8.

1 Types of Hydraulic Structures

Hydraulic engineering is a branch of engineering related to the use and
control of water. It is concerned with the reasonable usage of natural
water resources, such as ocean , river , lake and underground water ,
and the prevention of water disasters, with the help of hydraulic
structures. Therefore, it is also concerned with the building of
hydraulic structures and the management of such processes.
Hydraulics is a science that deals with the flow and control of water
and other fluids. Great dams are the most impressive hydraulic
engineering projects, and good examples include the Aswan High
Dam on the Nile in Egypt and the Hoover Dam on the Colorado River
in the southwestern United States. These dams, like most modern
dams serve a number of different purposes. Among them are flood
control , water storage, irrigation, navigation, and hydroelectric power
(generating electricity by means of waterpower).
8.1 Types of Hydraulic Structures
8.1.1 Dams
Dams are water-retaining structures which affect a closure of the
stream.
8.1.1.1 Purpose of dams

The stored water in the dam can be conveniently used for

irrigation purposes.

The reservoir forms a very good source for water supply in

areas where ground water source is inadequate.

If sufficient head of water is stored, then that can be used for

power generation (hydel power).

A dam across the river can act as a good flood control measure
by only letting out the excess quantity of water.
8.1.1.1 Purpose of dams
A dam with its green surroundings forms an excellent place for
recreation purposes such as boating, swimming and water
skiing.
The reservoir forms a good place for the breeding of fish,
which is a considerable wealth from dam.
Besides the above mentioned purposes a dam serves many
miscellaneous purposes, such as adding beauty to the place
where it is located and makes it a place of tourism importance.
The heat in the place of the reservoir and its surroundings is
controlled well due to the large exposed area of water in the
reservoir.
8.1.1.2 Components of a reservoir
A dam across a river forms a pool of water on the upstream
side with necessary sluices to let out water.
Irrigation canals taking off from one/either side of the dam
with necessary outlets to control the flow in the canal.
Spillway to let out the excess water from the dam which
otherwise may result in breach of the dam itself due to over
storage of water. Therefore the spillway acts as a safety valve
of the dam.
A good earthen bound in case of totally artificially made
reservoir.
Ancillary works like fish ladder, log chutes, etc.
8.1.1.3 Selection of site

Before the design and construction of a dam, an extensive survey

and study of the site must be made. This survey examines not only
topographical f eatures of the area , but also soil and rock
samples to determine the geological factors that may aff ect the
design and construction. The hydraulic features of the stream or
river that will be dammed must also be determined. Engineers
use this information to calculate the potential water pressure. It is
also necessary to study the site to see whether the dam can be
constructed with the use of coff erdams or whether the flow of the
river must be diverted. The cofferdam is a watertight enclosure
constructed with piles , from which water can be pumped.
When it is necessary to divert the river , one technique is to
dig tunnels for the channel and another is to excavate channel for
the river around the dam site.
8.1.1.3 Selection of site
Availability and characteristics of materials for construction
It is necessary for economic consideration that the materials
required for the dam should be available in close vicinity to
the site. For a concrete dam, if natural material or good rock
for making the aggregates is available, it is desirable. If
limestone is available nearby it may be possible to replace
portland cement partially or wholly.
Availability of suitable site for construction facilities
dam site should offer suitable place for location of colonies etc.
it is necessary to connect the dam site to the nearest rail had by
a good road and also if economically feasible, by a railway to
transport construction machinery, hydro-mechanical
equipment and subsequently for development.
Availability of utility services
It is economical if the site has, in near vicinity, an access road,
electric line, and water supply, etc.
Climate
Very cold and heavy rainfall will impede the progress of
construction activities.
Diversion during construction
Sometimes river diversion problems play an important role in
the selection of dam site. This factor may affect the design of
the dam and also the construction schedule.
Foundation
The site should preferably have good sound rock for
foundation. For a concrete or masonry dam, solid rock at the
surface or within a reasonable depth below it, is essential. For
arch dams strong abutments are essential.
Flood control aspect
The dam site should be above the area to be protected.
Hydrology
It is an important factor. A good water availability with
minimum fluctuations is a desirable feature.
Irrigation command
The dam site should be above the area to be irrigated.
Locality
Healthy surroundings free from mosquitoes are preferable.
Sediment load
An assurance that the dam would not silt soon is a desirable
factor. The sediment load in the stream should be as little as
possible.
Spillway site
In the case of a masonry dam, it is not essential that a good site
for spillway be available. If available, it will be advantageous.
8.1.1.4 Classification of dams
Dams are broadly classified into two categories: rigid dams and
non-rigid dams.
1. Rigid dams
(1) Solid gravity dams (实体重力坝)

