THE WHOLE HISTORY OF THE EARTH AND LIFE

PART 1:
The Origin of the Earth.

4.567 Billion years ago: The Formation of the Solar System

More than 4.5 billion years ago, the Milky Way galaxy collided with a nearby dwarf
galaxy. This encounter hastened the formation of stars. Our solar system is a part of the
Milky Way galaxy. Within the solar system material circulation had been progressing.
The water component from the outer region evaporated to make materials dry. Through
this process, particles were zonally distributed depending on their water content. The
bipolar flow stopped and with its material circulation. Some regions around the Sun with
high particle density appeared. Within these regions, collisions frequently occurred.
small particles gradually grew to become planetesimals. Planetesimals continued
colliding with smaller particles and other planetesimals, eventually growing to planets
such as the Earth.

4.56 Billion years ago: The Formation of the Earth

A number of planets were moving in the same orbit. The early Earth collided with a
smaller Mars-sized planet. Debris from this impact eventually came to form our moon.
The earth-moon system as we know it today, was in place.

PART 2.
Initiation of Plate Tectonics

4.37-4.20 Billion years ago: The formation of the atmosphere and ocean

The early dry earth had neither an atmosphere nor an ocean. Countless planetesimals
and icy planets bombarded the Earth. Over a period of 200 million years, an ocean-
atmosphere system is formed from carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and, nitrogen contained
in planetesimals. At that time the ocean was still toxic with high salinity and an
overabundance of heavy metals. It was too toxic to support life.

4.37-4.20 billion years ago: The initiation of plate tectonics

Asteroids that reached a diameter of 1,000 kilometers flew into the earth. On impact,
both the crust and asteroids became plasma in an instant. The surface was covered
with magma. In the center of the crater, a basaltic central cone formed. this creates an
up flow in the mantle. As the magma cooled and solidified a basaltic crust thinner than
the continental crust formed, this is called the oceanic crust. Surface water flowed into
the giant crater forming small puddles that turned into one large ocean. The subsequent
rising mantle created a breach in the oceanic crust and formed a ridge. Uplift of the
plate by mantle convection caused horizontal slippage due to the weight of the plate.
this is the plate tectonics in action. The oceanic plate is subducted under the lighter
continental plate. Weathered sediments neutralized the ultra-acidic ocean. Heavy
metals settled out and became fixed as deposits at the mid-oceanic ridge. These
deposits were transported through plate tectonics into the deep mantle. Gradually, the
ocean became a habitable environment. Since 4.2 billion years ago a liquid core has
formed in the center of the Earth. Convection within the liquid core created a strong
magnetic field surrounding the earth. This geomagnetic field shields the Earth's surface
from solar winds and cosmic rays. The Earth's surface was nearing readiness for life.

PART 3.
Birth of Proto-life.

The early Earth when the atmosphere prevented sunlight from reaching the surface.
primitive life was about to emerge underground in the cave of a geyser. uranium ore
emitted large amounts of radiation creating a diverse range of materials and eventually
producing the early building blocks of life. Water boiled and rose up to the surface and
the surface water flowed back down into the natural nuclear reactor. the temperature of
the geyser water remained below 100 degrees protecting the newly formed
biomolecules. the underground environment was reductive while the surface
environment oxidizing. these conditions were necessary to synthesize biomolecules. In
the earth’s Hadean Eon, tidal forces were much more pronounced than they are today.
Even Lakes had a significant urban flow of water creating wet and dry cycles. These wet
and dry cycles were one of the most crucial factors in producing the building blocks of
life. Fatty acids came together encasing the proto-life molecules. Polymerization
progressed under the wet and dry cycles. Eventually, protein-like basic materials that
could act as catalysts were produced. These molecules circulated between the geyser
cave and the surface environment. The interactions of these materials led to more
complex biomolecules. Proto RNA combined with enzyme-like basic materials and
evolved into ribozymes which had the ability to replicate themselves. This laid the
groundwork for life to reproduce. Finally, these molecules were enclosed within lipid
membranes forming primitive proto-cellular life.

