Introduction to Parasitology
Parasites - organisms that live on and obtain their nutrients from another organism, a field known as
parasitology.
Parasitology - deals with epidemiology, parasite-host relationships, parasitic life cycles, disease processes and
symptoms, treatment, and prevention and control are associated with parasites
Historical Perspective...
The documentation of parasite existence by the ancient Persians, Egyptians, and Greeks dates back to
prehistoric times.
Although underdeveloped areas still exist, humans have progressed through the years into an age of
civilization. Parasites have evolved as well.
A number of discoveries over the years has contributed to our current knowledge of parasitology.
Historical Perspective...
Knowledge on:
- parasites were becoming a problem and the realization that they were responsible for invasion in the
body (infection),
- invasion on the body (infestation),
- and disease, defined as a process with characteristic symptoms, emerged, determining an effective
means of healing infected persons became a priority.
Historical Perspective...
As parasitic life cycle is also discovered, transport carriers known as vectors were frequently responsible for
transmission, parasite control and elimination also became important.
On the areas of medical and biologic science, coupled with the discovery of useful tools, such as microscopes,
not only expanded our knowledge of parasites and their makeup, but also their relationships with hosts - that is,
plants, animals, and humans known to harbor parasites.
Historical Perspective...
Today
- practitioners have a wealth of parasite knowledge to gain high levels of expertise in parasite
identification and treatment as the number and diversity of parasites increases;
- enhanced preservation of specimens now allows parasites that otherwise might have been destroyed to
remain viable;
- in the area of parasite laboratory diagnosis, promise to be exciting;
- Measures are also now in place that are designed to protect the practitioner when handling samples for
parasite study.
Parasite-Host Relationships
Host-Parasite Relationship
• Human host is normally in contact with many microorganisms (normal flora)
• Only a small number of these microorganism (primary and opportunistic pathogens) can cause disease.
• Host-parasite relationships (interaction) is characterized by fighting the organism to invade the body and the
body defending itself by protective measures.
• Host-parasite relationship is discussed under: pathogenicity & normal flora
• Host: A larger organism that supports the survival and growth of a smaller organism is called the host.
• Parasites : those organisms that live on or within a host organism and are metabolically dependent on the
host.(any organism that causes disease is a parasite)
Host-parasite interactions
Adaptations to parasitism
• Profound morphological adaptation to their way of life
• Organs not necessary to a parasitic existence are frequently lost or degenerated
• Reproductive system is very highly developed in association with increased reproductive capacity
• Specialized attachment organs in the form of suckers and hooks have been developed
• Physiological and biochemical adaptations
• Immune evasion
Lists of terms associated with parasite-host relationships
Parameter - Definition or Description
Type of Parasite
Obligatory parasite - Parasite that cannot survive outside of a host
Facultative parasite - Parasite that is capable of existing independently of a host
Endoparasite - Parasite that is established inside of a host
Ectoparasite - Parasite that is established in or on the exterior surface of a host
Type of Host
Accidental or incidental host - Host other than the normal one that is harboring a parasite
Definitive host - Host in which the adult sexual phase of parasite development occurs
Intermediate host - Host in which the larval asexual phase of parasite development occurs
Reservoir host - Host harboring parasites that are parasitic for humans and from which humans may become
infected
Transport host - Host responsible for transferring a parasite from one location to another
Carrier Parasite-harboring - host that is not exhibiting any clinical symptoms but can infect others
Parasite-Host Relationship Terms
Symbiosis - Living together; the association of two living organisms, each of a different species
Commensalism - Association of two different species of organisms that is beneficial to one and neutral to the
other
Mutualism - Association of two different species of organisms that is beneficial to both
Parasitism - Association of two different species of organisms that is beneficial to one at the other's expense
Commensal - Relating to commensalism; the association between two different organisms in which one
benefits and has a neutral effect on the other
Pathogenic - Parasite that has demonstrated the ability to cause disease
Parasitic Life Cycles
- range from simple to complex
- have three common components
1. mode of transmission
2. morphologic form that invades humans, known as the infective stage
3. one (or more) forms that can be detected via laboratory retrieval methods, known as the diagnostic stage
- can have definitive host / one or more intermediate hosts
Parasitic Life Cycles
Two Phases
1. The route a parasite follows when in or on the human body.
- provides an understanding of the symptomatology and pathology of the parasite
- gives insights about the best method of diagnosis and selection of appropriate antiparasitic medication may
also be determined
2. The route a parasite follows independently of the human body.
- provides crucial information pertinent to epidemiology, prevention, and control
Generic Parasite Life Cycle
Disease Processes and Symptoms
- The entire body or any of its parts may affect by the parasitic disease.