A gravity dam can be defined as

a structure which is designed in
such a way that its own weight
resists the external forces. This
type of dam is more durable and
has maximum rigidity. It
requires less maintenance when
compared to other types. This
type can be constructed of
masonry or concrete. Nowadays,
concrete gravity dams are
prevalent in use.
The dam section is massive as the self weight is the only force
which is going to resist all other disturbing forces acting on the
dam. Therefore it needs a good foundation soil, preferably a
rocky strata.
In practice a triangular basic profile cannot be adopted and
instead this profile is modified to accommodate the operating
platform for the shutters and roadway at the top. So a practical
profile will be trapezoidal one with a sufficient free board.
The water stored on the upstream side exerts a major
disturbing force on the dam. In addition to this, water may
seep through the body of the dam and below the foundation of
the dam. This will cause uplift of the dam which also affects
the stability of the dam. There are also wave pressure, ice
pressure, pressure due to earthquake forces, etc. affecting the
stability of the dam. Of the above, pressure due to earthquake
is significant and this has been the major cause for serious
cracks in several dams.
(2) Arch dams (拱坝)

An arch dam is cured in plan

with its convex face holding
the water. This structure is
less massive when compared
to the gravity dam. The force
exerted by the stored water on
the upstream side will be
transferred to the abutments
by arch action.
This dam is suitable for narrow valleys but the major
requirement is sound abutments. In this case, uplift on the base
of the dam has no problem because only abutments are going
to bear maximum force. An arch dam will be economical only
if the length of the dam is less than its height. Therefore this is
preferable for very great heights.
Tongkeng creek double - curvature masonry arch dam
(3) Buttress dams (支墩坝)
A buttress dam has relatively thin sections when compared to
a gravity dam. Generally it consists of a sloping section,
buttresses and a base slab.
The sloping membrane (face slab) first takes the water load
and transfers it to the buttresses which are at specific intervals.
The buttresses in turn transfer the load to the base slab which
forms the foundation part of the dam.

Round-head type
Flat slab type
Multiple arch type
The height of buttress dams
can be conveniently
increased by mere extension
of buttresses and face slabs.
Buttress dams are less
massive and can be
constructed where foundation
soil is relatively weak.
Enormous space available
between buttresses can be
advantageously used for
installing water treatment
plants and powerhouses.
(4) Timber and steel dams (木坝和钢坝)
Timber dams and steel dams are special types which are not
generally used for bigger dam sections.
A timber dam is generally adopted for temporary requirements
to enclose certain work site or to divert the flow to enable the
construction of main dam. After the main structure is built,
generally the timber dam will be dismantled.
Steel dams are not common in use. But it is possible to
construct the dam with steel up to a height of 15-18m. The
construction of a steel dam may be done similar to the timber
dams.
2. Non-rigid dams
Non-rigid dams have a trapezoidal basic profile. Earth dams
and rock fill dams fall under this category.
(1) Earth dams
Earth dams are made of soil with minimum processing using
primitive equipment. These are built in areas where the
foundation is not strong enough to bear the weight of a gravity
dam. As the construction material of this dam is ordinary soil
which is cheaply available, the coat of construction will be less
than that of a rigid dam. These can be constructed in places of
low or moderate rainfall which necessitate only moderate
heights for the dam.
 Homogeneous embankment type (均质坝)

When only one type of

material is economically or
locally available, such
homogeneous embankments
are possible. This is the
simplest type of an earth
dam consisting of a single
material throughout the
structure.
A purely homogeneous type poses the problem of seepage which
is not desirable from the stability point of view. Sometimes
stones will be pitched over the upstream face of the dam to
safeguard the dam against wave action and to improve the
stability.
 Zoned embankment type (分区坝)
The section of a zoned embankment
earth dam will have
an inner zone: made of impervious
soil, clay or silt or mixture of both
an outer zone: made of pervious
soil, locally available soil
The presence of inner impervious zone provides added strength
and reduces seepage of water through the dam section. This type
can be adopted for dams of greater heights.
A suitable filter medium in the form of transition filter combined
with toe filter is provided. The provision of above filters will
ensure proper collection of the water seeping through the dam
section and conveyance of the collected water to the downstream
side safely adds to the stability of the dam.
 Diaphragm-type embankment (膜式坝)

These have a thin impervious core, which is surrounded by earth.

