Module 1: Networking Today Intermediary Network Devices

 An intermediary device interconnects end

1.1 Networks Affect Our Lives devices. Examples include switches, wireless
Networking Today access points, routers, and firewalls.
No Boundaries  Management of data as it flows through a
 World without boundaries network is also the role of an intermediary
 Global communities device, including:
 Human network o Regenerate and retransmit data
signals.
1.2 Network Components o Maintain information about what
Host Roles pathways exist in the network.
 Every computer on a network is called a o Notify other devices of errors and
host or end device. communication failures.
 Servers are computers that provide
information to end devices: Network Media
o email servers – runs email server  Communication across a network is carried
software. through a medium which allows a message
o web servers – runs web software to travel from source to destination.
server. Clients use browser software o Metal wires within cables – uses
to access web pages. electrical impulses.
o file server – stores corporate and o Glass or plastic fibers within cables
user files. The client devices access (fiber-optic cable) – uses pulse of
these files. light.
 Clients are computers that send requests to o Wireless transmission – uses
the servers to retrieve information: modulation of specific frequencies
o web page from a web server of electromagnetic waves.
o email from an email server
1.3 Network Representations and Topologies
Peer-to-Peer Network Representations
 It is possible to have a device be a client and  Network diagrams, often called topology
a server in a Peer-to-Peer Network. This diagrams, use symbols to represent devices
type of network design is only within the network.
recommended for very small networks.  Important terms to know include:
o Network Interface Card (NIC)
o Physical Port
o Interface
Note: Often, the terms port and interface
are used interchangeably

Topology Diagrams
End Devices  Physical topology diagrams illustrate the
 An end device is where a message physical location of intermediary devices
originates from or where it is received. Data and cable installation.
originates with an end device, flows
through the network, and arrives at an end
device.

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 Two most common types of networks:
 Local Area Network (LAN)
 Wide Area Network (WAN).

LANs
 A LAN is a network infrastructure that spans
a small geographical area.
 Interconnect end devices in a limited area
 Administered by a single organization or
individual.
 Provide high-speed bandwidth to internal
 Logical topology diagrams illustrate devices, devices.
ports, and the addressing scheme of the
network.
WANs
 A WAN is a network infrastructure that
spans a wide geographical area.
 Interconnected LANs over wide
geographical areas.
 Typically administered by one or more
service providers.
 Typically provide slower speed links
between LANs.

The Internet
The internet is a worldwide collection of
interconnected LANs and WANs.
1.4 Common Types of Networks
 LANs are connected to each other using
Networks of Many Sizes
WANs.
 Small Home Networks – connect a few
 WANs may use copper wires, fiber optic
computers to each other and the Internet.
cables, and wireless transmissions.
 Small Office/Home Office – enables
The internet is not owned by any individual or
computers within a home or remote office
group. The following groups were developed to
to connect to a corporate network.
help maintain structure on the internet:
 Medium to Large Networks – many
 IETF
locations with hundreds or thousands of
 ICANN
interconnected computers
 IAB
 World Wide Networks – connects hundreds
of millions of computers world-wide – such
Intranets and Extranets
as the internet.
 An intranet is a private collection of LANs
and WANs internal to an organization that is
LANs and WANs
meant to be accessible only to the
Network infrastructures vary greatly in terms of:
organizations members or others with
 Size of the area covered
authorization.
 Number of users connected
 An organization might use an extranet to
 Number and types of services available
provide secure access to their network for
 Area of responsibility
individuals who work for a different

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 organization that need access to their data
on their network. The Converging Network
 Before converged networks, an organization
1.5 Internet Connections would have been separately cabled for
Internet Access Technologies telephone, video, and data. Each of these
There are many ways to connect users and networks would use different technologies
organizations to the internet: to carry the signal.
 Popular services for home users and small  Each of these technologies would use a
offices include broadband cable, broadband different set of rules and standards.
digital subscriber line (DSL), wireless WANs,  Converged data networks carry multiple
and mobile services. services on one link including:
 Organizations need faster connections to o data
support IP phones, video conferencing and o voice
data center storage. o video
 Business-class interconnections are usually  Converged networks can deliver data, voice,
provided by service providers (SP) and may and video over the same network
include: business DSL, leased lines, and infrastructure. The network infrastructure
Metro Ethernet. uses the same set of rules and standards.

Home and Small Office Internet Connections Packet Tracer – Network Representation
 Cable – high bandwidth, always on, internet  In this Packet tracer you will do the
offered by cable television service providers. following:
 DSL – high bandwidth, always on, internet o The network model in this activity
connection that runs over a telephone line. incorporates many of the
 Cellular – uses a cell phone network to technologies that you will master in
connect to the internet. your CCNA studies.
 Satellite – major benefit to rural areas
without Internet Service Providers. Note: It is not important that you understand
 Dial-up telephone – an inexpensive, low everything you see and do in this activity.
bandwidth option using a modem.
1.6 Reliable Networks
Businesses Internet Connections Network Architecture
Corporate business connections may require:  Network Architecture refers to the
 higher bandwidth technologies that support the infrastructure
 dedicated connections that moves data across the network.
 managed services  There are four basic characteristics that the
underlying architectures need to address to
 Dedicated Leased Line – These are reserved meet user expectations:
circuits within the service provider’s o Fault Tolerance
network that connect distant offices with o Scalability
private voice and/or data networking. o Quality of Service (QoS)
 Ethernet WAN – This extends LAN access o Security
technology into the WAN.
 DSL – Business DSL is available in various Fault Tolerance
formats including Symmetric Digital  A fault tolerant network limits the impact of
Subscriber Lines (SDSL). a failure by limiting the number of affected
 Satellite – This can provide a connection devices. Multiple paths are required for
when a wired solution is not available. fault tolerance.

