equation (7-27), *= THAT HAH ‘Thus: R, = 10k. Ry = 116kO (20-k2 potentiometer) R= 10kK0 C = 0.05 uF 7-16 TRIANGULAR WAVE GENERATOR Recall that the output waveform of the integrator is triangular if its input is a square wave, (Refer to Section 6-12.) This means that a triangular wave gener tor can be formed by simply connecting an integrator to the square wave gener- aor of Figtire 7-21(a), The resultant circuit is shown in Figure 7~22(a). This cit- cnt requires @ dual opanp. ovo eMpatcitors, and at Teast five resistors. The wave are the same. For fixed Ry, aie as well as the ir wave nds on the resistance 2. (7-26b).| As R is increased or de- tremed, the frequency of the triangular wave will decrease or increase, respec Thely, Although the amplitude of the square wave is constant (= Vi). the am plitude and Vi versa | “The input of integrator Ay is x square Wa wave, However, ‘for the es with an inereaye in its frequet . while its output isa iangular output of Ay to be a U jar wave requires that ctivd of the square Wave input. Ay a general rule, To obtain a stable triangular wave, it may also be 7-16 ‘Triangular Wave Generator 305,306 ‘9 Voltoge Vu ® HVee| ov| toe (see) Von ® Vee] o FIGURE 7-22 Triangular wave generator. (o] Circul bls ouput waveform. Ay ond Az dual opamp: 1458/353 Recessary to shunt the capacitor C2 with resistance Ry = 10Ry and connect an offset vollaxe-compensating network at the noninverting terminal of Ay, As with any other oscillator, the frequency of the triangular wave generator is Hinited by the slew rate of the op-anp.. Therefore, a high-slew-rate op-amp such as LM30) should be used for the generation of relatively higher frequencies. ., Another triangular wave generator, which requires fewer components, is shown in Figure 7-23(a). The yenerator consists of a comparator A, and an integrator A;. The comparator A, compares the voltage at point P continuously with the inverting input that is at 0 V. When the vollage at P goes slightly be- low or above 0 ¥, the putpui of A, is atthe negative or positive saturation level, respectively. , To illustrate the eircuit's operation, let us set the output of A, at positive satuc ration + Vig ( +FVcc), This + Vy isan input of the integrator Ay The oulput of wid OveillatoF “Maw teetniqut inaras AOKAIGOKM pon) AO Ven O2V Ra Bt0Kn NM “ Voltne Was ty pat Vung 435 ovh— a“ tie (nd Voom ' Vag AV ' FIGURE 7-23 Triongulor wave gene: 9. (o} Circuit. (b) its waveforms. Ay and opamp: 1458/353, dual sone end of the voltage- yf As and the other is: the Ive-vouis Lp allains & certain value point P is slightly below 0 V; hence the oniput of \, willewitch from pose e saturation to negative saturation ~V. (= —V,,). This means that the output of Az will now stop going negatively and will begin to go positively. The output of A, will contin.» to increase until i teaches + Vg. At is timne the point P is slightly above 0 V; therefore, the output of tues back 0 Ue positive sate uration level + Vy. The sequence then ty in Figure 7-23(b). ‘The frequencies of the amplitude of the square Ww therefore, will be a nepative-yoing ramp. 1 divider Ry-Ry is the positive saturation hegative-going ramp of Ay. When the ney: Vio it ilpal Wavetonas is as shown hav wave ave the saa Supply voltae f /308 «appropriate ZENETS a thy desired amplitude ean be obtained DY UIE appropri 1 the oy sired amplitude €2 , ipure 7-230 suar wave en be dete 1c c and the Ye output af the follows 2:4, when the OPE Ty ig reaches ~ Vinge AU Me output of the integrator Ay steadily deeTeIS Wh before this Switching Nt] the output of Ay switehes From Vu 0 = ens that the —Vianp my the voltage at point P (+input) is 0 v.TI dp rad a038 Ry ‘That isn be veloped across Ry, and + Vea must be develo —Veane tM R Ry or Ry Vaan = EM 0 Similarly, + Vgayy the output voltage of Az at which the OUtpUL OF Ay sui from —V,,, to +V,y. is given by Ry Vag = ROH ce 7-28b), the peak-to-peak (pp) output a Thus, from Equations (7~28a) and ( tude of the triangular wave is, | au(pp) = + Vane — (Veo) R. Oy utp) = (2) 2 Woe ; pp) = (2) jg oad where Vy = |-+Veal = [Vl Equation (7-29) indicates that the amplitude, the triangular wave decreases with an increase in Ry. The time it takes for the output waveform to swing from ~Vjanp 10 +Vyq (oF From + Visap 0 —Vpan) is equal to half the time period 7/2, [See Figure 23(b).