MODULE 3: WALL SYSTEMS,

COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION
METHOD, AND CABLE/TENSILE
STRUCTURES
 3.1 PRECAST AND
CAST-IN-PLACE
WALL PANEL
SYSTEM

Precast concrete wall systems offer a wide variety of shapes, colors, textures,
and finishes to the designer. As a result, the assessment of samples is a key
component in the use of precast concrete. The majority of the review and
approval process is conducted at the precast plant prior to precast panel
production. This assessment is in addition to the quality control and field
testing that takes place during the production phase.

Typically, each precast panel is independently supported to the building

structure using an assemblage of metal components and anchors. Joints
around each of the precast panels are usually filled with sealant.
PRECAST PANEL TYPES FOR
BUILDING ENVELOPES
Cladding or curtain walls

Precast cladding or curtain walls are the most common use of precast
concrete for building envelopes. These types of precast concrete panels do
not transfer vertical loads but simply enclose the space. They are only
designed to resist wind, seismic forces generated by their own weight, and
forces required to transfer the weight of the panel to the support.
Common cladding units include wall panels, window wall units, spandrels,
mullions, and column covers. These units can usually be removed
individually if necessary.

Load-bearing wall units

Load-bearing wall units resist and transfer loads from other elements and
cannot be removed without affecting the strength or stability of the
building. Typical load-bearing wall units include solid wall panels, and
window wall and spandrel panels.

Load-bearing walls are responsible for transferring the weight of the slabs
or floors above them to the foundation. These walls are typically
constructed using masonry or block materials and are commonly found in
the outer walls of a building.
PRECAST PANEL TYPES FOR
BUILDING ENVELOPES
Shear walls
Precast concrete shear wall panels are used to provide lateral load
resisting system when combined with diaphragm action of the floor
construction. The effectiveness of precast shear walls is largely dependent
upon the panel-to-panel connections.

A shear wall is a structural support element that resists shear forces, like
heavy winds and seismic activity. In civil engineering, shear force refers to
forces that act in a perpendicular fashion against structural members of a
building (beams, columns, and so on), causing it to twist and bend.

Formwork for cast-in-place concrete

The most common formwork materials for casting concrete in place are
steel, aluminum, and wood. Many wood systems are custom
manufactured and may be used only once or a few times. Steel and
aluminum forming systems, on the other hand, are designed for multiple
reuses, saving on costs.

In some cases, precast panels are used as formwork for cast-in-place

concrete. The precast panels act as a form, providing the visible aesthetics
of the system, while the cast-in-place portion provides the structural
component of the system.
SUPPORT AND ANCHORAGE SYSTEMS JOINTS AND JOINT TREATMENTS

The connections for precast concrete panels are an important component of the The numerous joints in a precast concrete envelope are an important
envelope system. Precast manufacturers utilize numerous different types of aspect of the facade design. The joints between precast units or
anchors but they are often characterized as gravity and lateral types of
between precast and other building components must be maintained
connections.
to prevent leakage through the precast wall system.
The primary purposes of the connection are to transfer load to the supporting
structure and provide stability. The criteria used to design precast connections Joint design should consider the structural, thermal, and all other
including but not limited to: factors that affect the performance and movement of a joint. The joint
seal should of course be adequately designed to withstand the
Strength movement of the joint.
Ductility
Volume change accommodations
Durability
Fire resistance
Constructability
 3.1 COMPOSITE
CONSTRUCTION
METHOD
In structural engineering, composite construction exists when two different
materials are bound together so strongly that they act together as a single
unit from a structural point of view. When this occurs, it is called composite
action. One common example involves steel beams supporting concrete
floor slabs.

WHY COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION IS GOOD

The reason why composite construction is often so good can be expressed

in one simple way - concrete is good in compression and steel is good in
tension. By joining the two materials together structurally these strengths
can be exploited to result in a highly efficient and lightweight design.

The reduced self weight of composite elements has a knock-on effect by

reducing the forces in those elements supporting them, including the
foundations. Composite systems also offer benefits in terms of speed of
construction. The floor depth reductions that can be achieved using
composite construction can also provide significant benefits in terms of the
costs of services and the building envelope.
ADVANTAGES OF COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION
The concrete acts together with the steel to create a stiffer,
lighter, less expensive structure.
Speed and simplicity of construction- faster to erect, nearly
25% faster then traditional construction.
Lighter construction than a traditional concrete building.
Less material handling at site.
Has better ductility and hence superior lateral load
behavior; better earthquake resister.
Ability to cover large column free area in buildings and
longer span for bridges/flyovers.