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  Reliable networks provide redundancy by  Three goals of network security:
implementing a packet switched network: o Confidentiality – only intended
o Packet switching splits traffic into recipients can read the data.
packets that are routed over a o Integrity – assurance that the data
network. has not be altered with during
o Each packet could theoretically take transmission.
a different path to the destination. o Availability – assurance of timely
 This is not possible with circuit-switched and reliable access to data for
networks which establish dedicated circuits. authorized users

Scalability 1.7 Network Trends

Recent Trends
 A scalable network can expand quickly and  The role of the network must adjust and
easily to support new users and applications continually transform in order to be able to
without impacting the performance of keep up with new technologies and end
services to existing users. user devices as they constantly come to the
 Network designers follow accepted market.
standards and protocols in order to make  Several new networking trends that effect
the networks scalable. organizations and consumers:
o Bring Your Own Device (BYOD)
Quality of Service o Online collaboration
 Voice and live video transmissions require o Video communications
higher expectations for those services being o Cloud computing
delivered.
 Have you ever watched a live video with Bring Your Own Device
constant breaks and pauses? This is caused  Bring Your Own Device (BYOD) allows users
when there is a higher demand for to use their own devices giving them more
bandwidth than available – and QoS isn’t opportunities and greater flexibility.
configured.  BYOD allows end users to have the freedom
o Quality of Service (QoS) is the to use personal tools to access information
primary mechanism used to ensure and communicate using their:
reliable delivery of content for all o Laptops
users. o Netbooks
o With a QoS policy in place, the o Tablets
router can more easily manage the o Smartphones
flow of data and voice traffic. o E-readers
 BYOD means any device, with any
ownership, used anywhere.
Network Security Online Collaboration
 There are two main types of network  Collaborate and work with others over the
security that must be addressed: network on joint projects.
o Network infrastructure security  Collaboration tools including Cisco WebEx
o Physical security of network devices (shown in the figure) gives users a way to
o Preventing unauthorized access to instantly connect and interact.
the devices.  Collaboration is a very high priority for
o Information Security businesses and in education.
o Protection of the information or  Cisco Webex Teams is a multifunctional
data transmitted over the network. collaboration tool.

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 o send instant messages  Custom Clouds
o post images o Built to meet the needs of a specific
o post videos and links industry, such as healthcare or
media.
Video Communication o Can be private or public.
 Video calls are made to anyone, regardless
of where they are located. Technology Trends in the Home
 Video conferencing is a powerful tool for  Smart home technology is a growing trend
communicating with others. that allows technology to be integrated into
 Video is becoming a critical requirement for every-day appliances which allows them to
effective collaboration. interconnect with other devices.
 Cisco TelePresence powers is one way of  Ovens might know what time to cook a
working where everyone, everywhere. meal for you by communicating with your
calendar on what time you are scheduled to
Cloud Computing be home.
 Cloud computing allows us to store personal  Smart home technology is currently being
files or backup our data on servers over the developed for all rooms within a house.
internet.
o Applications can also be accessed Powerline Networking
using the Cloud.  Powerline networking can allow devices to
o Allows businesses to deliver to any connect to a LAN where data network
device anywhere in the world. cables or wireless communications are not a
viable option.
 Cloud computing is made possible by data  Using a standard powerline adapter, devices
centers. can connect to the LAN wherever there is
o Smaller companies that can’t afford an electrical outlet by sending data on
their own data centers, lease server certain frequencies.
and storage services from larger  Powerline networking is especially useful
data center organizations in the when wireless access points cannot reach
Cloud. all the devices in the home.

Four types of Clouds: Wireless Broadband

 Public Clouds  In addition to DSL and cable, wireless is
o Available to the general public another option used to connect homes and
through a pay-per-use model or for small businesses to the internet.
free. o More commonly found in rural
environments, a Wireless Internet
Service Provider (WISP) is an ISP that
 Private Clouds connects subscribers to designated
o Intended for a specific organization access points or hotspots.
or entity such as the government. o Wireless broadband is another
 Hybrid Clouds solution for the home and small
o Made up of two or more Cloud types businesses.
– for example, part custom and part o Uses the same cellular technology
public. used by a smart phone.
o Each part remains a distinctive o An antenna is installed outside the
object but both are connected using house providing wireless or wired
the same architecture. connectivity for devices in the home.

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  The study of network security starts with a
1.8 Network Security clear understanding of the underlying
Security Threats switching and routing infrastructure.
 Network security is an integral part of
networking regardless of the size of the 1.9 The IT Professional
network. CCNA
 The network security that is implemented  The Cisco Certified Network Associate
must take into account the environment (CCNA) certification:
while securing the data, but still allowing for o demonstrates that you have a
quality of service that is expected of the knowledge of foundational
network. technologies
 Securing a network involves many o ensures you stay relevant with skills
protocols, technologies, devices, tools, and needed for the adoption of next-
techniques in order to secure data and generation technologies.
mitigate threats.  The new CCNA focus:
 Threat vectors might be external or o IP foundation and security topics
internal. o Wireless, virtualization, automation,
 External Threats: and network programmability.
o Viruses, worms, and Trojan horses  New DevNet certifications at the associate,
o Spyware and adware specialist and professional levels, to validate
o Zero-day attacks your software development skills.
o Threat Actor attacks  Specialist certification validate your skills in
o Denial of service attacks line with your job role and interests.
o Data interception and theft
o Identity theft Networking Jobs
 Internal Threats:  At www.netacad.com you can click the
o lost or stolen devices Careers menu and then select Employment
o accidental misuse by employees opportunities.
o malicious employees o Find employment opportunities by
using the Talent Bridge Matching
Security Solutions Engine.
 Security must be implemented in multiple o Search for jobs with Cisco, Cisco
layers using more than one security partners and distributors seeking
solution. Cisco Networking Academy students
 Network security components for home or and alumni.
small office network:
o Antivirus and antispyware software
should be installed on end devices.
o Firewall filtering used to block
unauthorized access to the network.

 Larger networks have additional security

requirements:
o Dedicated firewall system
o Access control lists (ACL)
o Intrusion prevention systems (IPS) Module 2: Basic Switch and End Device
o Virtual private networks (VPN) Configuration

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2.1 Cisco IOS Access  Console – A physical management port
Operating Systems used to access a device in order to provide
 Shell - The user interface that allows users maintenance, such as performing the initial
to request specific tasks from the computer. configurations.
These requests can be made either through  Secure Shell (SSH) – Establishes a secure
the CLI or GUI interfaces. remote CLI connection to a device, through
 Kernel - Communicates between the a virtual interface, over a network. (Note:
hardware and software of a computer and This is the recommended method for
manages how hardware resources are used remotely connecting to a device.)
to meet software requirements.  Telnet – Establishes an insecure remote CLI
 Hardware - The physical part of a computer connection to a device over the network.
including underlying electronics. (Note: User authentication, passwords and
commands are sent over the network in
GUI plaintext.)
 A GUI allows the user to interact with the
system using an environment of graphical Terminal Emulation Programs
icons, menus, and windows.  Terminal emulation programs are used to
 A GUI is more user-friendly and requires less connect to a network device by either a
knowledge of the underlying command console port or by an SSH/Telnet
structure that controls the system. connection.
 Examples of these are: Windows, macOS,  There are several terminal emulation
Linux KDE, Apple iOS and Android. programs to chose from such as PuTTY, Tera
 GUIs can fail, crash, or simply not operate as Term and SecureCRT.
specified. For these reasons, network
devices are typically accessed through a CLI. 2.2 IOS Navigation
Primary Command Modes
Purpose of an OS User EXEC Mode:
 PC operating system enables a user to do  Allows access to only a limited number of
the following: basic monitoring commands
o Use a mouse to make selections and  Identified by the CLI prompt that ends with
run programs the > symbol
o Enter text and text-based Privileged EXEC Mode:
commands  Allows access to all commands and features
o View output on a monitor  Identified by the CLI prompt that ends with
 CLI-based network operating system the # symbol
enables a network technician to do the
following: Configuration Mode and Subconfiguration Modes
o Use a keyboard to run CLI-based  Global Configuration Mode:
o Used to access configuration options
network programs
on the device
o Use a keyboard to enter text and
text-based commands
 Line Configuration Mode:
o View output on a monitor o Used to configure console, SSH,
Telnet or AUX access