| This time can be calculated from the integrator output equation, (6-23 by substituting v, pp), and C= 0. (Pp) o Hence Trp) a7 oy biCy Active Filters and Oscillators~ Se troumnency, 1esPome ewes or * Te ance (1-300) ht ; where } y= i C2 the lt Val = |=Veal Substutinge value of ¥(PP) from Equation the ti i the time period of the triangular wave is pre MAC 7-39h) Ry ‘The fe\queney of oscillation then is , pea (7-306) \ ¢ ° AR CR . N Hi in Equation (72302) shows thatthe frequency of oscillation f, increases with an In- crease in Ry. 2 ‘The triangulths wave generator is designed for a desired amplitude and fre- quency J, by using\ Equations (7-29) and (7-30c). For the 1458, Vax = 14 V. edi, from Equation (7-29), : I 1 (2)(14) n= % 4 Let Ry = 10 kM; then Ry = 40 kM. (Use a 50-k2 potentiometer.) Now, from Equation (7~30c), \ N daa (4)(RiC)(10 kQ) Sms. Let Cy = 0.05 wh; then Ry = 10kQ. Thus Ry = 0.05 iF and (®; = 40 KO. (51.40 potentiometer). (See Figure 2kH2 = ‘Therefore, RiCy Ry = 10kO, 7-23(a).)7-17 SAWTOOTH WAVE GENERATOR ae EE eee eee 310 . MS is that the .3 ‘The difference between the triangular and sawtooth wav afore eae ant of the tray wave avy ex tis fl mes DML Pane 2 at time ty required for the triangular Sea onthe othe! hand, the x TON + Vaan 10. = Veange [See Figure: 7-24(b).] On Ue ON wavctvan ts unos al tines, Tha mays Positively (mes Taster than it falls ively, of view versa. The trianglt or Ber of Figure 7-23 erted into acs; Se accomplished by using the potentiometer and connectin 0 Mie a8 shown in Figure 7-24¢a), Depend. an the Ay setting, ea level Setled in the output of As, Now, supjase that the output oF Ay 18 8 Sqttare and the potenti i, is adjusted for a certain, die level This ‘means thea, OuIpel of A, will be a triangular wave, riding on some de level that is a fuged oF the X, setting. The duty eycle of the squmre Wave will be deteruiined by i d amplitude the outpul the output is er than tg} S shown cd, as the wiper is Moved wand “Vee, the fai time becomes longer finan the rise time, Also, the frequg Of the sawtooth wave decreases.as Ry if sjusted toward + Vee OF Vee: Hy over, the amplitude of the sawiooth wiyive is independent of the R, setting, In ail the preceding os lors , thé frequency is determined by the RC time Sant, However, there are appliicatigns, such ats freyuency modulation (FM), generators, and frequency shift Jeving (PSK), wher’ tlie frequency needs to Controlled by means of an iamput voltage callzd control voltage. This function achieved in the waltage-conutatted oscillator (VCO), also called a voltage-to-fa quency converter. & typical -£xample is the Signelics NE/SE 566 VCO, which pre e wave and triangular wave outputs as a function off 7-251) is a block dingram of the 566, The frequency ation is determined “yy an external resistor Rj, cupacitor C, and the vol Ve applied to the contier | termi [See Figure 7--25(c).] The triangular itor C, by one current is generated by ailternaty’ sly charging the external e other. {See Figure 7~25(b).] The chi and then linearly dise’ parsing it by a discharge levels a rtnined by Schmitt trigger action. The Schinitt (rigger: weforms are buffered so edie provides the square * wave output. Both the output wi Active © Oe itty rs ‘Active Filters and Oscilstorm Wee Dutyevae ade a Voluge a Time fo) ov| FIGURE 7-24 Sawlooth wove generator. fo) Circuit. Ay and A; dul op-omp: 1458/353. D, ond D3: IN4735 wih V: ~ 6.2. {b} Output waveform when ‘noninverting input of A; is of soina negative de level. the output impedance of each is $0.0. The typical amplitude of the triangular wave is 24 V pp and that of the square wave is 54 V pp. Figure 7-2Ste) iva typical connection diagram, In this arrangement, the R\Cy combination deterwines the freesunning treqteney, and the contra