GROUP N°4 – EXP SF201

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 GROUP N°4 – EXP SF201

TABLE OF CONTENT

Introduction ................................................................................................................. 3
Objectives ................................................................................................................... 3
General Objectives ................................................................................................................. 3
Theory ......................................................................................................................... 3
Ohm’s Law Experiment.......................................................................................................... 3
Objectives of the Ohm’s Law ............................................................................................ 4
Installation of the Ohm’s Law............................................................................................ 4
Procedure of the Ohm’s Law Experiment ........................................................................ 4
Kirchhoff’s circuit law experiment ........................................................................................ 4
Objectives of the Kirchhoff’s circuits Law Experiment .................................................. 5
Installation of the Kirchhoff’s circuits Law Experiment .................................................. 5
Procedure of the Kirchhoff’s circuits Law Experiment .................................................. 5
Wheatstone bridge Experiment ............................................................................................ 6
Objectives of the Wheatstone Bridge experiment: ........................................................ 6
Installation of the Wheatstone bridge Experiment ......................................................... 6
Procedure of the Wheatstone bridge Experiment.......................................................... 7
Study the I-V characteristic curve of diode ......................................................................... 7
Objectives for the “Study the I-V characteristic curve of diode” Experiment ............. 7
Installation of the “Study the I-V characteristic curve of diode” Experiment ............. 8
Procedure of the “Study the I-V characteristic curve of diode” Experiment ............... 8
Materials and installation ........................................................................................... 8

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Introduction

In this experiment, we'll dive into the core principles of electricity and
electronics, exploring concepts like voltage, current, resistance, and important
laws. Through hands-on activities, we'll build circuits, analyze their behavior,
and understand circuit diagrams. By the end, we'll have the skills to design and
analyze basic circuits, setting the foundation for further exploration in
electronics and engineering innovation.

Objectives
General Objectives

The main objectives of this experiment using the apparatus whiting the box, this
experiment would permit us to explore fundamental concepts of electricity and
electronics, including Ohm's law, resistors in series and parallel circuits, and the
behavior of diodes. Through this experiment, we aim to gain a deeper
understanding of electrical circuits, their components, and the principles
governing their behavior.

Theory
Ohm’s Law Experiment

When a potential difference is applied across a conductor, it creates a current density

and an electric field within the material. For certain materials, the current density is
proportional to the electric field, leading to Ohm's law, which states that the ratio of
current density to electric field is a constant called conductivity (σ).

For practical applications, consider a straight wire with uniform cross-sectional area (A)
and length (l), where a potential difference (∆V) is maintained, generating an electric
field and current. The potential difference across the wire (∆V) is related to the electric
field (E) within the wire through ∆V = El.

By using the relationship = I/A (current density equation), the potential difference
becomes ∆V = (l/σA) I, defining the resistance (R) as R = l/σA. Resistance is the ratio
of potential difference across the conductor to the current passing through it.

In summary:
- Ohm's law relates current density and electric field: J = σE.
- Resistance (R) is defined as R = l/σA.
- Resistance is the ratio of potential difference (∆V) to current (I): R = ∆V/I.
- The potential difference (∆V) across a conductor is related to resistance and current:
∆V = RI.

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Objectives of the Ohm’s Law

1. Set up a straightforward circuit configuration.

2. Utilize Ohm's law to gauge the circuit's current.
3. Witness the fluctuations of voltage, current, and resistance within the
identical circuit.

Installation of the Ohm’s Law

- Build the circuit using various connectors and a variable resistor.

- Use two multimeters and select resistances (10 Ω, 30 Ω, 50 Ω, 82 Ω, 100 Ω)
along with AA batteries.
- Set the galvanometer to measure 0.200 mA.
- Configure the voltmeter to measure up to 0.2 V.