4.1 Billion years ago: The birth of first proto-life

This was the beginning of life.

PART 4.
The Initial Stage of Life.

4.37-4.20 billion years ago: The loss of the primordial continent and the
generation of a strong geomagnetic field

The Earth's plate tectonics which had

begun with the creation of its ocean eventually destroyed its primordial continent and
subsumed it into the deep mantle. By four billion years ago the mother continent had
disappeared leaving life on the margins of a fragmented landmass. Inside the earth, a
dramatic change was about to begin. The subducted primordial continent descended
toward the core-mantle boundary. The wealth of radioactive elements in the primordial
continent caused the uppermost part of the core to melt. By 4.2 billion years ago the
newly-created liquid outer core was strengthening the Earth's magnetic field protecting
the surface environment against solar winds and cosmic rays. As a result, life could
exist on the surface environment.

4.2 billion years ago: The emergence of sun-powered life.

The supply of energy and nutrients through material circulation is necessary for life. the
essential mechanism to maintain life is an endless flow of electrons. The first proto-life
couldn't survive very far from the nuclear geyser due to insufficient energy. Mutations
however allowed life to evolve. The more resilient life forms were able to adapt and
survive in harsh environments. This second stage of proto-life evolved to make use of
the sunlight available on the Earth's surface. They developed a metabolism that
converted light energy into electrochemical energy. Moreover, they used sugars to store
energy for the sunless night hours. The source of energy for life on Earth shifted from
nuclear geysers to the Sun.

4.1 billion years ago: Mass extinction

Around 4.1 billion years ago the ocean was still extremely toxic killing off most of the
proto life forms within it. Nevertheless, some proto life-forms survived the extreme
environment. They developed protective mechanisms to prevent the metallic ions in the
ocean water from entering their protocells. This proto-life began coalescing into larger
and more complex forms. Modern life forms use only twenty kinds of amino acids. This
means our ancestors that used the same amino acids were the ones that survived the
mass extinction. Evolution walks a perilous tightrope between continuing and ending.
Unstable
RNA evolved through ionizing radiation into more durable DNA making it possible to
reliably pass information across generations. And the third stage of proto-life was born.
This was the beginning of prokaryotic organisms the ancestors of today's archaea and
bacteria.

PART 5.
Second Stage of Evolution of Life.

2.9 billion years ago: The emergence of photosynthetic life

oxygen when unbound to any other material can be toxic to life because oxygen
destroys the reductive life body. Therefore the first photosynthetic organisms would
have been anaerobic microbes that produced no oxygen. Life, however, adapted, taking
advantage of oxygen, as a valuable source of additional energy. this development
resulted in the appearance of cyanobacteria. Cyanobacteria produced oxygen which
crystallized into felsic iron-bearing oxide reducing the iron content of the ocean still the
ocean. Still, the ocean was five times as saline as it is today.
2.7 billion years ago: Mantle overturn

As the Earth's interior cooled, old slabs of the primordial crust resting at the bottom of
the upper mantle fell into the lower mantle. Meanwhile, numerous mantle plumes
ascended from the lower mantle into the upper mantle. This phenomenon is known as
mantle overturn. Mantle plumes pushed the basaltic crust upward generating landmass.
This created shallow marine environments penetrated by sunlight which allowed the
cyanobacteria to flourish. The oxygen produced by the cyanobacteria gradually altered
the Earth's atmosphere. On the ocean floor, ferric and ferrous iron were accumulating in
the form of hematite and magnetite creating a massive banded iron formation. By 2.5
billion years ago the remaining banded iron formation was a few kilometers thick. This
rapid decrease in iron content changed the color of the ocean to a familiar blue. Life
began to change the surface environment such as the coevolution of the earth and its
inhabitants. This was an important step in life on Earth's long journey toward civilization.

PART 6.
Third Stage of the Evolution of Life.