voltage Ye at terminal 5 js set by the voltage divider Formed with Rs and #,. The initial volte age Ve at terminal § anust be ee jest ay on TM Wt ‘ontrolled Oseiiyor 317— ja “nt Soot ne ee te ' Squarewave. veo ouput (3 6}h Gutter “Ep | ingen | Von coo" [) "eee " “ w ME Bn ou ot % Megan 7 et — fe NE/SESOS Je, west sienn + A ot i. f aeveve yatta vine Juve 0M wns 20 cn, 00 to FIGURE 7-25 Voliagecontolled oxcillalor 566. (a) Pin configuration. (b) Block diagram. (c) Typicol connection diagram. (d) Oulpul wovelorms. (Courtesy of Signetes Corporation.) ‘ a2 iiEXAMPLE 7-17 : where FV is the to the capacitor C and approximated by all supply saltape, 4 v1 coupled with thst eV pp ua is we cop euipat wavefortns F noe Ireagienry ways y, . Ya (7-31) GOV) career be inthe rings 2KO ky 2042, Por a fixed Ve and con fant Cy. the frequency f, can be sanied over a [el freq ey rate by the choice of Ry betwee ee aan 20 62, Similarly, fae a crests P eney J can be modulated aver a1; Fran by the ther case the maximum output frequency i 1 MUAY HE should be connected between pins # and 6 to clusnnate pe in the control current source. jell the VCO is to he used to drive standard Inge circuitry # dua supply of 5 V is recommended 0 that the square wave sip hay se proper de Tevel for logic circuitry. ‘The VCO is commonly used in converting low-frequency signals such a ) or electsocardiograms (EKG) into an audio-frequency ‘ean then be transmitted over telephone Hines or (wor agnostic purposes ar can he recarded on & Mage netic tape for documentation or further reference. For more injormation on yvco. applications, refer to Section 9-5. product, the fre~ ¥,. in ci In the circuit of Figure 7~25(c), +V = 12 V, Ry = 1.5 KO, Ry = Ry = LOAD and C, = 0.001 pF. ia ‘a, Determine the nominal frequency of the output waveforms. b. Compute the modulation in the, output frequencies if Ve is vs * tween 9,5 V and 11.5 V- Draw the square wave output wavefonn if the modulating input is a sine ‘wave, as shown in Figure 7-26. ie 6 SOLUTION Using the voltage-divider rule, the initial control voltage Ve at terminal Sis tee 15k From Equation (7-310), the approximate nominal frequency fis (2)(12 = 10.43) oO) 10.43 V = 26.17 KH "y 7-18 Vollage-Controlled Oscillator 313Volum FIGURE 7-26 Input and output woveloiins for Exomple 717" ie inodulstion i the output frequencies ean be 51D) by subsiiuming for ¥, inst 9.5 V and t (202 ~ 95) eee EST Cohce Sy 12 Thus the chuige in the output frequency 4167 ke = J SAD Rie Hy = of the site wave input, the control vol anding on (7-310), the frequ the time period will place duying the negative half-p tie 7-26, 4 6f-the output Exactly the opposite of the input, as show! 7-19 PSPICE SIMULATION LEXAMPLE 7-18 ©. TREE a ier . ie “Create the PSpice.niodel and sinuis ith s filter circuit shown in: Figure'7—4(a).The 1-V, magnitude, Obtain & plo 314 Active Filters»SOLUTION : Since we are usi . . : Aen ne sing the PSpiceevaaton pais and we net ry | hrough a range, we will use VAC instead of VSIN as-the inpw wwever, the VAC requires that phase and maghitude be set. : Tm $—» Design Manager. Click 0" ‘et New Part > Advanced. 4 wo de ) ie need a ATAL opamp. wo Ue x ground terminals, (AGND), Le hart Browser Advanced, them in the works] and Close. Figure: 7—4(0). » vary input fre- {source Voy it oF Fyure 7. supplies (VDC, four labels (GLOBAL tesistors (R), two capacitors (©), and VAC. Using P hove parts one al a tinae ane pl Now close the Get New Part option by clicking on Pk 3. Arrange the parts in the work crea the way they appear Intercoinnect the parts using Draw => Wi A. The parts in this cireuit that requite supplies, fixe resistors, two capacitors, changed by lst double-clicking o the part the new value. Set the attributes and chang. above parts. Also, set the GLOBAL labels, two each VEE, To set up VAC attributes double-click on the symbol the pop-up window, change magnitude anil phase as shown below. ACTIAG = IY Save Atte Change Display — Both “name and value= OK : ¥ ACBHASE 0 Save Atte OK, Aud the location of x, 10 the out of the