DISADVANTAGES OF COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION

Provide misleading messages about quality if poorly

constructed or misinterpreted.
Lead to simplistic policy conclusions.
Can be misused, if the construction process is not
transparent and lacks sound statistical or conceptual
principles.
Selection of metrics and weights can be challenged by
other stakeholders.
3.2 CABLE STRUCTURE

Cable structure, Form of long-span structure that is subject to

tension and uses suspension cables for support. Highly
efficient, cable structures include the suspension bridge, the
cable-stayed roof, and the bicycle-wheel roof. The graceful curve
of the huge main cables of a suspension bridge is almost a
catenary, the shape assumed by any string or cable suspended
freely between two points. The cable-stayed roof is supported
from above by steel cables radiating downward from masts that
rise above roof level. The bicycle-wheel roof involves two layers
of tension cables radiating from an inner tension ring and an
outer compression ring, which in turn is supported by columns.

Advantages of a Cable-Stayed Bridge

Faster construction time compared to other bridge types.

More rigid than suspension bridges.
Cost-effective.
Flexible design.
TENSILE STRUCTURES

Historically inspired by some of the first man-made shelters

—such as the black tents first developed using camel leather
by the nomads of the Sahara Desert, Saudi Arabia, and Iran,
as well as the structures used by Native American tribes—
tensile structures offer a range of positive benefits compared
to other structural models.

Tensile structure is the term usually used to refer to the

construction of roofs using a membrane held in place on
steel cables. Their main characteristics are the way in which
they work under stress tensile, their ease of pre-fabrication,
their ability to cover large spans, and their malleability. This
structural system calls for a small amount of material thanks
to the use of thin canvases, which when stretched using steel
cables, create surfaces capable of overcoming the forces
imposed upon them.
 ADVANTAGES OF TENSILE
STRUCTURES
Owners and developers across the globe have discovered the advantages Due to the unique flexible characteristics of the fabric membrane, tensioned
of building with tensile fabric building structures as opposed to membrane structures allow architects, designers, and engineers the
traditional building products. Whether you are looking for an opportunity to experiment with form and create visually exciting and iconic
entertainment venue such as an amphitheater, walkway coverage for structures.
When looking to cover large areas of space, the light weight nature of
travelers at transit stations, or a structure to make your athletic fields
membrane is a cost-effective solution for long span applications while
suitable for year-round competition, a tensile fabric building structure
allowing for the possibility of column-free space. As a result, tensile
may be the ideal solution. Some of the advantages of tensile membrane
membrane requires less structural steel supports compared to traditional
structures are given below-
building products, ultimately reducing project costs for building owners.
The weight of the membrane in tensile structures is very less and
With proper construction methodologies in place by design-build consequently, the quantity of structural steel utilized to support the
specialty contractors for tensile architecture, the installation of membrane is also minimal. Thus, the weight, as well as the overall cost of
tension membrane structures is often faster and more cost-effective tensile structures is much less as compared to conventional roofing systems.
in comparison to traditional construction projects. As stainless steel is utilized, more useful space free of columns becomes
Because of the translucency associated with nearly all of the fabric options, available. As the weight of the structure is so little, it will not experience much
tensile fabric building structures provide an abundance of daytime light acceleration forces under seismic action.
underneath, making it an inviting and comfortable space below. The membrane material itself can withstand within the range of -40 o C to
In addition to being more weather-proof and lighter in weight than +70 o C. Companies of warranty for their fabrics and usually the minimum life
span of these structures is about 25 years.
sticks and animal skins, modern fabrics offer advantages such as
The erection of the tensile structures takes less than a week to complete as
protection from ultraviolet (UV) radiation and greater wind resistance.
all the patterning & fabrication works are mostly carried out in warehouses
They are also coated with materials that resist UV degradation. and the structure is erected on site. The construction period is only the time
required for its erection, which can be reduced to a minimum by using
advanced construction equipment and techniques.
WHY USE TENSIONED
MEMBRANE STRUCTURE?

