BIOLOGICAL AND CULTURAL EVOLUTION

Darwins Theory - Biological evolution is based on the theory of evolution that was introduced
by the Famous English naturalist and geologist Charles Darwin ( 1809-1882).
Natural Selection- is the outcome of processes that affect the frequencies of traits in a
particular environment.
Biological Evolution - It refers to the changes, modifications, and variations in the genetics and
inherited traits of biological population from one generation to another.
Cultural Evolution - Sociocultural evolution refers to the changes or development in culture
from simple form to a more complex of human culture. It happens as a result of human
adaptation to different factors like climatic changes and population increase.
On The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection
“ Species are not immutable but those belonging to what are called the same genera are lineal
descendants of some other and generally extinct speies, in the same manner as the
acknpwledge varietis of any species” ( Ember, Ember Peregrine 2002 p.33).
Natural Selection has three important principles:
Heritability, variation and differential reproductive success
Darwins Natural Selection hypothesized that:
Every species is made up of variety of individuals wherein some are better adapted to their
environments compared to others.
2. Organisms produce progeny with different sets of traits that can be inherited.
3. Oranisms tha have traits most suitable to their environment will survive and transfer these
variations to their offspring in subsequent generations.
HUMAN EVOLUTION
Sahelanthropus Ardipithecus
Australopithecus –prehuman stage of evolution
- Both apelike and human like characteristics.

Homo – part of the human stage of evolution

-biological and cultural characteristics of human.
Hominid- The general term used by scientist to categorize the group of early humans and
other humanlike creatures that can walk erect during the prehistoric times.
Fossils of the Sahelanthropus,Australopithecus and Ardipithecus were all excavated in the
African continent.
Sahelanthropus tchadensis species (6-7 million years ago).
Characteristics:
● a skull similar to the Australopithecus
● height almost similar to the chimpanzee brain size of about 320-380 cubic
● small teeth similar to other hominids
● had the ability to walk upright

Orrorin TUGENENSIS ( 5.7 MILLION YEARS AGO) AND THE ARDIPHITECUS FAMILY
Ardiphitecus kadabba ( 5.6 million years ago)
Ardiphitecus Ramidus (4.4 million years ago)
ARDIPHITECUS means “ape on the ground”
RAMIDUS means “root”
CHARACTERISTICS:
Height of about 4 feet
Weight of about 120 pound
Skull size similar to an ape
Small brain
‘Biped ( walk on two legs or feet)
Lived in jungles and forest like the chimpanzees

AUSTRALOPITHECUS “SOUTHERN APE”

They lived in African jungle from 5 million to 1 million years ago
CHARACTERISTICS:
1.Brain size of 500 cc or almost 1/3 of the size of the modern
human brain
2.Upright
3.Biped
4.Tool users only and not tool makers
5.Used sticks and stones for digging
6. Lived in small social groups
7.Distance of movement was estimated to be 15 km (9. 3 miles)
or more to search for stones to be used as tools
8. Food scavengers
9.Ate insects, eggs, plants, fruits and sometimes meat

At present, there are six species of the Australophitecus and there are divided into two major
categories: the gracile and the robust.
Gracile Australophitecus has small teeth and jaw include in this group are the Australophitecus
Anamensis, Australophitecus Afarensis, and the Australophitecus Africanus.

AUSTRALOPHITECUS AFRICANUS considered

as the common ancestor of the Australophitecus
Species namely the Australophitheucs Africanus,
Australophitecus Robustus, Australophitecus
Boisei.
The 3. 2 million years old Australophitecus
Afarensis fossil named “LUCY” was considered
As one of modern human’s earliest ancestors
and remains as the most famous hominid fossil
discovered. Lucy was discovered in Hadar,
Ethiopia November 1974 by Paleonthropologist
led by Donald Johanson.
HOMO HABILIS (HANDY MAN) 2.31-1.65 mya
Direct ancestor of the modern human because of its
abilpty to Produce tools.
CHARACTERISTICS:
Height of about 3 to 4 feet
Brain size half of the size of modern human
(700 cc)
3.Made tools coalled Oldowan ( name came from
the place where they were found – Olduval George,
Tanzania) which were used as cutting tools and
made from volcanic stones
4.Used tools for hunting and food gathering
HOMO ERECTUS( 1.8 million to 3000 years ago)
The Homo Ergaster ( 1.8 million years
ago)was the next Homo Species to
flourish. It wasfrom this species where
Homo Erectus came from.

CHARACTERISTICS:
1.Brain size of 1000 cc or about 2/3
of the modern human brain size.
2.Height of about five feet
3.Walks upright

Based on archaeological evidences, the first fossil of Homo Erectus in Asia was found in the
Longgupo Cave in China (1.9 mya). Another evidence of Homo erectus was excavated in Trinil
Java, Indonesia by Eugene Dubois (1884-1940) Java Man (1.8 mya).In 1920, another skull was
excavated in a cave in Zhoukudian, China. Peking Man (1.1-1 mya).

Homo Sapiens(Thinking man)

The last genus in the evolution ladder of the Homo Family.Includesd in this species are the
archaic Homo Sapiens of Africa, Homo Heidelbergensis, Homo Neanderthalensis and Homo
Sapiens Sapiens
Traits
● Large brain size ( 1400 cc) that is almost similar to the brain of modern humans
● Lived in shelter
● Food gatherers
● Ate plants and fruits
● Hunted animals
● Learned to gather and cooked shellfish(164,000 years ago)
● Used fire
● Crafted metals
Neanderthalensis and Cro- Magnon
Considered as example of the first group of Homo Sapiens.
In 1997 after conducting DNA analysis of Neanderthal, it was proven
that the Neanderthal is not an ancestor of modern humans.