circuit. : iw attributes are the two de VACA, part's attribute is or label.and then entering, the attribute values of the ‘as #VCC and and then in > Probe . Since a plot of », versus fregieney is desired, open An Seinp ai click-on Autontatically run Probe aft 6 Open M i yeu AC Sweep ~» Peeade > Ptsfdecade => 10 : > Start Brey > 10H 1 req LOKI 9-5 Setup sa file, au te Netlist to make sure that there are no. wiring A warning will appeii iFthere are any errors. Click on OK and a ist of the error locations will be displayed. If there are no,errors, the cir- cuit is realy for sia . G 9, Use Analysis — Simulate» Analysis Type AC 16 exceut A n> Analy execute the pro- gram, Click on OK, Wall is OK, the Probe iin “black screen will appear. 5 a 10, Use > Add —» Vi yo Plot —» Y ais Setting» Seale sereen vlog 7-19 Spice Simulation — 315,FIGURE 7-27(a). PSpice model of the secondorder low pass Dullerworth filter, 11. To add the u, label to the graph, use Tools — Label — Text and a Tex, Label box will be displayed. ‘Type in “vo” and click on OK, Use the mouse to place “vo" above the waveform. 12. Print the circuit schematic and the plot. The PSpice model of the low. pass filter and the output waveform are shown in Figure 7-27(a) and () respectively [examine rio aBs ie ne Sea eae [oo Create the PSpice mode! snd simulate the second-order high:pass Butterwort [P5231 filter circuit shown'in Figure 7-8().:The input voltage source is VAC, [pg fEY mannides Obie «ple of «ness fomency ‘ fs tacivis BM aded wien hI then te SOLUTION The procedure to simulate a high-pass filter will be identical to that of the love | pass filter of Example 7-18. : | 1. Select Programs ~ MicroSim Eval 8 — Design Manager, Click of Tools — Schematics, Select Draw —» Get New Part + Advanced. 316 Active Filters and OsciatorsTao FIGURE 7-27{b}. Second order v-pass Butterworth fiter oulpul wove! 2. To create the cireuit of Figue 7a) we need a pATH supplies (VDC), four labels (GLOBAL), resistors (R), tw- capacitors (C), and VAC. Using Part Bro’ select all the above paris one at a time and place them Now close the Get New Part option by clicking on Place ut nid Close. area the pps 73a), the Draws 9 WV ne PSpive pro- 3. Arrange the parts in th Interconnect the par 4. The parts in thi supplies, five resistors, 880 capvetors, a's atribale iy changed hy fist double etic hing on the thess entering the neve value, Set the attributes and change the attsibute values of the above parts Ako, set the GLOBAL labels, two cael as VCC and VER. To set up the VAC atttibuies double-click un the symbol, and then in the git pop-up box ehange th aud phase as shown below. ACMAG = 1 — Save Attr > Change Display > Both name and value — OK TH19 PSpice Simulation — 317“0K oP 0 Save Att 0 a ACPIIASE +0 output of the circle Add the location ef .,,t0 the eney is d Since a plor ut a, versus frequency is oT Setup and click om Automatically 5 Enable AC SweeP & Open Analysis -» Setup -» Enable M Open AC alysis Probe jesired, open A fer simulation, weep — + De a PUNE »Siart | ade > 10 : qo 10 y=) WhIe 7. Save the fil 8. Open Analysis» Create Netlist to make heron errors: warning ill appear if here ae any er. Click on O he ions will be displayed: [there are no errors, the cig. mulation, re that there are nO Wiring list of the error loc is ready for Se 9 Use Analysis —» Simulate —» Analysis type ->AC to a © pro. gram. IE all is OK, the Probe window with a black screen will appear, 10. Use ‘Trace —> Add V{ vol lot —> ¥ aris Setting — Se AL. To add the v, label to the graph, use T el box will be displayed, Type in buse ty place “vo” above the wavelor 12, Print the cireuit schematic and the plot. The PSpiee model of the high- Pass filter and its ouput wayeforn are shown in Figure 7-28(a) and (by respectively. Log Is» Label -» Text and a Text 0" and click on OK. Use the Pe Noe a Greate the PSpice model and simulate the square wave generat i in Figure 7-21 (a). Obtain a plot of Veiand',versus time, 9/3, SOLUTION Jn a simulation, for the square wave 1 itor to begin os it is necessary sudden impulse at