Intercellular Connections

1. The junctions → strength and stability

a. Tight junction (zonula occluden):

✓ Made up of protein ridges, half from one cell and half from the adjacent cell.
✓ Transmembrane proteins (cell adhesion molecules)) contribute to tight junction.
✓ Found in epithelial cells of intestinal mucosa, renal tubules and choroid plexus.

b. Desmosomes:
Spot-like patches characterized by two adjacent cell membranes.

c. Hemidesmosome:
Half desmosomes that attach cell to basal lamina.

d. Zonula adherens:

2. Gap junction: (communication junction)

✓ Connexons (hexagonal protein) in the membrane of each cell line up with each other →
a single channel between two cells.
✓ permit substances such as ions, sugar and amino acids, rapid propagation of electrical
activity and exchange of chemical substances.
✓ found in cardiac and smooth muscles.
✓ form physical basis of "functional syncytium".

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(Zonula adherens)

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Intercellular Communication
Cells communicate with each other via chemical messengers.
Some messengers move from cell to cell via gap junctions without entering the ECF.
Cells are also affected by chemical messengers secreted into ECF.

1. Neural communication
neurotransmitters at released at synaptic junctions →act on post-synaptic cell.

2. Endocrine communication
hormones reach cells via the circulating blood.

3. Paracrine and Autocrine communication

product of cells diffuses in the ECF → affect neighboring cells (paracrine communication) or
bind to receptors on the cell that secreted them (autocrine communication).

4. Juxtacrine communication
Some growth factors attach to the trans-membrane proteins →bind to its receptor on
another cell.

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Hormone
Hormone
Paracrine
Receptor Receptor

Autocrine
Cell Cell
ISF

Hormone Receptor
Cell

Blood stream Endocrine

Cell
Neural
Juxtacrine
Nerve ending
ISF Growth factor
Neurotransmitter at
synaptic junction Receptor

Receptor
Postsynaptic membrane Cell

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 Nucleus (information center)
- present in all cells that divide.
1. Nuclear membranous organelles: Nuclear membrane or envelope
- a double unit membrane, 25-40 nm thick.
- Pores in nuclear membrane are closed by a thin membrane.
2. Nuclear non-membranous organelles
Chromatin
Chromatin granules condense to form chromosomes during cell division.
Chromosomes carry genetic message.
Human cell contains 46 chromosomes (23 pairs)
Autosomes: 22 pairs
Sex chromosomes: 1 pair (Male XY, Female XX)
Chromosomes are made up of DNA and basic protein histone.

Function: Protein synthesis

Nucleolus
It functions as site of ribosomal RNA synthesis and for temporary storage of mRNA.

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 Nucleus Nucleolus (RNA)

Chromosome (chromatin)- (46)- 22+1 pair

DNA + Histones (DNA binding protein)

DNA- double stranded

deoxyribose sugar + nitrogenous bases + phosphoric acid
Nitrogenous bases = purine (adenine, guanine), pyrimidine (thymine, cytosine)

RNA- single stranded

ribose sugar + nitrogenous bases + phosphoric acid
Nitrogenous bases = purine (adenine, guanine), pyrimidine (uracil, cytosine)
Types:
-rRNA (ribosomal RNA)
- t RNA (transfer RNA)
- m RNA (messenger RNA)

Protein synthesis
1. Transcription (DNA → RNA)
2. Post-transcriptional modification
3. Translation (RNA → protein)
4. Post-translational modification

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chromatin

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 Ribosomes
- composed of 2 subunits, the larger 60s and smaller 40s subunits.
- contain about 65% RNA and 35% protein.
Function:
- the site of protein synthesis.
- Free ribosomes in the cytoplasm synthesized proteins utilized in the cell e.g., haemoglobin and
protein found in mitochondria.
Vaults
- Hollow, octagonal structures, the same shape and size as the nuclear pores.
-Function: transport mRNA or the ribosomal subunits from the nucleus to the cytoplasm for
protein synthesis.

Endoplasmic Reticulum (intracellular circulatory system)

- a complex series of tubules extending throughout cytoplasm.

- continuous with nuclear membrane, Golgi apparatus and cell membrane
- It serves as.
Two types:
1. Granular or rough-surface ER
ribosomes are attached to the membrane
Ribosomes are the site of protein synthesis such as hormones that are secreted by the cell.
2. Agranular or smooth-surface ER
lacks granules or ribosomes.
Functions
a. Metabolic functions: as site of
i. Steroid synthesis
ii. Detoxification e.g., liver cells
iii. Glycoprotein synthesis
b. Plays an important role in muscle contraction and relaxation.

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 Golgi Apparatus (Packaging unit)

- a collection of cistern
- continuous with endoplasmic reticulum and located near the nucleus.
- prominent in actively secreting cells.
- has cis and –trans sides.
- Vesicles containing newly synthesized proteins fuse with the –cis side and passed on to the –
trans side.
Function: Package the proteins with membranes and modified for their final destination.
Golgi apparatus directs intracellular traffic of proteins by "destination labels".

Lysosomes (suicide bags)

- contains many hydrolytic enzymes →destroy cellular components.

- ribonucleases, deoxyribonucleases, phosphatases, glycosidases, arylsulfatases, collagenases
and cathepsins

Function: Function as the digestive system of the cell.

1. defense and scavenger function (digest bacteria).
2. engulf and remove the worn-out components of the cell.
3. autolysis of the dead cells.
4. help in cellular differentiation and regression of tissues e.g., involution of uterus.

Dysfunction:
✓ In vitamin A intoxication and certain other conditions, lysosomal membrane breaks
down → the release of enzymes.
✓ In gout, phagocytosis of uric acid crystals →releases of enzymes →inflammation of the
joints.
✓ Congenital absence of one of the lysosomal enzymes → lysosomal storage diseases.

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 Peroxisomes
- contain various oxidases which generate H2O2 and catalase which converts H2O2 to H2O.
- They are most common in the liver and kidneys. They may be involved in gluconeogenesis.

Microtubules and Microfilaments

Microtubules - long and hollow structures about 15 nm in diameter, made up of tubulin protein
Microfilaments -long solid fibers 4 - 6 nm in diameter, made up to actin protein
Intermediate filaments- Diameters intermediate between the microtubules and microfilaments
Functions
1. Microtubules → tracks for substances → moved from one part of the cell to another
(intracellular traffic)
Kinesin and Dynein (molecular motors) →move various substances along microtubules
Form the mitotic spindle, which moves the chromosomes in mitosis.

2. Microtubules and microfilaments form the skeleton of the cell.

The cytoskeleton →cell shape and permits it to change shape and movement.
3. Microfilaments play a role in muscle contraction, movement of microvilli in the intestinal
mucosa, cell movement and clot retraction.

Intermediate filaments help the cell to resist external pressure.

When these filaments are absent or abnormal→ cells rupture more easily and skin blisters

Centrioles (Centrosomes)
- a pair of short cylinder-like structures located between the Golgi complex and nucleus.
- are at right angles to each other.
- wall is made up of microtubules.
Functions:
- concerned with the movement of the chromosomes during cell division by forming the poles
of the mitotic spindle.

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