Procedure of the Ohm’s Law Experiment

1. Maintain a constant Voltage and note the initial resistor value.

2. Document Voltage as per the number of installed batteries.
3. Calculate the theoretical Current using the provided formula from the earlier
section.
4. Note readings of voltage and current on the multimeters.
5. Alter the resistance and record values for at least 5 variations.
6. Transition to the next phase by adding additional batteries while keeping the
resistance constant.
7. Document the outcomes of the new configuration.

Compare the theoretical values with the data obtained in the experiment. It is
possible to calculate an error percentage by the next formula:

δ = |vA−vE / vE |*100

Kirchhoff’s circuit law experiment

An important information to take into account is that the resistors in series are
connected end-to-end, creating a single pathway for current flow. The total
resistance in a series circuit is the sum of the individual resistances.

Resistors in parallel are connected across the same two points, providing
multiple pathways for current flow. The reciprocal of the total resistance in a
parallel circuit is the sum of the reciprocals of the individual resistances.

Kirchhoff's circuit law involves basically multiple loops and source circuits;
series and parallel resistor combinations might not always yield a single loop.
To analyze such intricate circuits, Kirchhoff's rules are essential:

1. Junction Rule: The sum of currents at any junction equals zero (∑ I = 0).

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2. Loop Rule: The total potential differences around a closed loop equals zero
(∑ ∆V = 0).

Kirchhoff's first rule ensures the conservation of electric charge. Charges

entering a point must exit, preventing charge accumulation or loss.

The second rule arises from the conservative nature of the electric force.
Electric potential maintains a constant value at any circuit point. It rises through
certain elements and drops through others, but returns to the initial potential in a
closed loop.

Objectives of the Kirchhoff’s circuits Law Experiment

1. Set up a circuit incorporating two DC sources and three resistors.

2. Determine the currents circulating through the circuit.
3. Measure changes in voltage and current along a circuit loop.
4. Contrast experimental findings with theoretical predictions.
5. Engage in a discussion concerning the obtained results.

Installation of the Kirchhoff’s circuits Law Experiment

- Construct the circuit using various connectors and components, including a

variable resistor, as per the diagram.
- Utilize multimeters, DC sources, and resistances (47Ω, 10-100Ω, 1.1-8.2Ω),
along with AA batteries.
- Employ two short-circuit connecting cables for the setup.

Procedure of the Kirchhoff’s circuits Law Experiment

1. Note the resistance settings and record them along with the voltage from the
power supply.

2. Employ Kirchhoff's law formulas, as introduced in the chapter, to calculate

theoretical current values.

3. Modify the galvanometer's position and use the short-circuit cable to measure
current in each loop.

4. Begin the subsequent measurement phase by altering either R1 or R2.

Repeat this process five times while varying the resistance.

Use the tables that are within the experiment manual to extract all the data that
is needed to calculate all that is required, also calculate the percentage of error.

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Wheatstone bridge Experiment

The Wheatstone bridge is a circuit frequently employed to ascertain unknown

resistances in an electrical circuit. Comprising four resistors, it includes
adjustable R2 and known resistors (R1, R2, R3). The elusive value of the fourth
resistor (Rx) can be determined through current manipulation in the Wheatstone
grid.

Achieving "balance" in the bridge involves adjusting R2 until the galvanometer

(Vg) shows no current flow. At this point, the potential difference at midpoints B
and D becomes zero. This leads to the proportional relationship: R2/R1 =
Rx/R3. Imbalance indicates the direction of adjustment needed for R2.

At the balance point:

R2/R1 = Rx/R3
Rx = (R2/R1) * R3

Using a wire for known resistances, the wire's resistance (R) relies on length
(L), cross-sectional area (A), and resistivity (ρ). For the same wire with constant
cross-section:
R2/R1 = L2/L1

Substituting in equation:
Rx = (L2/L1) * R3
Where: L1 + L2 = Total length (LT) of the wire utilized in the Wheatstone bridge.