the beginning of the simulation, ’This impulse stim- Hed by using two pulse sources instead of two de supplies. Thus, in this simulation example, the pulse sources are used to power the op-amp circuit, [i important to note that the pulse widths of the pulse sourves must be set to have much longer time intervals tha the period of oscillation, In this simulation example the pulse width (PW) is set at 100 and period o oscillation ix 1 ms. Also the rise Lime of the pulse sources must be fast enough to simulate the sud den application of power to the circuit, 318 Active Filters and Oscillators\ es CED. tev \ wi ° 4 mm pr ‘ {ow ev ys ah | ome wl 9% | oMnae mw] sie) “0 “ FIGURE 7-28(9), Spice mcdel ofthe secondordor highpass Butterworth er. Click on nis —> MicroSim Eyal 8 > D ties. Select Draw > Get New . 2. Tv create the cineuit of Figure 7-21 (ay we need a 4A7AL op-amp, (Wo sources (VPULSE), four labels (GLOBAL), four ground terminals (AGND), thive-resistors (I), and a capacitor (C). Using Part Browser Advanced, seleet all the above parts one at @ time and place them in the workspace. Now close the Get New Part option by clicking on Place and. Close, 3. Arrange the pauts in the work area the way they appear in Figure 7-21(a). Intereonncet the parts using the Draw — Wire feature of PSpice. 4. The parts in this circuit that require setting new attributes are the (wo pulse sources, th ipacitor, Set the attributes and change ihe attvibute values of the above parts, Also, set the GLOBAL labels, (wo each ay #VCC and ~VEE, Yo set up each ofthe VPULSE attributes, double-clic sand then in the pop-up box, set the values for VII= mis ‘age. V2 = maximum input voltage, TD = time delay, ‘7 PER = perlod, and PW = pulse width as shown below: V1 0V — Save Alte > OK on the symbol, juny input volt rall time, 7-19 PSpice Simukuion — 319m im SLA ye 184 of "| EE mii FIGURE 7~28(b). Second.order highpass Buterworth filer oulpul waveform. » Save str —> Change Display > Both name and | V2 15V tue» OK PD 0V Save Aur -> OK PR Ins» Save Attr > OK TE + Iny > Save Alter OK PER > 101s —» Save Ar -> OK PW +1005 -¢Save Ate OK, VEE source for simulation has been rotated 180 dege es must be set twice, one for each VPULSE at of Vand y, to the circuit inst, Sell the locatio « jilot of Ve and x, versus time is required, open Analysis > ically run Probe after simulation, nt, Probe Setup and click on Autom 6. Open Analysis —> Setup 7 Click ou Transient > Print Step —» 10us » Vinal (ime ~> 3m 7. Save the circuit as a file 320 Active Halters anury FIGURE 7-29(a). PSpice model of tte square wave genétator. 8. Open Analysis —> Create-Netlst to niake sure that there are no wiring ‘A wi Click on OK and errors, A warning will appear if there are any érr0rs. be displayed. IF there are no errors, the cit- list of the error locations will cuit is ready for simulation. : 9. Use Analysis —» Simulate to execute the program. Click on OK. The Probe window with a black sereenwill appear. _ 10. Use Trace -> Add > Vivo] > VIVC] 1h To add he o, label tothe graph wse Tools “+ Label —> Text and a Text Label box willbe displayed. Type in *vo" and ick 9n OK. Use,she rioyse to place “vo” above the waveform. Similarly, use the seine Bre cedure to add the V¢ label to the graph. : 12, Print the cireuit diagram and the plot. The PSpice model of the senate rave generator and the-output waveform are shown in Figure,7~29 (a) and (b) respectively. 7-19 Spice Simulation 3217 j FIGURE 7-29(b), Square wave genet tor ovipul waveform. | SOLUTION We will use the same steps as those used for the square wave generator of Bte arhple 7-20. ‘ 1. Select Programs ~» Micros Tools ~> Schemati ct 2. To create the circuit of F 1 Eval § > Design Manager. Click on jet New Part, pe 7-23 (a) We need two ATA op-amps) (GLOBALS), five ground (ete) Is (AGND), four tesistors (RK), and a capacitor (C). Usingl { New Part, seleet all the above parts one at a time and place them the work area, Now close the Get New Part option by clicking on Plage and Close. 