- Major body areas:
1. gastrointestinal (GI) and urogenital (UG) tracts
2. blood and tissue
3. liver, lung, and other major organs
4. miscellaneous locations like cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), eye, skin, and extremities
Elephantiasis
- enlargement of areas such as the breast, leg, and scrotum caused by a parasite's presence
- anemia, vitamin deficiency, bowel obstruction, edema, enlargement of major organs, skin lesions, and
blindness
Do you have any of these symptoms? YOU MAY HAVE PARASITES
- Diarrhea
- Loss of appettie
- Abdominal pain
- Passing a worm in a stool
- Weight loss
- Fatigue
- Stools containing mucus and blood
- Rash or itching around the rectum
- Restlessness or difficulty sleeping
- Dizziness
- Gas or bloating
- Nausea/ vomiting
Routes by which humans acquire parasitic infections
Contact and Penetration of Eyes
Acanthamoeba
Inhalation
Acanthamoeba
Enterobius
Naegleria
Vector-Borne
Kissing bug - Trypanosoma
Mosquito – Plasmodium, Wuchereria
Sand fly - Leishmania
Tsetse fly - Trypanosoma
Fecal-Oral, Ingestion – Ascaris, Balantidium, Cryptosporidium, Cyclospora, Echinococcus, Entamoeba,
Enterobius, Fasciola, Giardia, Taenia, Toxoplasma
Contact and Penetration of Skin – Ancylostoma, Necator, Schistosoma
Sexual Contact – Entamoeba, Giardia, Trichomonas
Treatment
- Antiparasitic medications
- Change in diet
- Vitamin supplements
- Fluid replacement
- Blood transfusion
- Bed rest
Treatment & Prevention of Parasitic Diseases
• Treatment:
1. Antibiotics
2. Ultraviolet Radiation
• Prevention:
1. Pasteurization
2. Cooking foods well
3. Vaccines (malaria)
4. Wearing shoes
5. Avoid non-chlorinated water
Prevention and Control
Development and implementation of parasite awareness education programs
Use of insecticides and other chemicals
Use of protective clothing
Use of protective netting
Proper water treatment
Good personal hygiene
Proper sanitation practices
Proper handling, cooking, and protection of food
Avoidance of unprotected sexual relations
• Massive chemotherapy treatment of infected humans,
• Improving sanitation.
• Education humans are major ways to discontinue
• Cooking of pork or freezing it and inspecting meat are effective means to cease the life cycle
• The management of pigs by treating them or vaccinating them is another possibility to intervene.
• Controlling the source of the infection.
- Treatment of the patients, carriers and reservoir hosts.
• Intervention at the routes of transmission
- Managing feces and water resource,controlling or eliminating vectors and intermediate hosts.
• Protecting the susceptible hosts.
- Paying attention to personal hygiene, changing bad eating habit, taking medicine.
Specimen Processing and Laboratory Diagnosis
- are crucial to parasite recovery
Required for reliable diagnosis of infection:
• Knowledge of patient - travel history, day care attendance, refugee?
• Appropriate specimen - number, frequency, time of collection.
• Use of appropriate procedures - flotation, sedimentation, staining, etc.
• Adequate training of technologist - college courses, workshops, continuing education.
Specimen Processing and Laboratory Diagnosis
- specimen types for parasite examination:
1. Stool
- most commonly submitted sample for studies
- involves macroscopic and microscopic techniques
- involves traditional parasite recovery method called O&P (“O” for eggs and “p” for parasites) 2.
2. Other specimens
- blood, tissue biopsies, CSF, sputum, urine, and genital material
Specimen Processing and Laboratory Diagnosis
- Other traditional and new parasite recovery techniques
1. Cellophane type preparation - methodology for recovery of pinworm eggs
2. Enterotest (string test) - recovery of several parasites
3. Others
Direct fluorescent antibody (DFA)
Enzyme immunoassay (EIA)
Indirect fluorescent antibody (IFA)
Latex agglutination (LA)
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
Rapid immunochromatography technique
Parasite Nomenclature and Classification
Scientific Nomenclature
• Each parasite has:
Phylum , class, order, family, genus & species
King Philip Came Over For Good spagetti
Life Domain Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species
1. Parasites are classified according to the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature,
2. Major divisions of animal kingdom - Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus and Species.
3. Main criteria - morphology and genetic structure of parasites.
4. Each parasites is designated under the binomial (two names) system, genus and species:
eg: Entamoeba histolytica
classification of human parasites
Helminths
• Nematodes (roundworms)
- Intestinal
- Blood and tissue
• Cestodes (tapeworms)
- Intestinal
- Tissue (larval stage)
• Trematodes (flukes/flatworms)
- Intestinal
- Liver/lung
- blood
• Protozoa
Intestinal
• Amebae
• Flagellates
• Ciliates
• Apicomplexa (coccidia)
Blood/tissue
• Flagellates
• Amebae
• apicomplexa
INTESTINAL PARASITES
If your pet is showing any signs of being infected by an intestinal parasite, please call us today.
ROUNDWORMS HOOKWORMS
• Infects both dogs and cats and is often passed to puppies and kittens in utero and from mother's milk
• Acquired by ingesting contaminated soil or feces, or eating infected rodents
• Live in small intestine and cause intestinal blockage and death
• Symptoms: mild or intermittent vomiting and diarrhea, pot-bellied appearance, anemia, weakness, stunted
growth
• Infects both dogs and cats and can be transmitted during nursing
• Acquired by ingesting larvae or larvae penetrating skin or feet
• Attach to lining of small intestine and feed off the blood of their host
• Can cause sudden collapse and death, especially in young animals
• Symptoms: tarry or bloody diarrhea, weight loss, emaciation, anemia, weakness .
• Can be passed to humans
TAPEWORMS WHIPWORMS
• Infects both dogs and cats
• Acquired by ingesting infected fleas, small rodents or rabbits
• Adult tapeworms can grow long and block the intestines
• Symptoms: segments in the feces and/or around the anus that resemble grains of rice, vomiting, diarrhea,
fatigue, lethargy, weight loss
• Infects dogs extremely rare in cats
• Acquired by ingesting eggs in contaminated soil or feces
• Small, thin worms that attach to the large intestine
• Symptoms: diarrhea, bloody stools. weight loss, anemia, fatigue
GIARDIA COCCIDIA
• Infects dogs and cats
• Acquired by ingesting contaminated feces, food or water
• Symptoms: chronic soft stools or watery diarrhea, weight loss, lethargy
• Infects dogs and cats, especially common in young and stressed animals
• Acquired by ingesting contaminated soil or feces or an infected rodent
• Can cause death in young animals