Objectives of the Wheatstone Bridge experiment:

1. Use the Wheatstone Bridge to measure an unknown resistance in an

electrical circuit.
2. Measure the potential differences at various points in the circuit to determine
the unknown resistance.
3. Understand the relationship between known and unknown resistances.
4. Apply Ohm's law to calculate the resistance values within the circuit.
5. Understand sources of error in Wheatstone Bridge measurements and ways
to minimize them for more accurate results.

Installation of the Wheatstone bridge Experiment

- Construct the circuit employing connector straights, connector angles, T

connectors, Galvanometer connectors, a variable resistor (ranging from 1 Ω to
8.2 Ω), an on/off switch, a DC source, an unknown resistor, and a single AA
battery. Refer to the provided image for guidance.

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- Configure the galvanometer to measure currents at 0.200 mA and set it to DC

mode.

Procedure of the Wheatstone bridge Experiment

1. Activate the circuit by switching it on.

2. Document the power supply voltage and the known resistance value.
3. Adjust the connector's position along the Wheatstone bridge wire until the
galvanometer reading reaches zero.
4. Note the length of both sides of the wire.
5. Modify the resistance and replicate the aforementioned steps.

Study the I-V characteristic curve of diode

A diode functions as a p-n junction, permitting current flow solely from the
anode (p-type) to the cathode (n-type) semiconductor. Analogous to a one-way
valve in a water system, a diode allows current passage in a single direction.

The relationship between voltage and current across the diode is expressed by
the equation:
I = I0(e^(V/VT) - 1)

The current, I0, termed reverse saturation current, and VT, termed thermal
voltage, are interconnected as:
VT = (KT / q)

Here, K represents Boltzmann's constant, T signifies the temperature in Kelvin,

and q denotes the electron charge.

Diodes are forward-biased with positive voltage and reverse-biased with

negative voltage. They begin conducting as voltage surpasses the built-in or
threshold voltage (Vγ), approximately 0.7 for silicon diodes and 0.3 for
germanium diodes.

Objectives for the “Study the I-V characteristic curve of diode” Experiment

1. Investigate the current-voltage relationship of a diode.

2. Understand how diodes allow current flow based on voltage polarity.
3. Study how diode current varies with voltage changes.
4. Determine the minimum voltage required for a diode to start conducting.
5. Observe how diode current changes exponentially with voltage.
6. Identify the voltage at which the diode begins to conduct significantly.

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Installation of the “Study the I-V characteristic curve of diode” Experiment

- Construct the circuit utilizing connector straights, connector angles, T

connectors, a Diode, Galvanometer, Voltmeter connectors, a Potentiometer, a
DC Source, and 1 AA battery.
- Configure the multimeter as a voltmeter, setting it to measure up to 0.20 V.
- Adjust the galvanometer's settings in line with the voltage increments.

Procedure of the “Study the I-V characteristic curve of diode” Experiment

1. Minimize the potentiometer's setting by rotating the knob counterclockwise.

2. Activate the circuit.
3. Gradually raise the diode's terminal voltage (V) by 0.1V increments starting
from 0. Record the corresponding galvanometer reading. Ensure to adjust the
resolution as voltage increases.
4. Reverse the polarity of the DC source cable and duplicate the prior
procedures.

At the end of the experiment we don’t have to forget to collect the

corresponding data and draw the IV curve based on the data.

Materials and installation

The following materials will be used for this experiment:

1. Resistors: Resistor 47Ω, Unknown resistor, Resistor 10KΩ

2. Silicon diode, PNP Transistor, NPN Transistor
3. Potentiometer 1KΩ
4. Voltmeter connector, Simple connector
5. Variable Resistors
6. Galvanometer connectors
7. Power supply connectors, On/off switch
8. Angle connector
9. Straight connector
10. T connector
11. Bridge rectifier
12. Short-circuit connecting cable
13. Connecting cable with plug
14. DC Power supply holder
15. Multimeter

To set up the experiment, we will assemble the electrical circuits using the
provided components on the table of the lab. The power supply will provide the

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necessary voltage for the circuits, and the ammeter and voltmeter will be
connected to measure the current and voltage, respectively.