3. Arrange the parts in the work avea the way they appear in Figure 7-25 (a). Interconnect the parts using the Draw —» Wire feature of PSpice- 4, The parts in this circuit that require setting new atiributes are the 0 pulse sources, four resistors, and capacitor, Set the attributes aud change two pulse sources (VPULSE), six lat mi the attribute values of the above parts, Also, set the GLOBAL labels," euch as VCC and ~ VER, BAL labels 322 “Active Filters staid Oserliatars: \‘To set up cael VPUTL SI and a OF the YPULSE attribut, double click an the syinbl age, V2 Pop-up box, set the values for V1 = minimums input 90 a He maximuni input voltage, time delay, TF = fall time, ER = period, and PW = pulse width as shown below: V1 0V Save At + 0K V2—+ 1SV > Save Attr—> Change Display Both name and value —> OK ~ TD OV > Save Attr > OK TR Ins —~ Save Attr—>OK ‘TF > Ins > Save Attr > OK PER ~ 101s — Save Attr > OK PW 100s — Save Attr > OK Note that the =VIEE source for simulation het Therefore, the above values must be sel vic tribute, Add the locations of Ve aspt #6 %8 the circuit. a 5, Since a plot of Ve and v, versus time is required. open AD TTT Probe Selup and click on Automatically run Probe afte simulation. 6. Open Analysis + Setup — Transient Click on Transient — Print Step —> Sus — Final time > 2ms 7. Save the circuit as a file. a 8. Open Analysis Create Netlist to make sure that there are no Witt errors. A warning will appear if there are any crrors. Click on OK and @ fist of the error locations will be displayed. If there are io errors, the cit- cuit mulation, 9. Use Analysis > Simulate to execute the program, Probe window with « black serecr-will appear. 10. Use Trace —> Add — VI vo] > VIVC] L1. ‘To add'the 9, label to the graph, use Tools —> Label —> Text and a ‘Text Label box will be displayed..Type in *vo",and click on OK. Use the mouse to place “vo” above the waveform, Similarly, use the same pro- cedure to add the V¢ label to.the graph. 12. Print the circuit diagram and the plot. The PSpice model of the triangu- lar wave generator and the output waveform are shown in Figure 7-30 (a) and (b) respectively. been rotated 180 degr one for each VPULS ‘on OK. The ~ SUMMARY — ‘ 1. A filter is often a.trequene} frequencies and attenuates ive circuit that passes a specified band of als of frequencies outside this band, 7-19 PSpice Simulation — 393FIGURE 7-30(a). PSpice model of the triangular, wave generator. analog or digital, pyssive ot a number of ways: dio or radio frequency. 3. The most commonly used filters are the. following: + (@) Low-pass filter . * (b) High- + fh low-pass filtc his a constant gain from 0 Hz a eertain requeney called the eutosT frequency, fy at which the gain is down by 3.UB. Above fin. the : tin decreases with an increase in frequetty./On the ote hand, a high-pass filter pusses all the frequencies above a certain frequency called the low cute OF frequency J, The upper cutoff frequency of the high-pass filter, however, Ferns ot ths banslwith of the pany, A béndicpare fame hhas a passband between two. cutoff frequencies fy and J; such that fr > f,. Any input fre- quency outside this passband is attenuated, ‘The bandereject filter performs : cily opposite to the band-pass filter, in that it hay 9 Stopband between two i cutoff frequencies fy and J, Finally, the all-pase filter has input and output + mplitudes equal a al requenie: however the phase between the to : isa function of frequency. ye 1 324 Active Filters and Os rrFIGURE 7-30(b). Triangular wove genetolor output wovelorm, he order of the filter indicates the rate at which the input frequency is approaching oF exceeding ter gain changes while the the cutoff frequency of the file Sr example, in the firstorder low-pass filler, for f'>"fy, the gain de> ereases al the rate of 20 dBfdecaule, whereas in the firs (order high-pass fil- ter the gain inereases atthe rate of 20 dBdecaule until f= f., Simi ly. in the second-order filter the change inthe rate of the gain is 40 UB/lecade, im the third-order 60 dB/deeade, and so on. 5. To convert a low-pass filler into at high-pass terchaa tors