2.3 billion years ago: Mass extinction by Snowball Earth

A collision between the Milky Way and a nearby dwarf galaxy produced countless
glowing stars. within a few thousand years some of these stars ended in supernova
explosions. A myriad of cosmic rays from the supernova deteriorated the sun's
heliosphere and bombarded the Earth. These cosmic rays help generate cloud
condensation nuclei which produced more and more clouds until the earth was
completely blanketed with them. The thick cloud cover prevented sunlight from reaching
the surface of the earth. The Earth underwent a global glaciation event known as the
snowball Earth. This caused another global mass extinction. But once again some life
survived yet another difficult period beneath the ice sheet. Tiny life was protected by the
Earth's massive circulating system. And the earth is similarly held in place by the solar
system and the expansive universe. Life is but one part of an enormous system.

2.1 billion years ago: From prokaryote to eukaryote

The prokaryotes survived the snowball earth, evolving into more complex life such as
endosymbiotic systems living together inside cells. They formed mitochondria and
chloroplasts which allowed them to get more energy from oxygen. A single prokaryote
body could contain thousands of mitochondria. A nuclear membrane formed protects
DNA from the oxygen-dense ocean water. DNA strands grew longer retaining ever more
genetic information. Life evolved into more diverse and complex organisms. At long last
the eukaryotes appeared. The eukaryotes grew a million times larger than prokaryotes.
In theory, everything inevitably falls into disorder. And yet life is orderly and increasingly
complex. life seems to continue evolving undeterred by universal entropy.

PART 7:
The Dawn of the Cambrian Explosion.

1.9-0.8 billion years ago: The Formation of a Supercontinent

Plate tectonics caused small developing continents to assemble into a single

supercontinent called “Nuna”. As Nuna formed its burgeoning landmass provided
cyanobacteria with an expanding habitat, in its lakes rivers wetlands, and estuaries.
Cyanobacteria produce free oxygen through photosynthesis. At that time, however,
most of the free oxygen produced was consumed by decomposing dead cyanobacteria.
So very little free oxygen accumulated in the atmosphere. On land however dead
cyanobacteria got buried under sediments. So oxygen that would have broken down
their bodies instead ended up in the atmosphere. The presence of a large landmass
helped increase the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere. As the total land area on the
surface of the earth increased so too did atmospheric oxygen levels dramatically. Over
time the Nuna supercontinent broke up into smaller continents. But once again plate
tectonics reassembled a supercontinent this one called “Rodinia” in the equator region.
Slabs of oceanic plates subducted under continental plates gradually accumulated in
the mantle transition zone. Eventually, these slabs fell down into the core. the slabs
cooled the outer core changing the flow of electricity within. As a result, the cores' dipole
magnetic fields transformed into a weaker quadrupole magnetic field.

700-600 million years ago: The Sturtian Glaciation

The Milky Way galaxy collided with a dwarf galaxy and underwent a transition into
“starburst” conditions. Over time these newly produced stars ended in supernova
explosions. Bombarded the earth with cosmic rays. The earth with its weak quadrupole
magnetic field was heavily affected. clouds covered the entire earth and ice covered its
surface. A series of supernova explosions occurred. Long periods of extreme heat were
punctuated by shorter periods of extreme cold. in the extremely cold periods, oxygen in
the atmosphere fell to Archaean Eon levels causing mass extinctions. These mass
extinctions however created great opportunities for life to evolve Into something
completely new. Repeated fluxes of cosmic rays and drastic fluctuations in oxygen
levels. These environmental changes caused genetic mutations that accelerated the
appearance of new species.

700-600 million years ago: The Leaking Earth

the starburst period ended and the Earth's core reverted to a stronger dipole magnetic
field. Ongoing photosynthesis returned the oxygen in the atmosphere to previous levels.
Meanwhile, the Inner Earth was gradually cooling down. When the Inner Earth is hot
enough the components of water trapped in minerals in the oceanic plates are released
to the surface environment. And the sea water level is unaffected. However, once the
mantle temperature drops below 650 degrees Celsius minerals carry these water
components down into the upper mantle. Meanwhile on the surface deprived of the
components of water sea levels gradually decrease. This is known as the “leaking
earth” phenomenon which is inevitable on a cooling planet. This leaking effect moved
3% of all seawater into the deeper mantle. The sea level dropped by 600 meters. As a
result surface land areas grew as did continental shelf areas receiving sunlight. A
habitat for future life on earth was being created. rivers carried nutrients from the
inlands down to the continental shelves. And the additional landmass significantly
accelerated the build-up of oxygen in the atmosphere. These processes set the stage
for an explosive evolution of life forms.

