MATH4016 (ALGEBRA) 2023

Chapter3: Solvable and Nilpotent groups

Dr. R. Kwashira

Office: MSB337
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Review
We recall some information on the group of automomorphisms of a group G and the effect of
automorphisms on and its subgroups.

ˆ Let G be group. the group of automorphisms of G is given by

Aut(G) = {ϕ : G −→ G | ϕ isomomorphism} .
Definition 1 (characteristic subgroup ). Let G be a group and let H be a subgroup of G. Then H
is called a characteristic subgroup of G if ϕ(H) = H for all ϕ ∈ Aut(G).

Notation
We shall write H char G.
In general, it is enough to show that ϕ(H) ⊂ H for all ϕ ∈ Aut(G).
Remarks

(1) H char G implies H  G since Inn(G) ⊂ Aut(G).

ˆ Let H be a subgroup of G such that H char G. Then ϕ(H) = H for all ϕ ∈ Aut(G)
implies that, in particular, τg (H) = H ∀g ∈ G ⇒ gHg −1 = H ∀g ∈ G ⇒ H  G.

(2) H  G does not imply that H is a characteristic subgroup of G.

ˆ Let G = V4 = {1, a, b, ab ; a2 = b2 = (ab)2 = 1}. We have ϕ ∈ Aut(G) such that ϕ(⟨a⟩) =

⟨b⟩ =
̸ ⟨a⟩.
But H = ⟨a⟩  G since [G : H] = 2. Thus H  G but H is not a characteristic subgroup
of G.

(3) If H is a finite subgroup of G and H is the unique subgroup of order |H|. Then H char G.

ˆ For any ϕ ∈ Aut(G), we have that ϕ(H) ≤ G and |H| = |ϕ(H)| since ϕ is an automor-
phism of G. Since H is the unique subgroup of G of order |H| then H = ϕ(H) and
H char G.

(4) If G is a cyclic group of finite order then every subgroup is a characteristic subgroup of G.

ˆ For every divisor m of |G| there is a unique subgroup of H of order m. Then apply (3).

(5) If P ∈ Sylp (G) then P  G if and only if P char G.

ˆ All Sylow p-subgroups are conjugate in G. If P  G then P g = P for all g ∈ G and

np = 1.

(6) We have that K  H and H  G does not imply that K  G.

ˆ G = D8 = {1, x, x2 , x3 , y, xy, x2 y, x3 y} with the relations yxy −1 = x−1 , x4 = y 2 = 1 and

let H = {1, x2 , y, x2 y} , (yxy = x−1 ) so (x2 y)2 = 1, and let K = ⟨y⟩.
We have that K  H and H  G but K is not normal in G (y x y = x2 y).
3

(7) (i) K char H and H char G ⇒ K char G.

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ˆ Restrict the automorphism of G to H.

(ii) K char H and H  G ⇒ K  G.
ˆ Consider inner automorphisms of G.
(iii) Let P ∈ Sylp (G). Then P  H and H  G ⇒ P  G.

Definition 2 (Commutators). Let G be an arbitrary group and x and y any two elements of G. The
commutator of x and y denoted by [x, y] is the element xyx−1 y −1 of G (sometimes this is defined
as x−1 y −1 xy which in our definition is simply [x−1 , y −1 ].

Remarks
[x, y] = iG if and only if xy = yx.
A commutator measures ‘by how much’ x and y fail to commute.
This can be observed from the equation [x, y]yx = (xyx−1 y −1 )yx = xy.

We collect some fundamental properties of commutators.

Lemma 3 (Properties of commutators). Let G and H be groups, θ : G −→ H a group homomor-

phism, N a normal subgroup of G and x, y, g ∈ G. Then the following hold:

(a) [x, y]−1 = [y, x];

(b) [xN, yN ] = [x, y]N ;

(c) [x, y] = τx (y)y −1 where τx : G −→ G is the inner automorphism of G corresponding to x;

(d) [x, iG ] = iG for all x ∈ G;

(e) θ[x, y] = [θ(x), θ(y)];

(f ) g[x, y]g −1 = [gxg −1 , gyg −1 ].

Proof

(a) [x, y]−1 = (xyx−1 y −1 )−1 = yxy −1 x−1 = [y, x].

(c) [x, y] = (xyx−1 )y −1 = τx (y)y −1 .

(b) [xN, yN ] = xN yN (xN )−1 (yN )−1 = xN yN x−1 N y −1 N = xyx−1 y −1 N = [x, y]N .

(d) [x, iG ] = xiG x−1 iG = iG .

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(e) θ[x, y] = θ(xyx−1 y −1 ) = θ(x)θ(y)θ(x−1 )θ(y −1 ) = θ(x)θ(y)θ(x)−1 θ(y)−1 = [θ(x), θ(y)].