ler, or vice versa frequeney-delermining components, that is, resistors 6. igher-order filtets can be formed by simply usin lets. For example, a thin-ord first- and second-order filter is constructed hy cascading lirst- second-order filters: a fourth-order i formed hy cascading two second-order filters: and so on 7. ‘There are ovo types of band-pass filters: wide band-pass and narrow band: high- Iter is ass filters. A wide band-pass filter can be formed simply by-caseadin Dass and fowspass seetions, On the other hand, the multi fone of the narrosy_ band-pass fiers,326 8. As with band-pa oor narrow band-rej a low- ind high-pa narrow band-reject filter, often called the work. It is usually used for the recta power line frequency hum. The all-pass filter does just what its name suggests. It provides with predictable phase shifts for different input frequencies: tor 10. Basically, the function of ator is to gencrate alternating oe r vollage waveforms, Osc sified! according, « the Pe ae ren se the Frequency of excillaien, and the uype of waveror™ Be “ ated here are two requirement oscillation: : t) The magnitude of the oop gain A rime greater than or equal (0 |. h) ‘The total phase shift of the loop gain must be 0°. ‘The Wien bridge, phase shift. and quadrature osellators ae the MON om Pa oe Sinusoidal osctivors, In all hese Tatars the frequency OF O5- cillation is a function of the RC time constant. i JL. A square wave output waveform is generated ifthe ouput of the op-a™P, forced to swing repetitively between positive and negative saturation. One Way [0 OD- tain a triangular wave isto integrate the square wave. Therelore (Re angular wave generator can be formed by using a comparator and an integrator. 12, The sawtooth waveform has ae tne many times fonger tan the fall me or vive versa. The triangular wave generator using a comparator and an ier grator can be converted to obtain a sawtooth waverorm. . 13. The oscillator whose output frequency depends on the amplitude of the input called a voltage-conirolled oscillator (VCO) oF 4 vollage-to- frequency (V/F) converter, The VCO is used in phase-locked-loop circuits and for frequency modulation (FM), among other things. filters, band-rejeet filtei ject. The wide bandereject filter, and a summing amplifies. The filters are added together througl # sun rch filter. ingle frequen©> ipuls o! mining 4 uses the 1 y, suet as 60-Hz .s unity gain, of win QUESTIONS 7-1, Deline a filter. How ar 7-2. List the most commonly used filters. 7-3. What is a passband and a stopband for a filter? 7-4, What are the advantages of active filters over passive ones? 7-5. What is the Butterworth response? 7-6. What is an all-pass filter? Where and why is it needed? 7-1. Define an oscillator, 7-8, What are the two requirements for oscillation? 7-9. How are oscillators cl assified? 7-10, What is frequency stability? Explain its significance. TIAL, What is the difference between the sawtooth wave and the triangular wave? 7a12, In the sawtooth generator of Figure 7=24(a), how does the potentiometer R, affect the frequency and amplitude of the output waveform? 7-13. What is a VCO? Give two applications that require a VCO. filters cf ‘Active Filters and OscillatorsPROBLEMS The cutoff frequency of a esntain f vert this low-pass filter have ‘ quency scaling tec} ; 72, Draw frequency Fares . : 1 TX Oblain frequency menue ‘or the low-pass filters in Problem ee ond lowspuss Eller cite similar to hut in Table 7-1 for ie inst: of 1. Construct the lrequengy espe ey O12 Kiana passband 2 7-4, Obiain frequeney respon fe ee arene d- order low-pass filter at a a iF raquo’ Par aeateaa Tat the fre: rea oe aeney response data similar to that in Table 7-3 for 2 Hrs Call igh-pass filler at a cutoff frequency of 400 Hz and a passband gain 7-6. In the circuit of Figure 7-8, C, Ry = 27 KO, and Ry = 15,8 kO.” (a) Deterinine the low cutott frequency of the filter. tb) oi the thequeney response data and draw the frequency resporise plot he filter 7-7. Draw the schematic diagram for a fourth-order low-pass: Butterworth 7-8. The following specifications are given for a certain wide band-pas . Ji, = 400 Hz, Jy = 1 kHz, and passband gain = 1, Calculate the value of @ for the filter, . oo 7-9. 