Access Methods

 Interface Configuration Mode:

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 o Used to configure a switch port or • Argument - This is not predefined; it is a value
router interface or variable defined by the user (in the
figure, 192.168.10.5).
Navigation Between IOS Modes
 Privileged EXEC Mode: IOS Command Syntax Check
o To move from user EXEC mode to  A command might require one or more
privilege EXEC mode, use the arguments. To determine the keywords and
enabled command. arguments required for a command, refer to
 Global Configuration Mode: the command syntax.
o To move in and out of global o Boldface text indicates commands
configuration mode, use the and keywords that are entered as
configure terminal command. To shown.
return to privilege EXEC mode, use o Italic text indicates an argument for
the exit command. which the user provides the value.
 Line Configuration Mode: o [x] Square brackets indicate an
o To move in and out of line optional element (keyword or
configuration mode, use the line argument).
command followed by the o {x} Braces indicate a required
management line type. To return to element (keyword or argument).
global configuration mode, use the o [x{y | z}] Braces and and vertical
exit command. lines within square brackets indicate
 Subconfiguration Modes: a required choice within an optional
o To move out of any subconfiguration element. Spaces are used to clearly
mode to get back to global delineate parts of the command.
configuration mode, use the exit
command. To return to privilege  The command syntax provides the pattern,
EXEC mode, use the end command or format, that must be used when entering
or key combination Ctrl +Z. a command.
o To move directly from one o The command is ping and the user-
subconfiguration mode to another, defined argument is the ip-
type in the desired subconfiguration address of the destination device.
mode command. In the example, For example, ping 10.10.10.5.
the command prompt changes from o The command is traceroute and the
(config-line)# to (config-if)#. user-defined argument is the ip-
address of the destination device.
For example, traceroute
2.3 The Command Structure 192.168.254.254.
Basic IOS Command Structure o If a command is complex with
multiple arguments, you may see it
represented like this:

IOS Help Features

• Keyword – This is a specific parameter The IOS has two forms of help available: context-
defined in the operating system (in the sensitive help and command syntax check.
figure, ip protocols).

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  Context-sensitive help enables you to More--” prompt. The table below describes
quickly find answers to these questions: the keystrokes that can be used when this
o Which commands are available in prompt is displayed.
each command mode?
o Which commands start with specific
characters or group of characters?
o Which arguments and keywords are
available to particular commands?

 Command syntax check verifies that a valid

command was entered by the user.  The table below lists commands that can be
o If the interpreter cannot understand the used to exit out of an operation.
command being entered, it will provide
feedback describing what is wrong with
the command.

Hot Keys and Shortcuts

 The IOS CLI provides hot keys and shortcuts
that make configuring, monitoring, and 2.4 Basic Device Configuration
troubleshooting easier. Device Names
 Commands and keywords can be shortened  The first configuration command on any
to the minimum number of characters that device should be to give it a unique
identify a unique selection. For example, hostname.
the configure command can be shortened  By default, all devices are assigned a factory
to conf because configure is the only default name. For example, a Cisco IOS
command that begins with conf. switch is "Switch.”
 Guideline for naming devices:
o Start with a letter
o Contain no spaces
o End with a letter or digit
o Use only letters, digits, and dashes
The table below is a brief list of keystrokes to o Be less than 64 characters in length
enhance command line editing.
Note: To return the switch to the default prompt,
use the no hostname global config command.

Password Guidelines
 The use of weak or easily guessed
passwords are a security concern.
 All networking devices should limit
 When a command output produces more administrative access by securing privileged
text than can be displayed in a terminal EXEC, user EXEC, and remote Telnet access
window, the IOS will display a “-- with passwords. In addition, all passwords

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 should be encrypted and legal notifications Note: VTY lines enable remote access using Telnet
provided. or SSH to the device. Many Cisco switches support
 Password Guidelines: up to 16 VTY lines that are numbered 0 to 15.
o Use passwords that are more than
eight characters in length. Encrypt Passwords
o Use a combination of upper and  The startup-config and running-config files
lowercase letters, numbers, special display most passwords in plaintext.
 To encrypt all plaintext passwords, use
characters, and/or numeric
the service password-encryption global
sequences.
config command.
o Avoid using the same password for
 Use the show running-config command to
all devices. verify that the passwords on the device are
o Do not use common words because now encrypted.
they are easily guessed.
Banner Messages
Note: Most of the labs in this course use simple
 A banner message is important to warn
passwords such as cisco or class. These passwords
unauthorized personnel from attempting to
are considered weak and easily guessable and access the device.
should be avoided in production environments.  To create a banner message of the day on a
network device, use the banner motd # the
Configure Passwords message of the day # global config
 Securing user EXEC mode access: command.
o First enter line console configuration
mode using the line console 0 Note: The “#” in the command syntax is called the
command in global configuration delimiting character. It is entered before and after
mode. the message.
o Next, specify the user EXEC mode
2.5 Save Configurations
password using
Configuration Files
the password password command.
There are two system files that store the device
o Finally, enable user EXEC access
configuration:
using the login command.
 startup-config - This is the saved
 Securing privileged EXEC mode access:
configuration file that is stored in NVRAM. It
o First enter global configuration
contains all the commands that will be used
mode.
by the device upon startup or reboot. Flash
o Next, use the enable
does not lose its contents when the device
secret password command.
is powered off.
 running-config - This is stored in Random
Securing VTY line access:
Access Memory (RAM). It reflects the
 First enter line VTY configuration mode
current configuration. Modifying a running
using the line vty 0 15 command in global
configuration affects the operation of a
configuration mode.
Cisco device immediately. RAM is volatile
 Next, specify the VTY password using
memory. It loses all of its content when the
the password password command.
device is powered off or restarted.
 Finally, enable VTY access using
 To save changes made to the running
the login command.
configuration to the startup configuration
file, use the copy running-config startup-
config privileged EXEC mode command.

