A Historical Perspective

Database Management Systems (DBMS) have been around for several decades, and their
history can be traced back to the early 1960s. In the early days, computer systems were
designed to manage data in a hierarchical or navigational manner, where data was stored in a
tree-like structure. This method of storing data was inefficient and difficult to use, as it
required a lot of manual effort to access and manage the data.
In the late 1960s, The first general-purpose DBMS, designed by Charles Bachman, was
called the Integrated Data Store (IDS) which was based on network data model for which
he was received the Turing Award (The most prestigious award which is equivalent to
Nobel prize in the field of Computer Science.).
In the late 1970s, Mr Edgar Codd proposed a new data representation framework called
the Relational Database Model. Mr Edgar Codd won the 1981 Turing Award for his
seminal work. This model was based on the concept of a table, with rows representing
individual records and columns representing individual fields within those records. The
relational model allowed for more efficient storage and retrieval of data and was easier to use
than the hierarchical or navigational models.
In the late 1980s IBM developed the Structured Query Language (SQL) for relational
databases, as a part of R project. This system was designed to manage large amounts of data
and was used primarily in corporate and government applications. SQL was adopted by the
American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and International Organization for
Standardization (ISO).
In the 1980s, several new DBMS products were introduced, including Oracle, Sybase, and
Microsoft SQL Server. These systems were designed to be more user-friendly and to support
more advanced data modeling and query languages.
In the 1990s, object-oriented DBMS (OODBMS) emerged, which were designed to store
and manage complex data structures, such as multimedia and other types of non-traditional
data. These systems were initially popular in research and academic environments, but their
adoption was limited in the commercial sector.
In the 1991, Microsoft ships MS access, a personal DBMS and that displaces all other
personal DBMS products.
In the 1997, XML applied to database processing. Many vendors begin to integrate XML into
DBMS products.
In the 2000s, web-based applications and cloud computing became more popular, and DBMS
systems began to adapt to these new technologies. New DBMS systems were developed to
support distributed and web-based applications, including NoSQL databases such as
MongoDB and Cassandra.
Today, DBMS systems continue to evolve, with an emphasis on scalability, performance, and
support for cloud-based applications. Some of the most popular DBMS systems in use today
include Oracle, Microsoft SQL Server, MySQL, PostgreSQL, and MongoDB.

What is a File system?

 A file system is a technique of arranging the files in a storage devices like a hard disk, pen
drive, DVD, etc. It helps you to organizes the data and allows easy retrieval of files when
they are required. A file system enables you to handle the way of reading and writing data to
the storage medium. It is directly installed into the computer with the Operating systems such
as Windows and Linux.

What is DBMS?

Database Management System (DBMS) is a software for storing and retrieving user’s data
while considering appropriate security measures. It consists of a group of programs that
manipulate the database. The DBMS accepts the request for data from an application and
instructs the DBMS engine to provide the specific data. In large systems, a DBMS helps
users and other third-party software to store and retrieve data.

Difference between File System and Database systems

File System Database systems

A file system is a software that manages and organizes the DBMS or Database Management System is a
files in a storage medium. It controls how data is stored software application. It is used for accessing, creating,
and retrieved. and managing databases.

The file system provides the details of data representation DBMS gives an abstract view of data that hides the
and storage of data. details.

Storing and retrieving of data can’t be done efficiently in a DBMS is efficient to use as there are a wide variety of
file system. methods to store and retrieve data.

Data redundancy is more. Data redundancy is less.

Conventional file systems are used where there is less Database systems are used when security constraints
demand for security constraints(Security is very low). are high(Security is high).

File systems define the data in un-structured manner. Data Database systems define the data in a structured
is usually in isolated form. manner. Also there is well defined co-relation among
the data.

Data inconsistency is more in file systems. Data inconsistency is less in database systems.
File System Database systems

User locates the physical address of file to access the data User is unknown to the physical address of the data
in conventional file systems. used in database systems.

There is no ability to concurrently access the data using There is ability to access the data concurrently using
conventional file system. database systems.

Not provide support for complicated transactions. Easy to implement complicated transactions.

It doesn’t offer backup and recovery of data if it is lost. DBMS system provides backup and recovery of data
even if it is lost.

Disadvantages of File system

 Each application has its data file so, the same data may have to be recorded and stored
many times.
 Data dependence in the file processing system are data-dependent, but, the problem is
incompatible with file format.
 Limited data sharing.
 The problem with security.
 Time-consuming.
 It allows you to maintain the record of the big firm having a large number of items.
 Required lots of labor work to do.

