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ROBOTICS

DEFINITION

A robot is a reprogrammable, multifunctional manipulator

designed to move material, parts, tools, or specialized devices
through programmed motions for the performance of a variety
of tasks.

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ROBOT MANIPULATOR
Manipulator: A manipulator is a collection of mechanical
linkages connected by joints to form an open loop kinematic
chain.

 A robot manipulator can be divided into two sections: a

body-and-arm assembly and a wrist assembly.

 There are usually three degrees-of-freedom associated with

the body-and-arm,

 Two or three degrees-of-freedom associated with the wrist.

 At the end of the wrist there is an end-effector, related to

the task that must be accomplished by the robot.

ROBOT MANIPULATOR
 An end-effector is usually either (1) a gripper for holding a

Work-part or (2) a Tool for performing some process.

 The body-and-arm of the robot is used to position the end-

effector, and the robot's wrist is used to orient the end-

effector.

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Wrist assembly

Body-and-arm assembly

Some possible wrist configurations

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EXAMPLES OF END-EFFECTORS

CLASSIFICATION OF ROBOTS
Classification will be performed in two different ways, based

on:

 The particular coordinate system utilized in designing the

mechanical structure

 The method of controlling the various robotic axis

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CLASSIFICATION BY COORDINATE SYSTEM

Cylindrical Coordinate Robots

 When a horizontal arm is mounted on a vertical column

and this column is then mounted on a rotating base.

CYLINDRICAL COORDINATE ROBOTS

 Has two linear motions and one rotary motion.

 Robots can achieve variable motion.

 The first coordinate describe the angle theta of base

rotation--- about the up-down axis.

 The second coordinate correspond to a radical or y--- in out

motion at whatever angle the robot is positioned.

 The final coordinate again corresponds to the up-down z

position.

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CYLINDRICAL COORDINATE ROBOTS

 Rotational ability gives the advantage of moving rapidly to
the point in z plane of rotation.

 Results in a larger work envelope than a rectangular robot

manipulator.

 Suited for pick-and-place operations.

 Because of the mechanical limitations, the overall volume

or work envelope is a portion of a cylinder.

CYLINDRICAL COORDINATE ROBOTS

 ADVANTAGE:

 Their vertical structure conserves floor space.

 Their deep horizontal reach is useful for far-reaching

operations.

 Their capacity is capable of carrying large payloads.

 DISADVANTAGE:

 Their overall mechanical rigidity is lower than that of

the rectilinear robots because their rotary axis must
overcome inertia.

 Their repeatability and accuracy are also lower in the

direction of rotary motion.

 Their configuration requires a more sophisticated

control system than the rectangular robots.

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APPLICATION
 Assembly

 Coating applications.

 Conveyor pallet transfer.

 Die casting.

 Foundry and forging applications.

 Inspection molding.

 Investment casting.

 Machine loading and unloading.

CLASSIFICATION BY COORDINATE SYSTEM

Spherical Coordinate Robots

 Has one linear motion and two rotary motions.

 The work volume is like a section of sphere.

 The first motion corresponds to a base rotation about a

vertical axis.

 The second motion corresponds to an elbow rotation.

 The third motion corresponds to a radial, or in-out,

translation.

 A spherical-coordinated robots provides a larger work

envelope than the rectilinear or cylindrical robot.

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SPHERICAL COORDINATE ROBOTS

 Because of the mechanical and/or actuator connection

limitations, the work envelope is a portion of a sphere.

 Advantages and disadvantages same as cylindrical-coordinated

design.

JOINTED ARM ROBOTS

 A Jointed Arm robot has three rotational axes connecting three

rigid links and a base.
 The first joint above the base is referred to as the shoulder. The
shoulder joint is connected to the upper arm, which is connected
at the elbow joint.
 Jointed Arm robots are suitable for a wide variety of industrial
tasks, ranging from welding to assembly.

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CARTESIAN COORDINATE ROBOTS

 A `Cartesian coordinate robot` (also called `linear robot`) is

an industrial robot whose three principal axes of control are
linear (i.e. they move in a straight line rather than rotate)
and are at right angles to each other.

1) Cantilevered Cartesian
2) Gantry-Style Cartesian

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SCARA

 SCARA is an acronym for Selective Compliance Assembly

Robot Arm.

 This configuration is similar to the jointed arm robot except

that the shoulder and elbow rotational axes are vertical,
which means that the arm is very rigid in the vertical
direction, but compliant in the horizontal direction.

 This permits the robot to perform insertion tasks (for

assembly) in a vertical direction, where some side-to-side
alignment may be needed to mate the two parts properly.

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MAJOR COMPONENTS OF A ROBOT

There are four major components in common:

1. A manipulator or arm (the mechanical unit)

2. One or more sensors

3. A controller (the brain)

4. A power supply

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MANIPULATOR

 This is the collection of mechanical linkages connected by

joints to form an open-loop kinematic chain.