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Alter the Running Configurations another and establish end-to-end
If changes made to the running config do not have communication on the internet.
the desired effect and the running-config has not  The structure of an IPv4 address is called
yet been saved, you can restore the device to its dotted decimal notation and is represented
previous configuration. To do this you can: by four decimal numbers between 0 and
 Remove the changed commands individually. 255.
 Reload the device using the reload command  An IPv4 subnet mask is a 32-bit value that
in privilege EXEC mode. Note: This will cause differentiates the network portion of the
the device to briefly go offline, leading to address from the host portion. Coupled
network downtime. with the IPv4 address, the subnet mask
If the undesired changes were saved to the startup- determines to which subnet the device is a
config, it may be necessary to clear all the member.
configurations using the erase startup-config  The default gateway address is the IP
command in privilege EXEC mode. address of the router that the host will use
 After erasing the startup-config, reload the to access remote networks, including the
device to clear the running-config file from internet.
RAM.  IPv6 addresses are 128 bits in length and
written as a string of hexadecimal values.
Capture Configuration to a Text File Every four bits is represented by a single
Configuration files can also be saved and archived hexadecimal digit; for a total of 32
to a text document. hexadecimal values. Groups of four
 Step 1. Open terminal emulation software, hexadecimal digits are separated by a colon
such as PuTTY or Tera Term, that is already “:”.
connected to a switch.  IPv6 addresses are not case-sensitive and
 Step 2. Enable logging in to the terminal can be written in either lowercase or
software and assign a name and file location uppercase.
to save the log file. The figure displays that All
session output will be captured to the file Note: IP in this course refers to both the IPv4 and
specified (i.e., MySwitchLogs). IPv6 protocols. IPv6 is the most recent version of IP
 Step 3. Execute the show running- and is replacing the more common IPv4.
config or show startup-config command at
the privileged EXEC prompt. Text displayed in Interfaces and Ports
the terminal window will be placed into the  Network communications depend on end
chosen file. user device interfaces, networking device
 Step 4. Disable logging in the terminal interfaces, and the cables that connect
software. The figure shows how to disable them.
logging by choosing the None session logging  Types of network media include twisted-pair
option copper cables, fiber-optic cables, coaxial
cables, or wireless.
Note: The text file created can be used as a record  Different types of network media have
of how the device is currently implemented. The different features and benefits. Some of the
file could require editing before being used to differences between various types of media
restore a saved configuration to a device. include:
o Distance the media can successfully
2.6 Ports and Addresses carry a signal
IP Addresses o Environment in which the media is to
 The use of IP addresses is the primary be installed
means of enabling devices to locate one

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 o Amount of data and the speed at which automatically and Obtain DNS
it must be transmitted server address automatically.
o Cost of the media and installation
Switch Virtual Interface Configuration
 To access the switch remotely, an IP address
2.7 Configure IP Addressing and a subnet mask must be configured on
Manual IP Address Configuration for End Devices the SVI.
 End devices on the network need an IP  To configure an SVI on a switch:
address in order to communicate with other o Enter the interface vlan 1 command
devices on the network. in global configuration mode.
 IPv4 address information can be entered o Next assign an IPv4 address using
into end devices manually, or automatically the ip address ip-address subnet-
using Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol mask command.
(DHCP). o Finally, enable the virtual interface
o To manually configure an IPv4 using the no shutdown command.
address on a Windows PC, open
the Control Panel > Network
Sharing Center > Change adapter
settings and choose the adapter.
Next right-click and
select Properties to display the Local
Area Connection Properties.
o Next, click Properties to open
the Internet Protocol Version 4
(TCP/IPv4) Properties window. Then
configure the IPv4 address and
subnet mask information, and
default gateway.

Automatic IP Address Configuration for End Devices

 DHCP enables automatic IPv4 address
configuration for every end device that is
DHCP-enabled.
 End devices are typically by default using
DHCP for automatic IPv4 address
configuration.
o To configure DHCP on a Windows
PC, open the Control Panel >
Network Sharing Center > Change
adapter settings and choose the
adapter. Next right-click and
select Properties to display the Local
Area Connection Properties.
o Next, click Properties to open
the Internet Protocol Version 4 Module 3: Protocols and Models
(TCP/IPv4) Properties window, then
select Obtain an IP address 3.1 The Rules
Communications Fundamentals

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  Networks can vary in size and complexity. It  Decoding reverses this process to interpret
is not enough to have a connection, devices the information.
must agree on “how” to communicate.
 There are three elements to any Message Formatting and Encapsulation
communication:  When a message is sent, it must use a
o There will be a source (sender). specific format or structure.
o There will be a destination  Message formats depend on the type of
(receiver). message and the channel that is used to
o There will be a channel (media) that deliver the message.
provides for the path of
communications to occur. Message Size
 Encoding between hosts must be in an
Communications Protocols appropriate format for the medium.
 All communications are governed by o Messages sent across the network
protocols. are converted to bits
 Protocols are the rules that communications o The bits are encoded into a pattern
will follow. of light, sound, or electrical
 These rules will vary depending on the impulses.
protocol. o The destination host must decode
the signals to interpret the message.
Rule Establishment
 Individuals must use established rules or Message Timing
agreements to govern the conversation. Message timing includes the following:
 The first message is difficult to read because  Flow Control – Manages the rate of data
it is not formatted properly. The second transmission and defines how much
shows the message properly formatted information can be sent and the speed at
 Protocols must account for the following which it can be delivered.
requirements:  Response Timeout – Manages how long a
o An identified sender and receiver device waits when it does not hear a reply
o Common language and grammar from the destination.
o Speed and timing of delivery  Access method - Determines when
o Confirmation or acknowledgment someone can send a message.
requirements o There may be various rules
governing issues like “collisions”.
Network Protocol Requirements This is when more than one device
 Common computer protocols must be in sends traffic at the same time and
agreement and include the following the messages become corrupt.
requirements: o Some protocols are proactive and
o Message encoding attempt to prevent collisions; other
o Message formatting and protocols are reactive and establish
encapsulation a recovery method after the collision
o Message size occurs.
o Message timing
o Message delivery options
Message Encoding Message Delivery Options
 Encoding is the process of converting Message delivery may one of the following
information into another acceptable form methods:
for transmission.  Unicast – one to one communication