Advantages of DBMS system

 DBMS offers a variety of techniques to store & retrieve data

 Uniform administration procedures for data
 Application programmers never exposed to details of data representation and Storage.
 A DBMS uses various powerful functions to store and retrieve data efficiently.
 Offers Data Integrity and Security.
 The DBMS implies integrity constraints to get a high level of protection against
prohibited access to data.
 Reduced Application Development Time
  Consume lesser space.
 Reduction of redundancy.
 Data independence.
DATA Models
A data model is a collection of high-level data description constructs that hide many low-
level storage details. A DBMS allows a user to define the data to be stored in terms of a data
model.
The data models can be classified into different categories:

1. Hierarchical Model
2. Network Model
3. Entity-Relationship Model
4. Relational Model
5. Object-Based Data Model
6. Semi-structured Data model

1. Hierarchical Model

Hierarchical Model was the first DBMS model. This model organises the data in the
hierarchical tree structure.
The hierarchy starts from the root which has root data and then it expands in the form of a
tree adding child node to the parent node. This model easily represents some of the real-world
relationships like food recipes, sitemap of a website etc.
Depicts a set of one-to-many (1:M) relationships

Disadvantages of the hierarchical model:

 Easy to design at the same time it is quite complex to implement.

  This model also lacks flexibility as the changes in the new tables or segments often
yield very complex system management tasks. Here, a deletion of one segment can
lead to the involuntary deletion of all segments under it.

2. Network Model

This model is an extension of the hierarchical model, the only difference is that a record can
have more than one parent. It replaces the hierarchical tree with a graph.
The network model was created to represent complex data relationships more effectively
when compared to hierarchical models, to improve database performance and standards.

Disadvantages of the Network Model:

 Database contains a complex array of pointers.

 System complexity limits efficiency.
 Structural changes require changes in all application programs.
 Navigation systems yield complex implementation and management.
 Keep heavy pressure on programmers due to the complex structure.
 Any change like updating, deletion, insertion is very complex.

3. Entity-Relationship Model

An ER model is the logical representation of data as objects and relationships among them.
These objects are known as entities, and relationship is an association among these entities.

Entity-Relationship Model Components

ER diagram basically having three components:

1. Entities − It is a real-world thing which can be a person, place, or even a concept. For
Example: Department, Admin, Courses, Teachers, Students, Building, etc are some of
the entities of a School Management System.
2. Attributes − An entity which contains a real-world property called an attribute. For
Example: The entity employee has the property like employee id, salary, age, etc.
3. Relationship − Relationship tells how two attributes are related. For Example:
Employee works for a department.
An entity has a real-world property called attribute and these attributes are defined by a set of
values called domain.
Advantages of Entity-Relationship Model

 The ER model is easy to build.

 This model is widely used by database designers for communicating their ideas.
 This model can easily convert to any other model like network model, hierarchical
model etc.
 It is integrated with the dominant relational model.

Disadvantages of Entity-Relationship Model

 There is no industry standard for developing an ER model.

 Information might be lost or hidden in the ER model.
 There is no Data Manipulation
 There is limited relationship representation.

Relational Model

The relational model uses a collection of tables to represent both data and the relationships.
Tables are also known as relations. Each table has multiple columns represent as attributes,
Attributes are the properties which define a relation. Each row of the table represents as
Tuple, Tuple is one piece of information.

Terminologies used in Relation Model

 Tables: relations are saved in the table format. A table has two properties rows and
columns
 Attribute: columns represent as attributes
 Tuple: A Row represent as Tuple
 Relation Schema: A relation schema represents the name of the relation with its
attributes.
 Degree: The total number of attributes which in the relation is called the degree of the
relation.
 Cardinality: Total number of rows present in the Table.
  Column: The column represents the set of values for a specific attribute.
 Relation instance: The set of tuples of a relation at a particular instance of time is
called as relation instance.

Advantages of Relation Model

 Structural Independence: Structural independence is an ability that allows us to

make changes in one database structure without affecting other. The relational model
have structural independence. Hence making required changes in the database is
convenient in relational database model.
 Conceptual Simplicity: The relational model allows the designer to simply focus on
logical design and not on physical design. Hence relational models are conceptually
simple to understand.
 Query Capability: Using simple query language (such as SQL) user can get
information from the database or designer can manipulate the database structure.
 Easy design,maintenance and usage: The relational models can be designed
logically hence they are easy to maintain and use.