4 certain narrow band-pass filter has been designed to meet the following specifications: f.- = 2kHz Q = 20. and A, = 10. What modifications are necessitry in the filter circuit to change the center frequency fe to | KH, keeping the gain and bandwidth constant’? 7-10. Draw the frequency response plot fora wide band-reject filter having 200 Hy and f; = 1 kHz. Label the gain and frequency axes properly. w the frequency response plot for a 60 Hz. active notch filter. Label the es properly. . ure 716(a), determine the phase shift between 2 kHz, To obtain a positive phase shift , what Cy = 0047 pF. Ry = Ry = 3.3 KO filter: f fy 7-11. Dra gain and frequency 7-12. For the all-pass filter Fig the input and ouput at modifications are necessary in the circuit? ra particular phase shill oscillator the following specifications are given: Tak. R= 3.9 kQ. and [R,/R,| = 29, Determine the frequency of oscillation. 7-14. Draw the schematic diagram of a Wien bridge oscillator, 7-15. A certain Wien bridge oscillator uses R= 47 kO, C= 0.01 WF, and ition’? Ry, = ky, What is the frequency of oscil 7-16. In the circuit of Figure 7-20, Ri = K Ry = 82kQ and C, C,~ 0.08 28, Determine the frequcney of oscillation, 7-17, In the square-wave ve eo 2GO, Ry = 12KO, Ry = WRIA HOOK ie shat is che frequency of aseil- aerator off aud C= AOE y Problems» 3277328 7-18, 7-19, 7-20, 7-21, 7-22, nenerator using a square nd output waves Draw the "i Ww the schematic diaygeam oF a triangular wave wave yet e input Renerator and eyenator, Also, draw the iNPH Torn nl a inteynator, Adve, Ww the trian 5 OS KO dy a Output amp angular way Draw the schematic diagram of a input and output waveforms. i Fike VCO of Figure 7~25(e), determine the change i if Ve is, varied between 9 Vand HV. Assume that Re 1S RQ. Ry = 100 KA. Ry = 6.8 KA, and C, = 75 PF ee In the VCO of Figure 7-25(c), if #V= 15. V. Vo = 13V. and fe 0.0068 AF, determine the approximate change in output frequency HF Ky ts Varied from 4 kQ to 18 KE We penentor af Fie 120 KO. and C= 0.01 jel, Beteam Hele oF the triangutar wave ane (bh) the Hedy by ot tel 1 oth wave generator, Also, draw its alo output frequency ‘iat + = 12V, DESIGN PROBLEMS 7-23. 7-24, 7-28, 7-26, 7-27, 7-28. 7-29. 7-30, 7-31. 7-32. 7-33. 1-34, 7-35. 7-36. ee 8 firsteorder low-pass filter so that it has a cutof? frequency of 2 kHz and a passband gain of 1, Desigia second-order low-pass fier ata eutlt frequency of 1.2 KH ah Design a first-order high-pass filter at a cutofl frequency of 400 Hz an pass-band gain of 1. Design a second-order high-pass filter at a cutoff frequency of | kHz. Design a wide band-pass filler with J, = 400 Hz, fy = 2 KHz, and pass- mi gain = 4, Also draw an approximate frequency response plot for the filter. Design a narrow band-pass filter so thal fe. = 2 KHz. Q = 20.and Ap = 10. Design a wide band-reject filter using first-order high-pass and low-pass filters having f, = 2kHz and fy, = 400 Hz, respectively. Design a 400-Hy, active note filter. Design a phase shift oscillator so that f, = 1 KHz. Design a Wien bridge oscillator that will oscillate at 2 KHZ. Design a quadrature oscillator to operate at a frequency of 1.5 kHz. Design a square wave generator to operate at a frequency of 2 kHz. Design a triangular wave generator with f, = 1.5 kHz and v,(pp) = 5 Vi Design an integrator that can be used with the signal generator of Problem 1-17 so that the combination can be used as a triangulur-wave generator, PSPICE SIMULATION PROBLEMS 7-37. 7-38. Active Create the PSpice model and simulate the first-order low-pass Butterworth filter in Example 7-1. The input voltage source is VAC with | V magni- tude. Obtain a plot of 2, versus frequency. Create the PSpice model and simulate the first-order high-pass Butterworth filter of Figure 7-6, The input voltage source is VAC with | V magnitude. Obtain a plot of 1, versus frequency. Filters and Owcillators