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  Multicast – one to many, typically not all o Sequencing – uniquely labels each
 Broadcast – one to all transmitted segment of data.
o Error Detection – determines if data
Note: Broadcasts are used in IPv4 networks, but are became corrupted during
not an option for IPv6. Later we will also see transmission.
“Anycast” as an additional delivery option for IPv6. o Application Interface – process-to-
process communications between
A Note About the Node Icon network applications.
 Documents may use the node icon ,
typically a circle, to represent all devices. Protocol Interaction
 The figure illustrates the use of the node  Networks require the use of several
icon for delivery options. protocols.
 Each protocol has its own function and
3.2 Protocols format.
Network Protocol Overview o Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
Network protocols define a common set of rules.  Governs the way a web
 Can be implemented on devices in: server and a web client
o Software interact
o Hardware  Defines content and format
o Both o Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
 Protocols have their own:  Manages the individual
o Function conversations
o Format  Provides guaranteed delivery
o Rules  Manages flow control
o Internet Protocol (IP)
 Delivers messages globally
from the sender to the
receiver.
o Ethernet
 Delivers messages from one
NIC to another NIC on the
same Ethernet Local Area
Network (LAN)

Network Protocol Functions 3.3 Protocol Suites

 Devices use agreed-upon protocols to Network Protocol Suites
communicate.  Protocols must be able to work with other
 Protocols may have may have one or protocols.
functions.  Protocol suite:
o Addressing – identifies sender and o A group of inter-related protocols
receiver. necessary to perform a
o Reliability – provides guaranteed communication function
delivery. o Sets of rules that work together to
o Flow Control – ensures data flows at help solve a problem
an efficient rate.
 The protocols are viewed in terms of layers:

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 o Higher Layers
o Lower Layers- concerned with
moving data and provide services to
upper layers

Evolution of Protocol Suites

There are several protocol suites.
 Internet Protocol Suite or TCP/IP- The most
common protocol suite and maintained by
the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)
 Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)  A client de-encapsulating the web page for
protocols- Developed by the International
the web browser
Organization for Standardization (ISO) and
the International Telecommunications
Union (ITU)
 AppleTalk- Proprietary suite release by
Apple Inc.
 Novell NetWare- Proprietary suite
developed by Novell Inc.

TCP/IP Protocol Example

 TCP/IP protocols operate at the application,
transport, and internet layers.
 The most common network access layer
LAN protocols are Ethernet and WLAN 3.4 Standards Organizations
(wireless LAN). Open Standards
Open standards encourage:
TCP/IP Protocol Suite  interoperability
 TCP/IP is the protocol suite used by the  competition
internet and includes many protocols.  innovation
 TCP/IP is: Standards organizations are:
o An open standard protocol suite  vendor-neutral
that is freely available to the public  non-profit organizations
and can be used by any vendor  established to develop and promote the
o A standards-based protocol suite concept of open standards.
that is endorsed by the networking
industry and approved by a Internet Standards
standards organization to ensure  Internet Society (ISOC) - Promotes the open
interoperability development and evolution of internet
 Internet Architecture Board (IAB) -
TCP/IP Communication Process Responsible for management and
 A web server encapsulating and sending a development of internet standards
web page to a client.  Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) -
Develops, updates, and maintains internet
and TCP/IP technologies

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  Internet Research Task Force (IRTF) - o TCP/IP Reference Model
Focused on long-term research related to
internet and TCP/IP protocols

Standards organizations involved with the

development and support of TCP/IP
 Internet Corporation for Assigned Names
and Numbers (ICANN) - Coordinates IP
address allocation, the management of
domain names, and assignment of other
information
 Internet Assigned Numbers Authority
(IANA) - Oversees and manages IP address
allocation, domain name management, and
protocol identifiers for ICANN

Electronic and Communications Standards These are the benefits of using a layered model:
 Institute of Electrical and Electronics  Assist in protocol design because protocols
Engineers (IEEE, pronounced “I-triple-E”) - that operate at a specific layer have defined
dedicated to creating standards in power information that they act upon and a
and energy, healthcare, defined interface to the layers above and
telecommunications, and networking below
 Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA) -  Foster competition because products from
develops standards relating to electrical different vendors can work together
wiring, connectors, and the 19-inch racks  Prevent technology or capability changes in
used to mount networking equipment one layer from affecting other layers above
 Telecommunications Industry Association and below
(TIA) - develops communication standards  Provide a common language to describe
in radio equipment, cellular towers, Voice networking functions and capabilities
over IP (VoIP) devices, satellite
communications, and more The OSI Reference Model
 International Telecommunications Union-  7 – Application – Contains protocols used
Telecommunication Standardization Sector for process-to-process communications.
(ITU-T) - defines standards for video  6 – Presentation – Provides for common
compression, Internet Protocol Television representation of the data transferred
(IPTV), and broadband communications, between application layer services.
such as a digital subscriber line (DSL)  5 – Session – Provides services to the
presentation layer and to manage data
3.5 Reference Models exchange.
The Benefits of Using a Layered Model  4 – Transport – Defines services to segment,
 Complex concepts such as how a network transfer, and reassemble the data for
operates can be difficult to explain and individual communications.
understand. For this reason, a layered  3 – Network – Provides services to exchange
model is used. the individual pieces of data over the
 Two layered models describe network network.
operations:  2 – Data Link – Describes methods for
o Open System Interconnection (OSI) exchanging data frames over a common media.
Reference Model

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  1 – Physical – Describes the means to  There is no universal naming convention for
activate, maintain, and de-activate physical PDUs, in this course, the PDUs are named
connections according to the protocols of the TCP/IP
suite.
The TCP/IP Reference Model  PDUs passing down the stack are as follows:
 Application – Represents data to the user, 1. Data (Data Stream)
plus encoding and dialog control. 2. Segment
 Transport – Supports communication 3. Packet
between various devices across diverse 4. Frame
networks. 5. Bits (Bit Stream)
 Internet – Determines the best path
through the network. Encapsulation Example
 Network Access – Controls the hardware  Encapsulation is a top down process.
devices and media that make up the  The level above does its process and then
network. passes it down to the next level of the
model. This process is repeated by each
3.6 Data Encapsulation layer until it is sent out as a bit stream.
Segmenting Messages
 Segmenting is the process of breaking up
messages into smaller units. Multiplexing is
the processes of taking multiple streams of
segmented data and interleaving them
together.
 Segmenting messages has two primary
benefits:
o Increases speed - Large amounts of
data can be sent over the network
without tying up a communications De-encapsulation Example
link.  Data is de-encapsulated as it moves up the
o Increases efficiency - Only segments stack.
which fail to reach the destination  When a layer completes its process, that
need to be retransmitted, not the layer strips off its header and passes it up to
entire data stream. the next level to be processed. This is
repeated at each layer until it is a data
Sequencing stream that the application can process.
 Sequencing messages is the process of 1. Received as Bits (Bit Stream)
numbering the segments so that the 2. Frame
message may be reassembled at the 3. Packet
destination. 4. Segment
 TCP is responsible for sequencing the 5. Data (Data Stream)
individual segments.