PART 8:
The Cambrian Explosion.

640 million years ago: The Origin of Multicellular Life

The Marinoan Glaciation

Extreme climate changes continued putting life on a path to new evolutional stages for
survival. Life evolved with prokaryotes and eukaryotes living together as ever-larger
symbiotic organisms compensating for each other's shortcomings and thriving as a
whole.
this greatly expanded the possibilities for forms of life. Life forms grew to 1 million times
the size of eukaryotes. and 1 trillion times the size of prokaryotes the appearance of
multicellular life was a critical leap for evolution.

580 million years ago: The Appearance of Ediacaran Fauna

The Gaskiers Glaciation

Another glaciation period came and life suffered a mass extinction. With time this
glaciation also passed and the global climate gradually warmed. Phosphorus and other
materials are essential for life circulated through the climate system and accumulated in
the oceans. the animals of the Ediacaran period appeared at this time. Dicksonia is
iconic among the Ediacaran fauna. Some grew to over 1 meter in length. They were
soft-bodied creatures with no shells or skeletons. They probably lived in warm shallow
marine environments around the Rodinia supercontinent.

550 million years ago: Evolution Responds to Environmental Changes

The supply of nutrients from the land was ever-increasing as was atmospheric
Oxygen. The amount of ferrous iron in the oceans increased. The ferrous iron oxidized
once again creating large bands of iron. Phosphorus and calcium levels in the ocean
increased. life evolved to use these elements becoming animals with bones and shells.
For example, calcium helped protect microdictyon from other animals. Their bodies
used calcium to form a covering of hard scales. Life evolves to survive making use of
the elements in its environment. and the Earth's environment alters the shapes of life.

540 million years ago: The First Cambrian Organisms

The Baikonur Glaciation
The earth entered another period of climactic instability. The earth alternated between
periods of extreme heat and extreme cold for tens of millions of years. These severe
changes killed off the Ediacaran fauna. Nevertheless, new species were about to
appear.

The Rodinia Supercontinent

Radiation from inside the earth plays a significant role in the evolution of life. a
continental rift is a place where a continent breaks open to expose erupting magma and
radioactive elements. Radiation hastens the creation of new species and new branches
in the Tree of Life. This is “stem evolution” creating new species at continental rifts. Life
evolved separately on each small continent. when small continents recombined, their
life forms crossbred. Different crossbreeding created new forms of life. variation thrived,
this is “crown evolution”. Continental collisions created more diverse surface
environments. bays and gulfs on large continents were especially well supplied with
nutrients from upstream. making use of these nutrients Cambrian era life forms
diversified much more quickly. The Cambrian explosion created some 35 new phyla
these phyla became the foundation for the types of plants and animals we see today.
There are three main ways that life evolved. 1) mass extinctions that eradicated many
species. 2) stem evolution that
hastened genetic mutations when continents broke apart. 3) and crown evolution that
hastened bio diversification when continents collided. So the evolution of life is
inextricably linked to environmental changes due to universal factors, and continents
assembling together and breaking apart

PART 9: The Paleozoic Era.

600 million years ago: Expanding Habitats

540 Million years ago: The Gondwana Supercontinent

The ocean was more than five times as saline as it is today. 600 million years ago the
ocean gradually became less salty. Salt from seawater was relocated to the land in the
form of rock salt. Decreasing sea levels made this possible through more exposed land.
Even if seawater rose again high enough to reclaim the rock salt, most of it had become
inaccessible encased in sediments. The decrease in seawater salinity made the ocean
more hospitable to diverse life forms. Estuaries and open seas welcomed new life. With
increasing atmospheric oxygen levels an ozone layer formed in the Earth's upper
atmosphere. The ozone layer absorbs ultraviolet radiation from the Sun. the land was
becoming a more habitable environment.