Disadvantages of Realation Model

 Relational model requires powerful hardware and large data storage devices.
 May lead to slower processing time.
 Poorly designed systems lead to poor implementation of database systems.

5. Object-Based Data Model

The complex real world problems are represented as objects with different attributes. In
Object Oriented Data Model, data and their relationships are contained in a single structure
which is referred as object. All objects have multiple relationships between them. Basically, it
is combination of Object Oriented programming and Relational Database Model.

Components of Object Oriented Data Model

1. Objects: An object is an abstraction of a real world entity or we can say it is an

instance of class. Objects encapsulates data and code into a single unit which provide
data abstraction by hiding the implementation details from the user.
2. Attribute: An attribute describes the properties of object.
3. Methods: Method represents the behavior of an object, it represents the real-world
action
4. Class: A class is a collection of similar objects with shared structure i.e. attributes and
behavior.
5. Inheritance: new classes are created from the existing classes
Advantages of Object-Based Data Model

 Reduced Maintenance
 Real-World Modeling
 Improved Reliability and Flexibility
 High Code Reusability

Disadvantages of Object-Based Data Model

 It is a complex navigational system.

 Slow development of standards.
 High system overheads.
 Slow transactions.

6. Semi-structured Data model

The semi-structured data model permits the specification of data where individual data items
of same type may have different sets of attributes. The Extensible Markup Language (XML)
is widely used to represent semistructured data model.

Advantages of Semi-structured Data Model

 Data is not constrained by fixed schema.

 It is flexible.
 It is portable.

Disadvantage of Semi-structured Data Model

 Queries are less efficient than other types of data model.

Levels of abstraction for DBMS

1. Physical or Internal Level

The internal level has an internal schema which describes the physical storage structure of the
database.
The internal schema is also known as a physical schema.
It uses the physical data model. It is used to define that how the data will be stored in a block.
The physical level is used to describe complex low-level data structures in detail.

Facts about Internal schema

 The internal schema is the lowest level of data abstraction

 It helps you to keeps information about the actual representation of the entire
database. Like the actual storage of the data on the disk in the form of records
 The internal view tells us what data is stored in the database and how

2. Logical or Conceptual Level

The conceptual schema describes the design of a database at the conceptual level. Conceptual
level is also known as logical level.
The conceptual schema describes the structure of the whole database.
The conceptual level describes what data are to be stored in the database and also describes
what relationship exists among those data.
In the conceptual level, internal details such as an implementation of the data structure are
hidden.
Programmers and database administrators work at this level.

Facts about Conceptual schema

 Defines all database entities, their attributes, and their relationships

 Security and integrity information
 In the conceptual level, the data available to a user must be contained in or derivable
from the physical level.

3. View or External Level

It hides the unrelated details of the database from the user. There may be “n” number of
external views for each database.
Each external view is defined using an external schema, which consists of definitions of
various types of external record of that specific view.
View level can be used by all users (all levels' users). This level is the least complex and easy
to understand.

Facts about External schema

 An external level is only related to the data which is viewed by specific end users.
 This level includes some external schemas.
  External schema level is nearest to the user
 An external schema is also known as view schema.
 Each view schema describes the database part that a particular user group is interested
and hides the remaining database from that user group.
 The view schema describes the end user interaction with database systems.

DATA INDEPENDENCE IN DBMS

The ability to modify the schema definition of a DBMS at one level, without affecting the
schema definition of the next higher level is called data independence.

But, Why Do We Need Data Independence in DBMS?

In addition to the data entered by users, a database system typically holds a large amount of
data. The system holds metadata about data which makes it easier to find and retrieve data.
Once a set of metadata in DBMS has been saved in a database, changing or updating the
metadata is challenging. However, as a database management system (DBMS) grows, it must
evolve to meet the needs of its users. Updating the schema or data would be a time-
consuming and complicated task if all of the data were dependent.

To address the problem with updating metadata, it is organized in a tiered structure, so that
changing data at one level does not affect data at another. This information is self-contained,
however, all this information is linked to one another.

So, data independence aids in the separation of data from the applications that use it.

Types of Data Independence in DBMS

Now that you know what data independence means, let's discuss its types. This is where your
knowledge of the 3-level architecture is important!