Protocol Data Units

Encapsulation is the process where protocols add
their information to the data.
 At each stage of the process, a PDU has a
different name to reflect its new functions.

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3.7 Data Access Role of the Data Link Layer Addresses: Same IP
Addresses Network
Both the data link and network layers use  When devices are on the same Ethernet
addressing to deliver data from source to network the data link frame will use the
destination. actual MAC address of the destination NIC.
 Network layer source and destination  MAC addresses are physically embedded
addresses - Responsible for delivering the IP into the Ethernet NIC and are local
packet from original source to the final addressing.
destination. o The Source MAC address will be that
 Data link layer source and destination of the originator on the link.
addresses – Responsible for delivering the o The Destination MAC address will
data link frame from one network interface always be on the same link as the
card (NIC) to another NIC on the same source, even if the ultimate
network. destination is remote.

Layer 3 Logical Address Devices on a Remote Network

 The IP packet contains two IP addresses: • What happens when the actual (ultimate)
o Source IP address - The IP address destination is not on the same LAN and is
of the sending device, original remote?
source of the packet. • What happens when PC1 tries to reach the
o Destination IP address - The IP Web Server?
address of the receiving device, final • Does this impact the network and data link
destination of the packet. layers?
o These addresses may be on the
same link or remote. Role of the Network Layer Addresses
 An IP address contains two parts:  When the source and destination have a
 Network portion (IPv4) or Prefix (IPv6) different network portion, this means they
o The left-most part of the address are on different networks.
indicates the network group which o PC1 – 192.168.1
the IP address is a member. o Web Server – 172.16.1
o Each LAN or WAN will have the
same network portion. Role of the Data Link Layer Addresses: Different IP
 Host portion (IPv4) or Interface ID (IPv6) Networks
o The remaining part of the address  When the final destination is remote, Layer
identifies a specific device within the 3 will provide Layer 2 with the local default
group. gateway IP address, also known as the
o This portion is unique for each router address.
device on the network.  The default gateway (DGW) is the router
interface IP address that is part of this LAN
Devices on the Same Network and will be the “door” or “gateway” to all
 When devices are on the same network the other remote locations.
source and destination will have the same  All devices on the LAN must be told about
number in network portion of the address. this address or their traffic will be confined
o PC1 – 192.168.1.110 to the LAN only.
o FTP Server – 192.168.1.9  Once Layer 2 on PC1 forwards to the default
gateway (Router), the router then can start
the routing process of getting the
information to actual destination.

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  The data link addressing is local addressing  Protocols must have a sender and a receiver.
so it will have a source and destination for  Common computer protocols include these
each link. requirements: message encoding, formatting
 The MAC addressing for the first segment and encapsulation, size, timing, and delivery
is : options.
o Source – AA-AA-AA-AA-AA-AA (PC1) Protocols
Sends the frame.  To send a message across the network
o Destination – 11-11-11-11-11-11 requires the use of several protocols.
(R1- Default Gateway MAC) Receives  Each network protocol has its own function,
the frame. format, and rules for communications.
Protocol Suites
Note: While the L2 local addressing will change  A protocol suite is a group of inter-related
from link to link or hop to hop, the L3 addressing protocols.
remains the same.  TCP/IP protocol suite are the protocols used
today.
Data Link Addresses Standards Organizations
 Since data link addressing is local  Open standards encourage interoperability,
addressing, it will have a source and competition, and innovation.
destination for each segment or hop of the Reference Models
journey to the destination.  The two models used in networking are the
 The MAC addressing for the first segment is: TCP/IP and the OSI model.
o Source – (PC1 NIC) sends frame  The TCP/IP model has 4 layers and the OSI
o Destination – (First Router- DGW model has 7 layers.
interface) receives frame Data Encapsulation
 The MAC addressing for the second hop is:  The form that a piece of data takes at any
o Source – (First Router- exit layer is called a protocol data unit (PDU).
interface) sends frame  There are five different PDUs used in the data
o Destination – (Second Router) encapsulation process: data, segment,
receives frame packet, frame, and bits
Data Access
 The MAC addressing for the last segment is:
 The Network and Data Link layers are going
o Source – (Second Router- exit
to provide addressing to move data through
interface) sends frame
the network.
o Destination – (Web Server NIC)
 Layer 3 will provide IP addressing and layer 2
receives frame
will provide MAC addressing.
 Notice that the packet is not modified, but
 The way these layers handle addressing will
the frame is changed, therefore the L3 IP
depend on whether the source and the
addressing does not change from segment
destination are on the same network or if the
to segment like the L2 MAC addressing.
destination is on a different network from the
 The L3 addressing remains the same since it
source.
is global and the ultimate destination is still
the Web Server.

Module 4: Physical Layer

3.8 Module Practice and Quiz
The Rules

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4.1 Purpose of the Physical Layer  Physical Layer Standards address three
The Physical Connection functional areas:
 Before any network communications can o Physical Components
occur, a physical connection to a local o Encoding
network must be established. o Signaling
 This connection could be wired or wireless,  The Physical Components are the hardware
depending on the setup of the network. devices, media, and other connectors that
 This generally applies whether you are transmit the signals that represent the bits.
considering a corporate office or a home. o Hardware components like NICs,
 A Network Interface Card (NIC) connects a interfaces and connectors, cable
device to the network. materials, and cable designs are all
 Some devices may have just one NIC, while specified in standards associated
others may have multiple NICs (Wired with the physical layer.
and/or Wireless, for example).
 Not all physical connections offer the same Encoding
level of performance.  Encoding converts the stream of bits into a
format recognizable by the next device in
The Physical Layer the network path.
 Transports bits across the network media  This ‘coding’ provides predictable patterns
 Accepts a complete frame from the Data that can be recognized by the next device.
Link Layer and encodes it as a series of  Examples of encoding methods include
signals that are transmitted to the local Manchester (shown in the figure), 4B/5B,
media and 8B/10B.
 This is the last step in the encapsulation
process. Signaling
 The next device in the path to the  The signaling method is how the bit values,
destination receives the bits and re- “1” and “0” are represented on the physical
encapsulates the frame, then decides what medium.
to do with it.  The method of signaling will vary based on
the type of medium being used.
4.2 Physical Layer Characteristics
Physical Layer Standards Bandwidth
 Bandwidth is the capacity at which a
medium can carry data.
 Digital bandwidth measures the amount of
data that can flow from one place to
another in a given amount of time; how
many bits can be transmitted in a second.
 Physical media properties, current
technologies, and the laws of physics play a
role in determining available bandwidth.