The thin core is called as diaphragm and is usually made of
impervious soils or concrete or steel or timber. The diaphragm
must be tied to the bed rock or to a very impervious foundation
material.
(2) Rock fill dams
Rock fill dams are made of loose rocks and boulders piled in
the river bed. A slab of reinforced concrete is often laid on the
upstream face to make it water tight. These are more stable
than earth dams and less stable than gravity dams. The dam
section generally consists of dry rubble stone masonry on the
upstream side and loose rock fill on the downstream side.
According to the materials which dams are made of , masonry
dams are classified as concrete, reinforced-concrete, wooden,
stone dams. Embankment dams can be constructed of various
ground materials including sand , loamy sand , loams , gravel.
pebbles, combination of these, and quarry stones.
There are three types of concrete dams, namely: gravity
( massive) , buttress and arch dams.
8.1.2 Canals
Among the most famous accomplishments of modern hydraulic
engineering are three great international canals. The Kiel Canal in
Germany connects the Baltic Sea and North Sea , having a distance
of 95 kilometers. The Suez Canal in Egypt connects the Mediterranean
Sea and the Red Sea , providing a passageway between Europe and
Asia that eliminates the voyage around Africa. It is 169 kilometers
long and has no locks. Locks are sections of a canal that are enclosed
by gates; the level of water within the lock can be regulated so that
shipping can be raised or lowered to different elevations. The Suez
Canal was originally opened in 1860 , closed in 1967 because of
warfare in the area and reopened in 1975.
8.1.3 Other hydraulic Structures
It is now common that a number of hydraulic structures including
general and special purpose are constructed in a locality as a single
( integrated ) project to comprehensively serve various economic
purposes for which these structures are separately designed. Such
designs are known as integrated water resources projects or water
projects for short.
 8.1.3 Other hydraulic Structures
A reservoir in a hydraulic project can store the excessive amount of
water during high water period to reduce the undershot flow rate, while
the stored water can be used in low water period to compensate the
natural shortage of flow rate. This artificial process for adjusting the
natural flow rate is called runoff regulation.
The runoff of a river can be regulated by the functioning of a
reservoir.
A reservoir plays an important role in maintaining the balanced
working condition for a hydro-power plant. The water stored in the
reservoir can guarantee the required flow rate for the water turbine not to
be influenced by the natural variations in flow rate. This in turn
guarantees that the customers can obtain the electric energies they require.
The runoff regulation also has similar functions to other divisions
that require the water.
 8.1.3 Other hydraulic Structures
water power generation
A typical water powerplant is composed of a reservoir , a plant
building usually made of reinforced concrete, a water turbine
connected to an electric generator in the building, and other
mechanical/electric equipment. The reservoir provides the
necessary waterhead and flow to drive the water turbine.The
water falls from a higher position, driving the water turbine to work.
Dams can be used to directly form the necessary waterhead ; this is
called dam type power station.
 8.1.3 Other hydraulic Structures
water power generation
Sometimes tunnels are used instead of channels to form the so-called
diversion tunnel power station. This has the advantage of a
shortened route for the diverted water. In this case, the powerplant
can be placed underground. The dam type power plant and the
diversion type power plant can be combined to form the mi xed
power plant.
8.1.3 Other hydraulic Structures
Irrigation, Drainage And Flood Prevention
Irrigation usually takes the followi ng three forms:
l ) surface irrigation , that is, to put water directly into the field ;
2) artificial preci pitation , or overhead irrigation ; this can be done i n
large scale , e. g. by an airplane, or in small scale by a rainfall
simulator ;
3) subsurface irrigation , involving pipes bu ried undergrou nd
allowing the water to be absorbed directly by the soil.
8.1.3 Other hydraulic Structures
Irrigation, Drainage And Flood Prevention
Drainage involves artificially removing the excessive water from a
field and soil. The excessive water can be harmful to crops and
may form swamps.
Following techniques can be used for drainage:
( 1) to reduce water intake by building dykes to hold back water ,
digging channels to stop water , etc. ;
( 2 ) to use drainage ditches to carry away surface water and
ground water.
 8.1.3 Other hydraulic Structures
Irrigation, Drainage And Flood Prevention
Dykes can be built to prevent river flooding. In addition to building
dykes, there are still other two main aspects in flood control. One is
to increase the discharge capacity of the river , e. g. by dredging up
the river bed and the other is to intersect and store the flood water in
the upper reaches, e. g. by building a dam there to regulate the
runoff.
It should be emphasized that soil and water conservation is the
fundamental measure in flood control because the runoff can be
significantly reduced.
The flood control of many rivers in China is accomplished by combining
the flood storage and flood discharge methods.
 8.1.3 Other hydraulic Structures
Water Supply
Water supply should be sufficient in quantity and good in quality. First ,
the amount of water should be estimated , and then the water source
should be determined and its water quality analyzed. A water supply
system includes three parts: water intake, water treatment , and water
distribution. The water source has the most influence on the water supply
system.
The main methods of water treatment include clarification
( sedimentation and filtration ) , sterilization and softening.
Sometimes the process also includes deferrization , distillation and
air elimination.
 8.1.3 Other hydraulic Structures
Waterway Transportation
A waterway must be sufficiently deep to allow the passage of ships.
Different ships have diff erent requirements. Also navigation marks
should be provided.
 8.1.3 Other hydraulic Structures
Seaport Engineering
A seaport is a transportation center. The sea coast is affected by sea
water and the waves. The coast is also affected by the tide caused by
the gravitation of the moon and the sun. At certain special locations, e.
g. at a bay or a channel , the tidal water level fluctuations can be 16
meters. Along the coast line of China , the water level difference
caused by tide can be 3 to 5 meters. In addition, sustained wind in one
direction can also cause water level fluctuations.
 8.2 Character of Flow
Flow stream tends to aff ect the hydraulic structures and the
related media ( foundation, shores ). The mechanical action of flow
produces both static and dynamic pressure on the surfaces of the
structures. The magnitude of these pressures can be compu ted by
adopting the formulas of hydra ulics and fluid mechanics. The
horizontal components of hydrostatic pressure are of particular
concern because they can slide or tilt the structures.