540 million years ago: The Co-evolution of Plants and Insects

Algae was the first life form to transition out of the water onto the challenging land
environment. This is why algae evolved before animals did. When insects appeared
they co-evolved together with plants.

550-540 million years ago: The Evolution of Vertebrates

Appearing during the Cambrian explosion, fish were the first of the vertebrates, animals
with backbones. Fish are the oldest vertebrate ancestors of us humans.

As fish continued to evolve, Ichthyostega appeared, the ancestor of amphibians.

Plants flourished, producing free oxygen through photosynthesis, providing the

atmosphere with 1.5 times as much oxygen as it has today. Long after the remains of
these plants would become sedimentary coal. That coal would help fuel the remarkable
breakthroughs for human civilization that started with the Industrial Revolution. Next,
vertebrates equipped with lungs appeared and made their way onto land. The Tree of
Life evolved, branching from Fish, to amphibians, to reptiles, and then, to dinosaurs and
mammals. And eventually, to humans. This guy hasn't found out about all that just yet.

260-250 million years ago: The Largest Mass Extinction of the Phanerozoic Eon
Collision with a Dark Nebula

The solar system collided with the Dark Nebula. As the solar system passed through the
nebula, the Earth was bombarded with cosmic rays. The earth entered yet another
frozen age. Plants were affected first, dramatically reducing the oxygen they supplied to
the atmosphere. The surface environment reverted to an anaerobic state like during the
Archean period. the lack of oxygen killed off most species of amphibians, reptiles, and
insects life, managed to continue evolving but faced another big challenge. Untouched
by the evolutionary changes on the Earth's surface, anaerobic microorganisms had
been thriving in oxygen-poor underground environments. The new oxygen-poor surface
environment allowed them to re-emerge on land and in oceans. Their native habitat
expanded across the globe. As oxygen levels rose again these microorganisms evolved
to adapt to the new environmental conditions, setting the stage for another phase of
evolution. The emergence of new creatures that would evolve into humans was close at
hand.

PART 10: From the Mesozoic to the birth of human beings.

Dispersion and amalgamation of continents, and the evolution of life

On the supercontinent Pangea, mammals and reptiles appeared and started evolving
under a warm climate. While reptiles diversified into many varieties, mammals remained
nocturnal, rat-sized animals. The mammals were in the shadows. with the appearance
of dinosaurs, reptiles entered for Golden Age. Dinosaurs prevailed against many other
animal species and won the struggle for survival. High-radiation magma is produced
when a continent is split apart, and this is where stem evolution occurs due to induced
mutation. Dinosaurs were at the pinnacle of their ecosystems. The pieces of northern
Pangaea that had split later rejoined, this caused “crown evolution”. Amalgamation of
continents brings the hybridization of life, and new species spread out to other
continents. Dinosaurs flourished all over the world. In the plant world, angiosperms with
advanced reproductive capacities appeared. Angiosperms utilize animals to help with
pollination and thus flourished. On the other hand, the habitat of gymnosperms was
reduced.