Physical Components
Bandwidth Terminology

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Latency 1. The outer jacket protects the
- Amount of time, including delays, for data copper wires from physical
to travel from one given point to another damage.
Throughput 2. Twisted pairs protect the signal
- The measure of the transfer of bits across from interference.
the media over a given period of time 3. Color-coded plastic insulation
Goodput electrically isolates the wires from
- The measure of usable data transferred each other and identifies each pair.
over a given period of time
- Goodput = Throughput - traffic overhead

4.3 Copper Cabling

Characteristics of Copper Cabling
 Copper cabling is the most common type of
cabling used in networks today. It is
 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
inexpensive, easy to install, and has low
o Better noise protection than UTP
resistance to electrical current flow.
o More expensive than UTP
 Limitations:
o Attenuation – the longer the o Harder to install than UTP
electrical signals have to travel, the o Terminated with RJ-45 connectors
weaker they get. o Interconnects hosts with intermediary
o The electrical signal is susceptible to network devices
interference from two sources, o Key Characteristics of STP
which can distort and corrupt the 1. The outer jacket protects the
data signals (Electromagnetic copper wires from physical damage
Interference (EMI) and Radio 2. Braided or foil shield provides
Frequency Interference (RFI) and EMI/RFI protection
Crosstalk).
3. Foil shield for each pair of wires
 Mitigation:
provides EMI/RFI protection
o Strict adherence to cable length
4. Color-coded plastic insulation
limits will mitigate attenuation.
o Some kinds of copper cable mitigate electrically isolates the wires from
EMI and RFI by using metallic each other and identifies each pair
shielding and grounding.
o Some kinds of copper cable mitigate
crosstalk by twisting opposing circuit
pair wires together.

Types of Copper Cabling

 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
o UTP is the most common networking
media.
o Terminated with RJ-45 connectors  Coaxial Cable
o Interconnects hosts with intermediary o Consists of the following:
network devices.
o Key Characteristics of UTP

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 1. Outer cable jacket to prevent minor o Variation in twists per foot in each
physical damage wire - Each wire is twisted a
2. A woven copper braid, or metallic different amount, which helps
foil, acts as the second wire in the prevent crosstalk amongst the wires
circuit and as a shield for the inner in the cable.
conductor.
UTP Cabling Standards and Connectors
3. A layer of flexible plastic insulation
 Standards for UTP are established by the
4. A copper conductor is used to
TIA/EIA. TIA/EIA-568 standardizes elements
transmit the electronic signals.
like:
o There are different types of connectors o Cable Types
used with coax cable. o Cable Lengths
o Commonly used in the following o Connectors
situations: o Cable Termination
 Wireless installations - attach o Testing Methods
antennas to wireless devices
 Cable internet installations  Electrical standards for copper cabling are
- customer premises wiring established by the IEEE, which rates cable
according to its performance. Examples
include:
o Category 3
o Category 5 and 5e
o Category 6

4.4 UTP Cabling

Properties of UTP Cabling
 UTP has four pairs of color-coded copper
wires twisted together and encased in a
flexible plastic sheath. No shielding is used.
UTP relies on the following properties to
limit crosstalk:
o Cancellation - Each wire in a pair of
wires uses opposite polarity. One
wire is negative, the other wire is
positive. They are twisted together
and the magnetic fields effectively
cancel each other and outside
EMI/RFI.

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  Uses a laser or LED to encode bits as pulses
of light
 The fiber-optic cable acts as a wave guide to
transmit light between the two ends with
minimal signal loss

Types of Fiber Media

Straight-through and Crossover UTP Cables

4.5 Fiber-Optic Cabling

Properties of Fiber-Optic Cabling
 Not as common as UTP because of the
expense involved
Dispersion refers to the spreading out of a light
 Ideal for some networking scenarios
pulse over time. Increased dispersion means
 Transmits data over longer distances at
increased loss of signal strength. MMF has greater
higher bandwidth than any other
dispersion than SMF, with a the maximum cable
networking media
distance for MMF is 550 meters.
 Less susceptible to attenuation, and
completely immune to EMI/RFI
 Made of flexible, extremely thin strands of
very pure glass

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Fiber-Optic Cabling Usage
Fiber-optic cabling is now being used in four types
of industry:
 Enterprise Networks - Used for backbone
cabling applications and interconnecting
infrastructure devices
 Fiber-to-the-Home (FTTH) - Used to provide
always-on broadband services to homes
and small businesses 4.6 Wireless Media
 Long-Haul Networks - Used by service Properties of Wireless Media
providers to connect countries and cities - It carries electromagnetic signals
 Submarine Cable Networks - Used to representing binary digits using radio or
provide reliable high-speed, high-capacity microwave frequencies. This provides the
solutions capable of surviving in harsh greatest mobility option. Wireless
undersea environments at up to connection numbers continue to increase.
transoceanic distances.
Our focus in this course is the use of fiber within Some of the limitations of wireless:
the enterprise. • Coverage area - Effective coverage can be
significantly impacted by the physical
Fiber-Optic Connectors characteristics of the deployment location.
• Interference - Wireless is susceptible to
interference and can be disrupted by many
common devices.
• Security - Wireless communication coverage
requires no access to a physical strand of
media, so anyone can gain access to the
transmission.
• Shared medium - WLANs operate in half-
duplex, which means only one device can
Fiber Patch Cords send or receive at a time. Many users
accessing the WLAN simultaneously results in
reduced bandwidth for each user.

Types of Wireless Media

The IEEE and telecommunications industry
standards for wireless data communications
cover both the data link and physical layers. In each
of these standards, physical layer
specifications dictate:
 Data to radio signal encoding methods
Fiber versus Copper  Frequency and power of transmission
 Optical fiber is primarily used as backbone  Signal reception and decoding requirements
cabling for high-traffic, point-to-point
 Antenna design and construction
connections between data distribution
facilities and for the interconnection of
buildings in multi-building campuses.