The following example can help clear by understand the character of

mechanical action of flow on a water-retaining structure. Consider a
spillweir (dam) resting on a sandy or other pervious foundation.The
flow stream behavior tends to change, as it approaches the dam and
climbs up the weir. Its velocity increases to Vl and a low velocity
vortex zone A forms at the lower portion near the dam.
 8. 3 Design of Dam Structures
Each hydraulic structure must be suff iciently strong and stable.
That is, it must satisf y strength and stability requirements.
The selection of the best type of dams for a given site is a problem
both in engineering and economy terms. Some of the factors that
govern the solution of the problem are topography , geology , and
climate. For example, the type of a dam will of ten depend on what
local materials are available. That is to say: the relative cost of the
various types of dams depends mainly on the availability of
construction materials near the dam site and the accessibility of
transportation facilities. The climate factor must also be
considered for instance, because concrete spells or cracks when
subjected to alternate freezing and thawing arch and buttress
dams, with thin concrete sections are sometimes avoided in areas
subjected to extreme cold.
If a dam fails, the floodwater will cause heavy losses. Therefore,
great care must be taken in its design, construction and operation.
 8. 3 Design of Dam Structures
8.3.1 Gravity Dams
The following forces must be considered in the design of gravity
dams:
(l) weight of the dam,
( 2) hydrostatic forces,
(3) uplift force,
( 4) ice force,
( 5) earthquake force,
( 6) reaction.
 8. 3 Design of Dam Structures
8.3.2 Earth Dams
The main problem in the design of earth dams is to select such a
composition of materials and side slopes that , with the given
foundation conditions, no failure of the dam or any part of the dam
will occur. Since the function of the dam is to hold back water , and
since all earth is pervious to some extent , it is expect that this
problem of slope stability is intimately associated with problems of
water movement through and under the dam.
8.3.3 Rock Fill Dams
The design of a rock-fill dam is relatively simple. A triangular
section is formed by dumping rocks at the natural angle of repose.
An impervious earth core at the upstream slope prevents the seepage
of water. A suitable filter of coarse sand , gravel , and small rock
prevents the migration of the impervious material into the large
void of the filled rocks. The foundation of the dam should be solid
enough to withstand the vertical pressure, and should have suff
icient resistance against horizontal sliding. If necessary , a grout
curtain must be provided between the impervious core of the dam
and the impervious rock in the foundation.
 8. 4 Open Channel Flow
Open channel flow can be divided into steady and unsteady flow. If
the discharge in a channel at any one point does not change
with time, the flow is defined as a steady flow. If it does change
with time, it is defined as an unsteady flow.
An open channel flow can also be divided into uniform and non-
uniform flow. If the cross- sectional area of an open channel flow is
the same from one location to another , the flow is a uniform flow. If
it does change from place to place, it is non- uniform flow. For
instance, it could happen when the slope of the channel increases
in steepness, when the channel contains an obstruction, or when the
flow is backed up by a dam.
 8. 5 General Description of the Three Gorges Project
The stretch from Fengjie to Yichang, about 200km long, cuts
through three majestic canyons i. e. , Qutang Gorge, Wu Gorge and
Xiling Gorge- known as the Three Gorges. The Three Gorges
Project , which is now attracting world - wide attention, is located in
the middle of the Xiling Gorge, about 40km from the upstream of
the Gezhouba Project , with its dam site at Sandouping in Yichang ,
Hubei Province. At the dam site, with a rather wide valley and a
sound and intact bedrock of granite, the topographic, geologic and
constructional conditions are excellent for building a high concrete
dam.
8. 5 General Description of the Three Gorges Project
8. 5 General Description of the Three Gorges Project

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