THE BIRTH OF PRIMATES

Primates, the ancestors of humans, appeared at the rift of the Gondwana

supercontinent. Via stem evolution, new species appeared among the rodents, such as
rats. With time, Gondwana split into South America and Africa. after South America was
isolated the primates there evolved into the new world monkeys. On the African
continent, the primates evolved into old-world monkeys. after the Indian subcontinent
split off from Antarctica primates on this continent evolved into the lorises. Primates
evolved independently on each continent, and in this way, many species of primates
appeared. A large-scale Pacific super-plume pushed the Pacific plate up and raised the
sea level. Lowlands fell below sea level, and the total land area decreased. Rising sea
levels segmented the continent providing isolated environments for individualized
morphological evolution. A universe-scale event had changed Earth's surface
environment, the solar system collided with a Dark Nebula. The earth was entirely
covered by clouds. Global cooling progressed catastrophically damaging ecosystems.
Finally, a meteorite 10 kilometers across fell on the Yucatan Peninsula. This event was
the final trigger to cause the mass extinction of dinosaurs. The fate of the Earth's life is
deeply connected to the events in the universe. Universe scale events can cause global
cooling and mass extinctions. Moreover, galactic cosmic rays directly affect the DNA
that carries the blueprints of life. cosmic rays cause mutations that promote evolution.
All aspects of life on the earth are thus influenced by universe-scale events. Finally, the
dinosaurs that had flourished went extinct

PART 11: The Humanozoic eon : the appearance of human beings and
civilization.

EVOLUTION INTO PRIMATES

Along the African Rift Valley, explosive volcanic activity continued, and peculiar magma
containing abundant radioactive elements erupted. Old-world monkeys, a new clade of
primates, appeared there. They are thought to be our remote ancestors.

The birth of human beings, the fourth animal category: The Humanozoic eon
About 4.5 billion years have passed since the birth of the earth. Large fluctuations in
terrestrial environments have occurred repeatedly. A never-ending cycle of life and
death.
Finally, human beings appeared. This was the onset of the Humanozoic eon. Humans
have a unique set of genetic regions called human accelerated regions, or HARs and
these regions differentiate humans from other animals. Humans developed enlarged
brains that enable them to gain language capabilities. They also gained the ability to
think, be conscious to remember, and to imagine. The brain volume of human beings
has discontinuously increased in three stages. The growth of brain volume seems to be
synchronized with large-scale volcanic eruptions. This indicates that the increase in
brain volume is caused by stem evolution driven by HiR magma. About 1,200,000 years
ago, humans started moving out of the African continent. The last common female
ancestor who left the African continent 200,000 years ago is called Mitochondrial Eve.
Descendants of mitochondrial Eve entered North America and Central America 15,000
years ago. 10,000 years ago further descendants reached the southern tip of South
America; they had spread all over the world. Since then, an epochal advance of human
civilization has taken place.

10,000 years ago: The Agricultural Revolution

Humans invented agriculture and livestock production. With these methods a stable
food supply became possible. Human populations increased rapidly.

EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATION

5,000 years ago: The Urban Revolution

Various occupational specializations arose. People began to barter and trade.

MESOPOTAMIAN CIVILIZATION

To enable effective bartering cities formed.

INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION

With time, small cities developed into small city-states with currencies, economies, laws,
courts, and, policies.

YELLOW RIVER CIVILIZATION

Finally, the four great civilizations of the world appeared along large rivers, where food
productivity is higher than in other regions.

2400 years ago: The Religious Revolution

Conflicts in fighting over territory occurred between civilizations. To avoid fighting,
religions spread to replace governance by royal families entrenched through
inheritance. With time, national leaders came to be elected by voters “Modern
democratic” nations appeared. Democracy is a social form that grants freedom equality
and basic human rights.

300 years ago: The Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain after the “Principia” by Isaac Newton
was published. New technologies, established or applied based on scientific knowledge,
dramatically changed human society. The invention of the steam locomotive enabled
the transportation of goods by railway. The invention of cars and airplanes enabled us
to travel long distances easily. Human society entered the age of never-before-seen
abundance. However, war occurred incessantly. Sometimes irreversible tragedy was
caused by the misapplication of scientific knowledge.

THE INFORMATION REVOLUTION

The information revolution arose following the invention of computers. It enabled human
beings to explore the universe, as was symbolized by the Apollo program. And the
invention of the internet led to a new era in which people across the world can connect
with each other in an instant. Out of contrition over past Wars, the birth of a unified
world nation is coming to be realized. In 1993 the EU was formed as a unified state in
Europe, where Wars had recurred most frequently. In other areas, similar federations
have been emerging, bringing us closer to the birth of a unified world nation. Within the
scope of Earth's history, the Humanazoic era is very short. However, it is humans' entire
history, unfolding within the context of the Earth's history. Biologically, human beings
are just one species of animal. However, we are essentially different from other animals
because of our evolved brains.