Wireless Standards:

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• Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11) - Wireless LAN (WLAN) are defined by the Institute of Electrical and
technology Electronics Engineers (IEEE).
• Bluetooth (IEEE 802.15) - Wireless Personal  The main cable types that are obtained by
Area network (WPAN) standard using specific wiring conventions are
• WiMAX (IEEE 802.16) - Uses a point-to- Ethernet Straight-through and Ethernet
multipoint topology to provide broadband Crossover.
wireless access  Module Practice and Quiz
• Zigbee (IEEE 802.15.4) - Low data-rate, low What did I learn in this module (Cont.)?
power-consumption communications,  Optical fiber cable transmits data over
primarily for Internet of Things (IoT) longer distances and at higher bandwidths
applications than any other networking media.
 There are four types of fiber-optic
Wireless LAN connectors: ST, SC, LC, and duplex
In general, a Wireless LAN (WLAN) requires the multimode LC.
following devices:  Fiber-optic patch cords include SC-SC
 Wireless Access Point (AP) - Concentrate multimode, LC-LC single-mode, ST-LC
wireless signals from users and connect to multimode, and SC-ST single-mode.
the existing copper-based network  Wireless media carry electromagnetic
infrastructure signals that represent the binary digits of
 Wireless NIC Adapters - Provide wireless data communications using radio or
communications capability to network microwave frequencies. Wireless does have
hosts. some limitations, including coverage area,
interference, security, and the problems
 There are a number of WLAN standards. that occur with any shared medium.
When purchasing WLAN equipment, ensure  Wireless standards include the following:
compatibility, and interoperability. Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11), Bluetooth (IEEE 802.15),
 Network Administrators must develop and WiMAX (IEEE 802.16), and Zigbee (IEEE
apply stringent security policies and 802.15.4).
processes to protect WLANs from  Wireless LAN (WLAN) requires a wireless AP
unauthorized access and damage. and wireless NIC adapters.

4.7 Module Practice and Quiz

What did I learn in this module?
 Before any network communications can
occur, a physical connection to a local
network, either wired or wireless, must be
established.
 The physical layer consists of electronic
circuitry, media, and connectors developed
by engineers.
 The physical layer standards address three
functional areas: physical components,
encoding, and signaling.
 Three types of copper cabling are: UTP, STP,
and coaxial cable (coax).
 UTP cabling conforms to the standards Module 5: Number Systems
established jointly by the TIA/EIA. The
electrical characteristics of copper cabling 5.1 Binary Number System

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Binary and IPv4 Addresses
 Binary numbering system consists of 1s and
0s, called bits
 Decimal numbering system consists of digits
0 through 9
 Hosts, servers, and network equipment
using binary addressing to identify each
other.
 Each address is made up of a string of 32 Decimal to Binary Conversion
bits, divided into four sections called octets. The binary positional value table is useful in
 Each octet contains 8 bits (or 1 byte) converting a dotted decimal IPv4 address to binary.
separated by a dot.  Start in the 128 position (the most
 For ease of use by people, this dotted significant bit). Is the decimal number of the
notation is converted to dotted decimal. octet (n) equal to or greater than 128?
 If no, record a binary 0 in the 128 positional
Video – Convert Between Binary and Decimal value and move to the 64 positional value.
Numbering Systems  If yes, record a binary 1 in the 128 positional
This video will cover the following: value, subtract 128 from the decimal
 Positional notation review number, and move to the 64 positional
 Powers of 10 review value.
 Decimal – base 10 numbering review  Repeat these steps through the 1 positional
 Binary – base 2 numbering review value.
 Convert an P address in binary to decimal
numbering. Decimal to Binary Conversion Example

Binary Positional Notation

 Positional notation means that a digit
represents different values depending on
the “position” the digit occupies in the
sequence of numbers.
 The decimal positional notation system
operates as shown in the tables below.
 The binary positional notation system
operates as shown in the tables below.
IPv4 Addresses
 Routers and computers only understand
binary, while humans work in decimal. It is
important for you to gain a thorough
understanding of these two numbering
systems and how they are used in
networking.

Convert Binary to Decimal

5.2 Hexadecimal Number System

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Hexadecimal and IPv6 Addresses  For example, D2 converted into decimal using
 To understand IPv6 addresses, you must be the three-step process:
able to convert hexadecimal to decimal and o D2 in 4-bit binary strings is 1101 and 0010.
vice versa. o 1101 and 0010 is 11010010 in an 8-bit
 Hexadecimal is a base sixteen numbering grouping.
system, using the digits 0 through 9 and o 11010010 in binary is equivalent to 210 in
letters A to F. decimal, so D2 is 210 is decimal
 It is easier to express a value as a single
hexadecimal digit than as four binary bit. 5.3 Module Practice and Quiz
 Hexadecimal is used to represent IPv6 What did I learn in this module?
addresses and MAC addresses.  Binary is a base two numbering system that
 IPv6 addresses are 128 bits in length. Every 4 consists of the numbers 0 and 1, called bits.
bits is represented by a single hexadecimal  Decimal is a base ten numbering system that
digit. That makes the IPv6 address a total of consists of the numbers 0 through 9.
32 hexadecimal values.  Binary is what hosts, servers, and networking
 The figure shows the preferred method of equipment uses to identify each other.
writing out an IPv6 address, with each X  Hexadecimal is a base sixteen numbering
representing four hexadecimal values. system that consists of the numbers 0 through
 Each four hexadecimal character group is 9 and the letters A to F.
referred to as a hextet.  Hexadecimal is used to represent IPv6
addresses and MAC addresses.
Decimal to Hexadecimal Conversions  IPv6 addresses are 128 bits long, and every 4
 Follow the steps listed to convert decimal bits is represented by a hexadecimal digit for a
numbers to hexadecimal values: total of 32 hexadecimal digits.
o Convert the decimal number to 8-bit  To convert hexadecimal to decimal, you must
binary strings. first convert the hexadecimal to binary, then
o Divide the binary strings in groups of four convert the binary to decimal.
starting from the rightmost position.  To convert decimal to hexadecimal, you must
o Convert each four binary numbers into first convert the decimal to binary and then
their equivalent hexadecimal digit. the binary to hexadecimal.
 For example, 168 converted into hex using the
three-step process.
o 168 in binary is 10101000.
o 10101000 in two groups of four binary
digits is 1010 and 1000.
o 1010 is hex A and 1000 is hex 8, so 168 is
A8 in hexadecimal.

Hexadecimal to Decimal Conversions

 Follow the steps listed to convert hexadecimal
numbers to decimal values:
o Convert the hexadecimal number to 4-bit
binary strings.
o Create 8-bit binary grouping starting from
the rightmost position.
o Convert each 8-bit binary grouping into
their equivalent decimal digit.

LA