Data Independence in DBMS is of two types:

Physical Data Independence

This is defined as the ability to modify the physical schema of the database without the
modification causing any changes in the logical/conceptual or view/external level.

Why is Physical Data Independence Important?

 Physical data independence allows you to distinguish between conceptual and

internal/physical levels. It allows you to describe the database logically without
needing to identify physical structures.
 Physical data independence allows you to modify physical storage structures or
devices without affecting the conceptual model of the database. Any changes made at
 the internal level would be absorbed by the mapping between the conceptual and
internal levels, preventing any modifications to the conceptual level.

Examples of Physical Data Independence:

 Changing from one data structure to another.

 Making use of new storage technology, such as a hard drive or magnetic tapes
 Change the location of the database from one drive to another.
 Changing the database's file organization.

Logical Data Independence

Logical data independence is the ability to modify logical schema without causing any
unwanted modifications to the external schema or the application programs to be rewritten.

Why is Logical Data Independence Important?

 Logical data is database data, which means it stores information about how data is
managed within the database. Logical data independence is a method that makes sure
that if we make modifications to the table format, the data should not be affected.
 The mapping between the external and conceptual levels will absorb any changes
made.
 In other words, to distinguish the external level from the conceptual view, logical data
independence is used. Any modifications to the conceptual representation of the data
will not affect the user's view of the data.

Examples of Logical Data Independence:

 Without rewriting current application scripts, you can add, modify, or delete a new
attribute, entity, or relationship.
 To divide an existing record into two or more records.
 Merging two records into a single one.

Important Fact

Logical Data Independence isn't easy to achieve, as compared to Physical Data

Independence. But why?

Because application programs are so conceptually reliant, logical data independence is more
difficult to achieve than physical data independence. Even a small number of changes to the
database's logical structure would require changes to be made to the applications as well. As a
result, obtaining logical data independence might be difficult.

Difference between Physical and Logical Data Independence

Physical Data Independence Logical Data Independence

It is concerned with the internal schema of the It is concerned with the conceptual schema of the
database. database.

It is easier to achieve as compared to logical Logical data independence is difficult to achieve as

 Physical Data Independence Logical Data Independence

data independence. compared to physical data independence.

Physical data independence is mostly

It is mostly focused on the structure or updating
concerned with how data is saved in the
data definitions.
system.

Changes at the internal level may or may not be When the database's logical structure needs to be
required to increase the overall performance of modified, the changes made at the logical level are
the database. crucial.

In most cases, a change at the physical level If new fields are added or removed from the
does not necessitate a change at the application database, then updates are required to be made in
program level. the application software.

Importance of Data Independence

 Encourages you to improve the nature of the information.

 Database framework support gets reasonable.
 Implementation of principles and improvement in database security.
 You don’t have to modify information structure in application programs.
 Grant designers to concentrate on the general structure of the Database as opposed to
agonizing over the interior usage.
 It permits you to improve a state which is unharmed or unified.
 Database disjointedness is endlessly diminished.
 Effectively making adjustments in the physical level is expected to improve the
exhibition of the framework.

Database System Architecture

The typical structure of DBMS is based on Relational data model.

The top part of the architecture shows application interfaces used by naive users, application
programs created by application programmers, query tools used by sophisticated users and
administration tools used by database administrator.

The Middle two parts (Query processor and storage manager) are important components
of database architecture.
Query processor:

The interactive query processor helps the database system to simplify and facilitate access to
data. It consists of DDL(Data Definition Language) interpreter, DML(Data Manipulation
Language) compiler and query evaluation engine.
The following are various functionalities and components of query processor

 DDL interpreter: This is basically a translator which interprets the DDL statements
in data dictionaries.
 DML compiler: It translates DML statements query language into an evaluation plan.
This plan consists of the instructions which query evaluation engine understands.
 Query evaluation engine: It executes the low-level instructions generated by the
DML compiler.
When a user issues a query, the parsed query is presented to a query optimizer, which uses
information about how the data is stored to produce an efficient execution plan for evaluating
the query. An execution plan is a blueprint for evaluating a query. It is evaluated by query
evaluation engine.
Storage manager:

Storage manager is the component of database system that provides interface between the
low level data stored in the database and the application programs and queries submitted to
the system.
The storage manager is responsible for storing, retrieving, and updating data in the database.
The storage manager components include

 Authorization and integrity manager: Validates the users who want to access the
data and tests for integrity constraints.
 Transaction manager: Ensures that the database remains in consistent despite of
system failures and concurrent transaction execution proceeds without conflicting.
 File manager: Manages allocation of space on disk storage and representation of the
information on disk.
 Buffer manager: Manages the fetching of data from disk storage into main memory.
The buffer manager also decides what data to cache in main memory. Buffer manager
is a crucial part of database system.
Storage manager implements several data structures such as

 Data files: Used for storing database itself.