What else lies ahead for human beings?

PART 12: Future of the Earth.

Challenges for human society

Human activities have been dependent on fossil fuels. Fossil fuel was produced and
accumulated throughout Earth's history over billions of years. We are now using up
these fuels at a furious pace. The amount of fossil fuel remaining is expected to
decrease sharply after 2020. It was once assumed that fossil fuel would run out by
2100. However, due to the shale gas revolution, this depletion will be delayed 100
years. Progress in medical technology and the intake of nutritious meals has caused
explosive population growth. As a result, serious food shortages will occur around 2020.
These will mark the beginning of the era of 3 billion refugees. However, the world's
population is expected to decrease to 5 billion by 2100 after peaking at 10 billion in
2050. Until 2050, the increasing population will continue to cause serious environmental
contamination. Numerous global challenges will amplify the anxiety within human
societies.

What does the future of human beings hold?

Future of human society

In the field of science innovative technologies will be developed at an accelerated pace.

Humans will build a space base on the moon to prepare for the exploration of our solar
system's planets. Artificially intelligent robots will be involved in space exploration
assisting humans in their tasks. In the near future, self-replicating robots will appear and
will evolve beyond humans' limits. These artificial life forms will gradually travel out into
the galaxy. Moreover, new technology enabling us to go into different dimensions will be
developed. Humans must become able to recognize the world beyond space and time.
Eventually, the role of human beings will be finished. That will be the end of the
Humanozoic era. This scenario may be the inevitable result of the strategy of life's
evolution. Because in the future the earth will face more upheavals than ever before in
its history.

Future of the Earth

200 million years later: Formation of the supercontinent

Centering on Asia all continents will gather to form the supercontinent Amasia.

400 million years later: Extinction of C4 plants

Plants consume atmospheric co2 to fix carbon in their bodies. Dead plants made of
fixed carbon are covered by sediment. This process plays a role in reducing
atmospheric co2. The appearance of the supercontinent Amasia will lead to an increase
in the land area that can fix carbon. More plants on a larger supercontinent reduce
atmospheric co2. The amount of co2 will decrease to one-tenth of the present level. The
c4 plants requiring higher concentrations of co2 will go extinct. As a result other animals
that rely on the c4 plants for food will be affected.

1 billion years later: Cessation of plate tectonics

Seawater has been decreasing for the past 600 million years as it has been transported
into the mantle in the form of hydras minerals. Finally, mid-oceanic ridges formed
summits above the seawater. Water cannot be taken into the crust as a lubricant
anymore and plate tectonics is terminated. This is the fate of a cooling planet. Volcanic
activity along the subduction zone stops. The upheaval of the mountains stops. The
earth suffers severe environmental changes due to erosion. Subducted cold plates do
not go down to
the bottom of the mantle. The outer core is not cooled down anymore, and the
geomagnetic field disappears. Earth's atmosphere is removed by the solar wind. At this
point in time, large multicellular animals living in the surface environment go extinct.

1.5 billion years later: Disappearance of the ocean

When the ocean disappears animals that survived in the ocean will also die. Finally, all
the Earth's life disappears. The heating up of the solar surface increases the Earth's
surface temperature to 500 degrees Celsius. The earth becomes a Venus-like planet.

4.5 billion years later: Collision between the Milky Way Galaxy and the
Andromeda Galaxy

The Andromeda galaxy collides with our Milky Way galaxy. Because of this collision, the
birth rate of stars increases. With time those stars undergo supernova explosions.
intense galactic cosmic rays rain on the earth.

8 billion years later: Annihilation of the Earth

The expanding Sun will swallow the Earth. This is the day when the planet Earth that
gave birth to life will disappear from the universe. By that time, the Earth's life will have
reached other galaxies as self-replicating artificial life in a different form.

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