Flexible Design Aesthetics-Tensile fabric structures provide unlimited designs of distinctive

elegant forms that can be realized because of the unique flexible characteristics of membrane.
Outstanding Translucency-In daylight, fabric membrane translucency offers soft diffused,
naturally lit spaces reducing the interior lighting costs while at night, artificial lighting creates an
ambient exterior luminescence.
Excellent Durability-With several different membranes in the market place such as PTFE
fiberglass, ETFE film, PVC and ePTFE, the durability and longevity of tensile membrane structures
have been proven and built in climates ranging from the frigid artic to the scorching desert heat.
Lightweight Nature-The lightweight nature of membrane is a cost effective solution that requires
less structural steel to support the roof compared to conventional building materials, enabling
long spans of column-free space.
Low Maintenance-Tension fabric structures are somewhat unique in that they require minimal
maintenance when compared to an equivalent-sized conventional building.
 3.2.2 SUSPENDED
STRUCTURES

Suspended structures are structures supported by cables from beams

or trusses above a concrete central column or core. This design allows
walls, roofs and cantilevered floors to be fully supported with cables
and central pillars. Another type of suspended structure, the
suspended overhead line, uses concrete pillars on the exterior wall
that are angled off-center, with a cable system between the pillars to
suspend the roof and exterior structure. In this example there are no
supports or visual obstructions in the structure.

A suspended structure is a structure which is supported by cables

coming from beams or trusses which sit atop a concrete center
column or core. The design allows the walls, roof and cantilevered
floors to be supported entirely by cables and a center column.

Another type of suspended structure, suspended catenary, uses outer-

wall concrete columns angled away from the center with a cable
system strung between them suspending a roof and outer wall
structure. In this example there are no supports or visual obstructions
inside the structure.
SUSPENDED STRUCTURES
Suspended Structures are those with horizontal planes i.e. floors are supported by cables (hangers) hung from the parabolic sag of large, high-strength steel cables. The
strength of a suspended structure is derived from the parabolic form of the sagging high strength cable. To make this structure more efficient, the parabolic form is so
designed that its shape closely follows the exact form of the moment diagrams. The sagging cable is more stable under symmetrical loading conditions as the cable may
deform as it attempts to adjust to an eccentric loading. As the cable adjusts to this load its shifts the rest of the structure. This adjustment causes secondary stresses in
the horizontal surface and additional deformation. The parabolic curve of the cable is also designed for various eccentric or lateral loads such as wind, seismic etc. The
large curving cable may consist of many smaller cables which are tightly spun together. As the cables are being spun together, they are also stretched over the span and
attached to the supports. After being assembled, the appropriate curve is created by tensioning the cable. The horizontal surfaces supported by the cable are hung piece
by piece from the saggling cable. Usually, the horizontal surfaces are made of steel because of its lightweightness. Lightweight concrete mixtures are also used. The
towers from where the cables are hung may be of steel, concrete. The cables are made up of steel.
 3.2.3 CABLE
TRUSS
STRUCTURES
Cable framework, A type of tensioned long-span construction that is
supported by suspension cables. The suspension bridge, the cable-
stayed roof, and the bicycle-wheel roof are all highly effective cable
structures. Any string or cable stretched freely between two points
will take the shape of a catenary, as evidenced by the beautiful arc
of the enormous main cables of a suspension bridge.

Steel cables extending downward from masts elevated above the

roof level support the cable-stayed roof from above. The capacity to
carry only axial loads is the defining characteristic of truss and cable
elements.
Advantages of Cable Truss Curtain Wall Systems
The advantages of these systems are to provide the transparency on the
façades and speedy construction process with minimum materials. The
disadvantages are: more expensive than other systems and so many
details for the joints and load distribution calculations.

To provide the transparency and reflection on the façades, light surface,

functional, speedy construction process with minimum materials, distinct
social benefits, flexibility, strong adaptability for displacement of the main
structure, no need to apply sealant on site, no influence of weather
situation, meeting high requirements of environmental protection and
energy saving.

Disadvantages of Cable Truss Curtain Wall Systems

Are more expensive than the other systems and so many details for the
joints, load distribution calculations, safety. This system needs to be
correctly engineered, carefully detailed, accurately fabricated and properly
installed. The system is created minimization of the supporting elements
and maximization of the transparency
 3.2.4 ANTICLASTIC
STRUCTURES

Anticlastic structures are those in which the centres of curvature are

located on opposing sides of the surface. This is commonly-described
as a saddle shape. A hyperbolic paraboloid is an anticlastic surface.
Synclastic structures are those in which the centres or curvature are
on the same side of the surface. This is a dome-shape. This can be
created with an architectural fabric by inflation – that is, air pressure
within the dome maintains the form of the surface when it is
tensioned, rather than the opposition of the curvatures.