 Data dictionary: Used for storing metadata, particularly schema of database.
 Indices: Indices are used to provide fast access to data items present in the database

Database Design in DBMS

Database design is the organization of data according to a database model.
Properly designed databases are easu to maintain, improves data
consistency.
The database design process can be divided into six steps. The ER
model(Entity Relationship model) is most relevant to the first three steps.

1. Requirement analysis
2. Conceptual database design
3. Logical database design
4. Schema refinement
5. Physical database design
6. Application and security design

1. Requirement analysis
  It is necessary to understand what data need to be stored in the
database, what applications must be built, what are all those
operations that are frequently used by the system.
 The requirement analysis is an informal process and it requires
proper communication with user groups.
 There are several methods for organizing and presenting
information gathered in this step. Some automated tools can also
be used for this purpose.

2. Conceptual database design

 The information gathered, is used to develop a high-level
description of the data to be stored in the database
 This is a steps in which E-R Model i.e. Entity Relationship model
is built.
 The goal of this design is to create a simple description of data
that matches with the requirements of users. This facilitates
discussion among all the people involved in the design process,
even those who have no technical background.

3. Logical database design

 This is a step in which ER model in converted to relational
database schema, sometimes called as the logical schema in the
relational data model.

4. Schema refinement
 In this step, relational database schema is analyzed to identify
the potential problems and to refine it.
 The schema refinement can be done with the help of normalizing
and restructuring the relations.

5. Physical database design

 The design of database is refined further.
 This step may simply involve building indexes on tables and
clustering tables, redesign of parts of the database schema
obtained from the earlier design steps.
6. Application and security design
 Using design methodologies like UML(Unified Modeling
Language) try to address the complete software design of the
database can be accomplished.
 The role of each entity in every process must be reflected in the
application task.
 For each role, there must be the provision for accessing and
prohibiting some part of database.
 Thus some access rules must be enforced on the application
(which is) to protect accessing the database the security
features.

ER Diagrams in DBMS

ER model in DBMS is the high-level data model. It stands for the Entity-
relationship model and is used to represent a logical view of the system
from a data perspective. In simple words, the entity relationship diagram
is a blueprint that can used to create a database. E-R diagrams are used
to model real-world objects like a person, a car, a company and the
relation between these real-world objects.

Features of ER model

 E-R diagrams are used to represent E-R model in a database,

which makes them easy to be converted into relations (tables).
 E-R diagrams provide the purpose of real-world modeling of
objects which makes them intently useful.
 E-R diagrams require no technical knowledge and no hardware
support.
 These diagrams are very easy to understand and easy to create
even by a naive user.
 It gives a standard solution of visualizing the data logically.

ER diagram basically having three components:

1. Entities − It is a real-world thing which can be a person, place, or

even a concept. For Example: Department, Admin, Courses,
 Teachers, Students, Building, etc are some of the entities of a
School Management System.
2. Attributes − An entity which contains a real-world property
called an attribute. For Example: The entity employee has the
property like employee id, salary, age, etc.
3. Relationship − Relationship tells how two attributes are related.
For Example: Employee works for a department.

Component Symbol

Entity

Weak Entity

Attribute
Component Symbol

Key Attribute

Composite Attribute

Multivalued Attribute

Derived Attribute

Relationship
 Component Symbol

Weak Relationship

Participation Constraints

Entity in DBMS
Entity: An entity is anything in the real world, such as an object, class,
person, or place. Objects that physically exist and are logically constructed in
the real world are called entities. An entity is distinguishable from other
entity.
Entity type: The entity type is a collection of the entity having similar
attributes.
Entity set: is a group of entities of similar kinds. It can contain entities with
attributes that share similar values. It's collectively a group of entities of a
similar type. The entity set need not be disjoint.