 Also included are gears, couplings devices, and so on.

 The manipulator is capable of movement in various

directions and is said to do the work of the robot.

 The terms robot and manipulator are often used

interchangeably, although, strictly speaking, this is not
correct.

 Joints of a manipulator fall into one of two classes.

1 -Rotary joint (revolute) 2 -Linear joint (Prismatic)

MANIPULATOR

 Each joint defines a joint axis about or along which the

particular link either rotate or slides (translates).

 Every joint axis defines a degree of freedom (DOF), so that

the total number of DOFs is equal to the number of joints.

 Many robots have six DOFs, three for positioning and three
for orientation.

 It is possible to have as few as two and as many as eight

DOFs.

 The manipulator structure generally contains three main

elements; the arm, the wrist, and the hand (end-effector).

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SENSORY DEVICES

 These elements inform the robot about the status of the

manipulator. This can be done continuously or only at the
end of a desired motion.

 In continuous monitoring the sensors provide instantaneous

position, velocity, and possibly acceleration information
about the individual links.

 In simple situation, the controller can be informed only

when the individual links have reached their programmed
final position.

 The information provided by the sensors can be either

analog, digital, or a combination.

SENSORY DEVICES

 Sensors used in modern robots can be divided into two

general classes:

1. Non-visual: Limit switches (e.g., proximity, photoelectric,

or mechanical), position sensors (e.g., optical encoders,
potentiometers, or resolvers), velocity sensors (e.g.,
tachometer), or force and tactile sensors.

2. Visual: The second group consists of CCD or CID Tv

cameras coupled to appropriate image-detection
hardware. They are used for tracking, object recognition,
or object grasping.

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THE CONTROLLER

 Robot controllers generally perform three functions:

1. They initiate and terminate the motion of the individual

components of the manipulator in a desired sequence and
at specified points.

2. They store position and sequence data in their memory.

3. They permit the robot to be interfaced to the outside world

via sensors mounted in the area where work is being
performed (workstation).

JOINT DRIVE SYSTEMS

 Electric
 Uses electric motors to actuate individual joints
 Preferred drive system in today's robots
 Hydraulic
 Uses hydraulic pistons and rotary vane actuators
 Noted for their high power and lift capacity
 Pneumatic
 Typically limited to smaller robots and simple material
transfer applications

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ROBOT CONTROL SYSTEMS

 Limited sequence control – pick-and-place operations using

mechanical stops to set positions
 Playback with point-to-point control – records work cycle
as a sequence of points, then plays back the sequence
during program execution
 Playback with continuous path control – greater memory
capacity and/or interpolation capability to execute paths (in
addition to points)
 Intelligent control – exhibits behavior that makes it seem
intelligent, e.g., responds to sensor inputs, makes
decisions, communicates with its environment.

THE POWER CONVERSION UNIT

 The purpose of this part of the robot is to provide the

necessary energy to the manipulator’s actuators.

 It can take the form of a power amplifier in the case of

servomotor-actuated system, or it can be a remote
compressor when pneumatic or hydraulic devices are used.

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Robot manipulator - a series of joint-link combinations

CLASSIFICATION OF ROBOTS BY THE TYPE AND

ORDER OF JOINTS

 Translational motion (Prismatic joint)

 Linear joint (type L)
 Orthogonal joint (type O)
 Rotary motion (Revolute joint)
 Rotational joint (type R)
 Twisting joint (type T)
 Revolving joint (type V)

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TRANSLATIONAL MOTION JOINTS

Linear joint
(type L)

Orthogonal joint
(type O)

ROTARY MOTION JOINTS

Rotational joint
(type R)

Twisting joint
(type T)

Revolving joint
(type V)

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JOINT NOTATION SCHEME

 Use joint symbols (L, O, R, T, V) to designate joint types.

 Separates body-and-arm assembly from wrist assembly
using a colon (:)
 Example: TLR : TR

CURRENT ROBOT APPLICATIONS

1-Welding
 Welding is one of the major uses for an industrial robot.
 Two types of welding operations are readily and
economically performed by robots: spot and arc welding.
 In spot welding, the robot is taught a series of distinct
points.
 Since the metal parts may be quit irregular, a wrist with
good dexterity is required so that it can be aligned properly
at the desired weld points without the gun coming in contact
with other portions of the part.
 Typically, the welding tools are large and heavy
 Also, it is usually necessary for the manipulator to have long
reach.

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CURRENT ROBOT APPLICATIONS

1-Welding
 Therefore, large point-to-point servo controlled robots are
used for this purpose.
 The automobile industry is a heavy user of this type of robot.
 Since, the weld points are pre-taught, sensory information is
generally not required.