Cro- Magnon is now the first fossil skeleton to be considered as a

species of Homo Sapiens called as the HOMO SAPIENS SAPIENS.
The name Cro- Magnon was taken from a rock shelter in France
where the fossil was excavated in 1868. The Cro- Magnon ( 4000
Years ago)considered as the oldest population of Homo Sapiens
in Europe.

CHARACTERISTICS:
5 ½ inches in height
Had a strong body
Bain size of about 1400 cc
The National Museum of the Philippines
It serve as an “educational, scientific and cultural institution that acquires, preserves ,Exhibits,
and fosters scholarly study and public appreciation of works of art, specimenAnd cultural and
historical artifacts”of the Filipino people.
THE SOCIAL AS “ DRIVER OF INTERACTION”l
● The process of sociocultural evolution explains why human societies
change through time.
● Societies produce new forms of subsistence, acquire more knowledge, develop different
levels of innovation, and apply new forms of technology as a response to the challenges
posed by the environment.
● Human society undergoes transformation and evolution and in the process develops
technological advancement. (Gerhard Lenski, 1924-2015)
SOCIETIES ARE OF DIFFERENT TYPES AND THEIR TYPES DEPEND ON THEIR LEVEL
OF DEVELOPMENT
● HUNTING
● HORTICULTURAL
● PASTORAL
● AGRICULTURAL
● INDUSTRIAL
● POST-INDUSTRIAL
HUNTING AND GATHERING SOCIETIES
● The oldest and most basic way of economic subsistence is hunting and gathering.
● Hunting and gathering societies produce simple forms of tools used to hunt for animals
and gather plants and vegetation for food
● During the Paleolithic Period (2,500,000-10,000 BCE) these societies lived in small
groups with only 20 to 30 members only.
● Family is the basic unit of hunting and gathering societies.
● They usually have shaman or a priest who acts as a leader of the group.
 HORTICULTURAL AND PASTORAL SOCIETIES
● Developed 10,000 years ago they are described as semisedentary societies because
they do not frequently move as opposed to hunting and gathering societies.
● There is a surplus of food.
● Some of its members engage in other forms of subsistence like making crafts and
trading.
● Pastoral Societies developed around 10,000 years ago.
● The principal means of subsistence of pastoralist is animal domestication.
● Described as having unequal social relations because some members act as the ruling
elite.
AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES AND THE NEOLITHIC REVOLUTION
● Agricultural societies began 5,000 years ado during the Neolithic Period(
8000-4000 BCE).
● During this time, the Neolithic Revolution occurred.
● With this major sociocultural and economic development, agricultural societies
started to cultivate wheat, barley, peas, rice and millet between 8000 and 3500
BCE.
● BY 7000 BCE, Neolithic people produced cultivation tools and developed farming
skills that can support and sustain a town with a population over a thousand
people.
● Agriculture is developed in Western Asia (Middle East) by 3500 BCE and the
abundant supply of resources produced through plant cultivation led to the rise
of early civilizations
INDUSTRIAL SOCIETIES
● Began when the Industrial Revolution swept through Europe during the late eighteenth
century and the first half of nineteenth century from 1780s to 1850s.
● During the Industrial evolution, new sources of energy were harnessed, advanced forms
of technology were applied and machineries were invented.
● These changes led to industrialization or the transformation of an agricultural society
into a production and manufacturing.
● During this time, people left their farmlands and transferred to the urban areas to work
factories.
POST- INDUSTRIAL SOCIETIES
● With the development of information and technology and computers, many societies
transformed into post-industrial societies.
● The United States, like many other developed countries, have reached the
post-industrial era and undergone a post-industrial revolution.
● The Post- Industrial Revolution is an important development from the Industrial
Revolution as economic production focused oon the use and application of new
information technology rather than factories (Macionis 2002, p.46)
● In the post- industrial era, Macionis (2002) writes that production “centers on computers
and other electronic devices that create, process and apply ideas and information.
● Daniel Bell an American sociologist at Harvard University, introduced the rise of
post-industrial society.
 ● According to Bell (1999), post industrial societies are characterized by the following:

1. Transfer of labor workforce from manufacturing to service.

2. A significant increase in the number of professional and technical employment and a
decline in the number of skilled and semiskilled workers.
3. Education as the basis of mobility.
4. Human capital as an essential aspect of understanding the strength of society.
5. Application of ‘intellectual technology” which is based on the application of mathematics
and linguistics and the use of algorithms and software programming models.
6. Focus on communication infrastructure.
7. Knowledge as source of invention and innovation
POLITICAL EVOLUTION AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF EARLY CIVILIZATION
● The development of the early civilization showed the political evolution of society.
● A civilization develops because of a society’s highly advanced level of culture, social
organization, political developments, judicial system, arts, and other forms of culture at
particular time.
● The four major civilizations in the world flourished along the rich river plain or river
valleys.
● Sumerian Civilization ( Tigris and Euphrates River in West Asia).
● Indus Valley Civilization (Indus River Valley in India)
● Shang Civilization (Huang Ho River)
● Egyptian Civilization ( Nile River)
Characteristics:
● Developed and highly advanced cities
● Well-defined city centers
● Complex and systematic institutions
● Organized and centralized system government
● Formalized and complex form of religion
● Job specialization
● Development of social classes
● Implementation of large scale public works and infrastructure like defense walls,
monuments, temples, maosoleums, government edifices, trading centers and markets.
● Sophisticated and detailed forms of arts and architecture.
● Advanced technology
● System of writing and recording
Political system of civilization have a highly centralized and well organized form of government
whose leaders are powerful enough to order the building of massive infrastructure and
implement new ploicies of citizens.
Political leaders of early civilizations were also tasked to do the following:
● Craft laws
● Inplement laws
● Impose justice and punishment
● Collect taxes
● Sometimes act as religious leaders as well