Entities are of two types:

Strong Entity – A strong entity is an entity type that has a key attribute. It
doesn't depend on other entities in the schema. A strong entity always has a
primary key, and it is represented by a single rectangle in the ER diagram.
Weak Entity – Weak entity type doesn’t have a key attribute and so we
cannot uniquely identify them by their attributes alone. Therefore, a foreign
key must be used in combination with its attributes to create a primary key.
They are called Weak entity types because they can’t be identified on their
own. It relies on another powerful entity for its unique identity. A weak entity
is represented by a double-outlined rectangle in ER diagrams.

Strong Entity v/s Weak Entity

Strong Entity Weak Entity

Strong entity always has a primary key. While a weak entity has a partial discriminator key.

Strong entity is not dependent on any Weak entity depends on strong entity.
other entity.

Strong entity is represented by a single Weak entity is represented by a double rectangle.

rectangle.

Two strong entity’s relationship is While the relation between one strong and one weak entity
represented by a single diamond. is represented by a double diamond.

Strong entities have either total While weak entity always has total participation.
participation or not.
 Relationships in DBMS

A relationship is defined as an association among several entities

Relationship Set
A set of relationships of similar type is called a relationship set. Like entities,
a relationship too can have attributes. These attributes are called descriptive
attributes.

Mapping Cardinalities:
express the number of entities to which another entity can be associated via
a relationship. For binary relationship sets between entity sets A and B, the
mapping cardinality must be one of:
One-to-one: An entity in A is associated with at most one entity in B, and
an entity in B is associated with at most one entity in A.

One-to-many: An entity in A is associated with any number in B. An entity

in B is associated with at most one entity in A.

Many-to-one: An entity in A is associated with at most one entity in B. An

entity in B is associated with any number in A.

Many-to-many: Entities in A and B are associated with any number from

each other.
The appropriate mapping cardinality for a particular relationship set depends
on the real world being modeled.

Degree of a Relationship Set

The number of entity sets that participate in a relationship set is termed as
the degree of that relationship set. Thus,
Degree

Degree of a relationship set = Number of entity sets participating in a

relationship set

Types of Relationship Sets

On the basis of degree of a relationship set, a relationship set can be
classified into the following types-

 Unary relationship set

 Binary relationship set
 Ternary relationship set

Unary Relationship Set

Unary relationship set is a relationship set where only one entity set
participates in a relationship set.

Binary Relationship Set

Binary relationship set is a relationship set where two entity sets participate
in a relationship set.
Ternary Relationship Set
Ternary relationship set is a relationship set where three entity sets
participate in a relationship set.

Participation Constraints

Total Participation of an Entity set

Total participation of an entity set represents that each entity in entity set
must have at least one relationship in a relationship set. It is also called
mandatory participation. Total participation is represented using a double line
between the entity set and relationship set.

Partial participation of an Entity Set

Partial participation of an entity set represents that each entity in the entity
set may or may not participate in the relationship instance in that
relationship set. It is also called as optional participation. Partial participation
is represented using a single line between the entity set and relationship set.

Additional features of ER Model

As the complexity of data increased, it became more and more difficult to

use the traditional ER Model for database modelling. Hence some Additional
Features were made to the existing ER Model to make it able to handle the
complex applications better.
Hence, Three new concepts were added to the existing ER Model, they were:

 Generalization
 Specialization
 Aggregration
Some entities have relationships that form hierarchies. For instance,
Employee can be an hourly employee or contracted employee.
In this relationship hierarchies, some entities can act as superclass and some
other entities can act as subclass.
Superclass: An entity type that represents a general concept at a high level,
is called superclass.
Subclass: An entity type that represents a specific concept at lower levels,
is called subclass.
The subclass is said to inherit from superclass. When a subclass inherits from
one or more super classes, it inherits all their attributes. In addition to the
inherited attributes, a subclass can also define its own specific attributes.
The symbol used for specialization/ Generalization is

Generalization
Generalization is a process of extracting common properties from a set of
entities and creating a generalized entity from it. It is a bottom-up approach,
and it helps to reduce the size and complexity of the schema.
Example: Let us take two low-level entities as Car and Bus, and these two
will have many common attributes and some specific attributes. And we will
generalize and link the common attributes to the newly formed high-level
entity named Vehicle.