CURRENT ROBOT APPLICATIONS

1-Arc Welding
 Arc welding is also utilized extensively by the auto industry.
 Here, an often irregularly shaped seam or a wide joint must
be made, therefore, a continuous path servo controlled robot
is required.
 If the parts can be accurately positioned and held in place,
the complex 3D path can be pre-taught and no external
sensors may be required.
 A major advantage of a robotic welder is that the arc time
can be carefully controlled.

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CURRENT ROBOT APPLICATIONS

2-Spray Painting
 Because of the potential fire hazard and the fact that a fine
mist of paint is toxic, spray painting should not be done by
human beings.
 Another advantage is that the resulting coating will be far
more uniform than human being could produce.
 This results in high quality products, less reworking, and
considerably less paint being used (40% saving).
 For spray painting robots are capable of performing both
straight-line and continuous-path motions.

CURRENT ROBOT APPLICATIONS

3-Grinding
 As a result of arc welding, a bead is formed at the seam.
 This is also a natural task for a robot since the manipulator
can use the same program that was employed in the arc
welding.
 All that must be done is to remove the welding tool and
replace it with a rotary grinder.
 Another important grinding task is on metal casting.
 The third application is deburring.

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CURRENT ROBOT APPLICATIONS

4-Other applications involving rotary tools

 In addition to the rotary grinding or deburring applications,
robots are also currently used for drilling holes, polishing,
nut running, and driving of screws.
 Preprogramming can be performed when extreme accuracy
is not required.
 For accurate parts, it may be necessary to use template.
 But the template or part may be damaged if the wrist does
not has some compliance.
 This problem is overcome by using compliant wrist.
 It permits the drill bit to be aligned in the template hole
even if there is a positional error.

CURRENT ROBOT APPLICATIONS

5-Parts handling and transfer
 Palletization and depalletization
 Acquiring of blank or unfinished parts and feeding them into
type of machine tools.
6-Assembly operations
 Humans are capable of assembling a group of diverse parts
to produce a product because of their ability to utilize good
eye-hand coordination in conjunction with the important
sense of touch.
 However, these jobs may be extremely tedious because of
their repetition nature
 As such, assembly operations represent an attractive
application of robots.

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CURRENT ROBOT APPLICATIONS

5-Parts sorting
6-Parts inspection

PRECISION IN NC POSITIONING
 For accurate positioning, the positioning system must possess a high
degree of precision.

 Three measures of precision:

1. Control resolution

2. Accuracy

3. Repeatability

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CONTROL RESOLUTION
Control resolution is defined as the distance separating two adjacent
addressable points in the axis movement.

 Addressable points are locations along the axis to which the robotic
arm can be specifically directed to go.

 It is desirable for control resolution to be as small as possible.

Control
resolution

Bit storage
Electromechanical
capacity of the
components
controller

· Lead-screw pitch
· Gear ratio
· Step angle
· Angle b/w encoder slots

CONTROL RESOLUTION
 Control Resolution of the Electromechanical
Components
 A number of electromechanical factors affect control resolution,
including leadscrew pitch, gear ratio in the drive system, and
the step angle in a stepping motor for an open-loop system or
the angle between slots in an encoder disk for a closed-loop
system. For an open-loop positioning system driven by a
stepper motor, these factors can be combined into an expression
that defines control resolution as follows:

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CONTROL RESOLUTION
 Control resolution of the computer system
 The ability to divide the axis range into individual increments
depends on the bit storage capacity in the control memory

 The number of increments = 2 n

n = number of bits in the control memory

 Control resolution

L
CR2 
2 1
n

 Control resolution of the overall positioning system

CR  Max CR1, CR2 

CONTROL RESOLUTION
 A desirable criterion is for CR2 < CR1, meaning the electromechanical
system is the limiting factor.

 The bit storage capacity of modern computer controller is sufficient

to satisfy the requirement.

 Resolutions of 0.0025 mm is within the current state of NC

technology.

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ACCURACY
 The accuracy of any given axis of a positioning system is
the maximum possible error that can occur between the
desired target point and the actual position taken by the
system.

ACCURACY IN IDEAL CASE

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MECHANICAL ERRORS
 The capability of a positioning system to move the
worktable to the exact location is limited by the following
mechanical errors.
1. Play between the lead-screw and the table

2. Backlash in the gears

3. Elastic deflection in the structural members

4. Stretching of pulley cords

ACCURACY IN REAL CASE

 Assumptions

1. Mechanical errors form an normal distribution about

the control point whose mean is 0
2. Standard deviation is constant over the range of the
axis.
 Accuracy is defined under worst case conditions in which
the desired target point lies in the middle between two
adjacent addressable points.

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ACCURACY IN REAL CASE

 This is the maximum possible positioning error.

 Mathematically

CR
Accuracy   3
2

REPEATABILITY
 Repeatability
refers to the capability of the positioning
system to return to a given addressable point that has
been previously programmed

Re peatability  3

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