Tensile surfaces, that is, surfaces which carry only tension and no
compression or bending, rely on double curvature for their stability.
Stability is provided by the opposition of two curvatures which enable
the surface to be tensioned without losing its form.
Tensioning the surface reduces its elasticity and so its tendency to
deform under load, and the curvature itself means that the surface
will deform less for any given extension.
 ANTICLASTIC (SADDLE-SHAPED) SYNCLASTIC (DOME-SHAPED)

Synclastic surfaces are those in which the centres or curvature are on

the same side of the surface. This is a dome-shape. This can be
created with an architectural fabric by inflation – that is, air pressure
Anticlastic surfaces are those in which the centres of curvature are
within the dome maintains the form of the surface when it is
located on opposing sides of the surface. This is commonly-described
tensioned, rather than the opposition of the curvatures.
as a saddle shape. A hyperbolic paraboloid is an anticlastic surface.

Synclastic surfaces are those in which the centres or curvature are on

Anticlastic surfaces are those in which the centres of curvature are
the same side of the surface. This is a dome-shape. This can be
located on opposing sides of the surface. This is commonly-described
created with an architectural fabric by inflation – that is, air pressure
as a saddle shape. A hyperbolic paraboloid is an anticlastic surface.
within the dome maintains the form of the surface when it is
tensioned, rather than the opposition of the curvatures.
EXAMPLES OF ANTICLASTIC
STRUCTURE
 3.2.5 PNEUMATIC
STRUCTURES
Pneumatic structure, Membrane structure that is stabilized by the
pressure of compressed air. Air-supported structures are supported
by internal air pressure. A network of cables stiffens the fabric, and
the assembly is supported by a rigid ring at the edge. The air
pressure within this bubble is increased slightly above normal
atmospheric pressure and maintained by compressors or fans. Air
locks are required at entrances to prevent loss of internal air
pressure. Air-supported membranes were first devised by Walter
Bird in the late 1940s and were soon put to use as covers for
swimming pools, temporary warehouses, and exhibition buildings.
Air-inflated structures are supported by pressurized air within
inflated building elements that are shaped to carry loads in a
traditional manner. Pneumatic structures are perhaps the most
cost-effective type of building for very long spans.
CLASSIFICATION OF PNEUMATIC
STRUCTURES
Pneumatic structures are membrane structures comprised of the
volume of inflated air. They are extremely lightweight structures. An
existing internal pressure prestresses the enveloping membranes
that are subjected to tension, and counteracts the external loads.
The membranes usually consist of ETFE foils. Fundamentally, we can
distinguish between the air-supported single-layer membrane
structures and the air-inflated multilayer membrane structures.
Since there are other substances that are also used as the
supporting medium in some cases, the terms medium-supported
and medium-filled are also used. In the case of single-layer
membrane structures, often referred to as air halls, the increased
internal pressure (overpressure) in the entire hall interior
counteracts the atmospheric air pressure. In the case of multilayer
membrane structures, often referred to as pneumatic cushions,
there are at least two membrane layers surrounding the enclosed
air volume. The membranes are prestressed and stabilized by the
prevailing positive or negative pressure in the air volume. Such
structural systems are called low-pressure systems because the
required overpressure or underpressure in the enveloped air
volume is rather low with the maximum of about 1,000 Pa. The
counterpart to these are hose structures (high-pressure systems).
Pneumatic structures are lightweight
Pneumatic structures can cover a larger area of span without any Pneumatic structures are less durable and have a short service life.
type of internal support. Pneumatic structures are poor resistance to fire and the acoustic
Pneumatic structures are economical as compared to other insulation.
structures. The enclosed membrane of the Pneumatic structures required
The construction and the assembly of the Pneumatic structures are maintenance of excess pressure.
very fast. There is the need for continuous maintenance of excess pressure in
Pneumatic structures can be used to construct a whole structure as the envelope or enclosed membrane.
an entity. It has a relatively short service life.
Pneumatic structures can be used for both temporary as well as It has poor fire resistance and acoustic insulation.
permanent structures for various purposes.
The initial cost of construction of Pneumatic structures is less as
compared to a conventional building.
The operation cost of periodic structures is also less as compared to
a conventional building.
EXAMPLES OF PNEUMATIC
STRUCTURES
 THANK YOU
R E P R E S E N T E D B Y : C H R I S T I A N R E M O R E R A S