Specialization
Specialization is opposite to Generalization. In this, entity is divided into sub
entities bases on their characteristics (distinguishing features). It breaks an
entity into multiple entities from higher level to lower level. It is a top down
approach.
Aggregration
Aggregation refers to the process by which entities are combined to form a
single meaningful entity. The specific entities are combined because they do
not make sense on their own. To establish a single entity, aggregation
creates a relationship that combines these entities. The resulting entity
makes sense because it enables the system to function well.
UNIT 2
RELATIONAL MODEL
SQL Commands

o SQL commands are instructions. It is used to communicate with the database. It is

also used to perform specific tasks, functions, and queries of data.
o SQL can perform various tasks like create a table, add data to tables, drop the table,
modify the table, set permission for users.

Types of SQL Commands

There are five types of SQL commands: DDL, DML, DCL, TCL, and DQL.
1. Data Definition Language (DDL)
o DDL changes the structure of the table like creating a table, deleting a table, altering a
table, etc.
o All the command of DDL are auto-committed that means it permanently save all the
changes in the database.

Here are some commands that come under DDL:

o CREATE
o ALTER
o DROP
o TRUNCATE

a. CREATE It is used to create a new table in the database.

Syntax:
CREATE TABLE table_name (column1 datatype, column2 datatype,column3 datatype,....);

The column parameters specify the names of the columns of the table.
The datatype parameter specifies the type of data the column can hold (e.g. varchar, integer,
date, etc.).

The following example creates a table called "Persons" that contains five columns: PersonID,
LastName, FirstName, Address, and City:

CREATE TABLE Persons (PersonID int, LastName varchar(255), FirstName varchar(255),

Address varchar(255), City varchar(255));

DROP: It is used to delete both the structure and record stored in the table.

Syntax

DROP TABLE table_name;

ALTER: It is used to alter the structure of the database. This change could be either to
modify the characteristics of an existing attribute or probably to add a new attribute.

Syntax:

To add a new column in the table

ALTER TABLE table_name ADD column_name COLUMN-definition;

To modify existing column in the table:

ALTER TABLE table_name MODIFY(column_definitions....);

TRUNCATE: It is used to delete all the rows from the table and free the space containing
the table.

Syntax:

TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;

2. Data Manipulation Language

o DML commands are used to modify the database. It is responsible for all form of
changes in the database.
o The command of DML is not auto-committed that means it can't permanently save all
the changes in the database. They can be rollback.

Here are some commands that come under DML:

o INSERT
o UPDATE
o DELETE
a. INSERT: The INSERT statement is a SQL query. It is used to insert data into the row of a
table.

Syntax:

INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME (col1, col2, col3,.... col N) VALUES (value1, value2, value
3, .... valueN);

UPDATE: This command is used to update or modify the value of a column in the table.

Syntax:

UPDATE table_name SET [column_name1= value1,...column_nameN = valueN] [WHERE

CONDITION]

DELETE: It is used to remove one or more row from a table.

Syntax: DELETE FROM table_name [WHERE condition];

3. Data Control Language

DCL commands are used to grant and take back authority from any database user.

Here are some commands that come under DCL:

o Grant
o Revoke

a. Grant: It is used to give user access privileges to a database.

Example:
GRANT SELECT, UPDATE ON MY_TABLE TO SOME_USER, ANOTHER_USER;

b. Revoke: It is used to take back permissions from the user.

Example: REVOKE SELECT, UPDATE ON MY_TABLE FROM USER1, USER2;

4. Transaction Control Language

TCL commands can only use with DML commands like INSERT, DELETE and UPDATE
only.

These operations are automatically committed in the database that's why they cannot be used
while creating tables or dropping them.

Here are some commands that come under TCL:

o COMMIT
 o ROLLBACK
o SAVEPOINT

a. Commit: Commit command is used to save all the transactions to the database.

Syntax:

COMMIT;

Example: DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS WHERE AGE = 25;

COMMIT;

Rollback: Rollback command is used to undo transactions that have not already been saved
to the database.

Syntax: ROLLBACK;

Example: DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS WHERE AGE = 25;

ROLLBACK;

SAVEPOINT: It is used to roll the transaction back to a certain point without rolling back
the entire transaction.

Syntax:

SAVEPOINT SAVEPOINT_NAME;
5. Data Query Language

DQL is used to fetch the data from the database.

It uses only one command:

o SELECT

a. SELECT: This is the same as the projection operation of relational algebra. It is used to
select the attribute based on the condition described by WHERE clause.

Syntax: SELECT expressions FROM TABLES WHERE conditions;

For example: SELECT emp_name FROM employee WHERE age > 20;