(f) g[x, y]g −1 = τg [x, y] = [τg (x), τg (y)] = [gxg −1 , gyg −1 ].

Definition 4 (Derived subgroup). Let G be an arbitrary group and H and K any two subgroups of
G. The commutator subgroup generated by H and K is defined as

[H, K] = ⟨[h, k] : h ∈ H; k ∈ K⟩ .

If G = H = K, then [G, G] is called the commutator subgroup or derived subgroup of G and

is denoted by G′ . The inverse of a commutator is also a commutator, then
( )
Y
G′ = ⟨[x, y] : x, y ∈ G⟩ = xi : xi = [ai , bi ] and ai , bi ∈ G .
1≤i≤n

Proposition 5. The derived subgroup G′ is a characteristic subgroup of G.

ˆ Let ϕ ∈ Aut(G) and let xyx−1 y −1 ∈ G′ .

Then ϕ(xyx−1 y −1 ) = ϕ(x)ϕ(y)ϕ(x−1 )ϕ(y −1 ) ∈ G′ .
Hence G′ char G. In particular G′  G.

Definition 6 (Derived series of a group G). The derived series of G is a descending/decreasing

series of subgroups (G(k) : k = 0, 1, 2, . . . . . . .) defined as follows:

G(0) = G; G(1) = G′ ; and inductively G(k) = (G(k−1) )′ the derived subgroup of G(k−1) , for k = 2, 3, · · · .

Note that G(k−1) is a subgroup of G(k) .

ˆ The derived series of any group are characteristic subgroups. In particular they are normal
subgroups since, for any x ∈ G, if we let θ = τx the inner automorphism corresponding to x,
then τx (G(k) ) = G(k) = xG(k) x−1 for all k.

Definition 7 (solvable group). A group G is said to be solvable/soluble if G(n) = {iG }, for some
positive integer n.
The smallest integer r such that G(r−1) ̸= {iG } and G(r) = {iG } is known as the derived length of
G.

Note that if (G(k) )′ = G(k) for some k , then G(k) = G(n) for all n ≥ k.
Once a derived series becomes stationary then it stays constant at the same subgroup from there
on.

Lemma 8. Let G, H and K be arbitrary groups.

(a) If H is a subgroup of G, then H (k) ≤ G(k) for all k;

(b) If θ : G −→ H is an onto group homomorphism, then θ(G(k) ) = H (k) .

Corollary 9. (a) Every subgroup of a solvable group is solvable;

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(b) Every homomorphic image of a solvable group is solvable.

(c) For any group G and any θ ∈ Aut(G), we have θ(G(k) ) = G(k) for all k.

(d) For any group G and N normal in G, then (G/N )(k) = (G(k) N )/N .

(e) Direct product of solvable groups is solvable.

Proof

(a) If H is a subgroup of G and G(n) = {iG } for some integer n, then H (n) ≤ G(n) ⇒ H (n) = {iG }
and H is also solvable.

(b) If θ : G −→ H is an onto group homomorphism and G(n) = {iG } for some integer n, then
H (n) = θ(G(n) ) = θ({iG }) = {iH } and this means that H is also solvable.

(c) This follows immediately when G = H and θ ∈ Aut(G) is an onto group homomorphism.

(d) Suppose N is a normal subgroup of G and let π : G −→G/N be the natural epimorphism given
by the correspondence x 7→ xN . Then (G(k) N )/N = xN : x ∈ G(k) = π(G(k) ) = (G/N )(k) .

(e) If G and H are arbitrary groups and G∗ a subgroup of G and H ∗ a subgroup of H, then it is
fairly routine to show that [G × H, G∗ × H ∗ ] = [G, G∗ ] × [H, H ∗ ].
This means that (G × H)(k) = G(k) × H (k) for every k.
If G(r) = {iG } and H (s) = {iH } for some integers r and s and m = max {r, s}, then G(m) =
{iG } and H (m) = {iH } which implies that (G × H)(m) = G(m) × H (m) = {(iG , iH )} = {iG×H }
and G × H is solvable.

Theorem 10. Let G be a group and let N be a normal subgroup of G. We have the the following:

(a) A group G is abelian if and only if G′ = G(1) = {iG },

(b) For any group G and subgroup N of G, we have that G(1) ≤ N if and only if N is a normal
subgroup of G and G/N is an abelian group.

Proof

(a) G(1) = {iG } if and only if, for all x and y in G, [x, y] = iG = xyx−1 y −1 .
This holds if and only if xy = yx for all x and y in G.
Then G must be an abelian group.
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(b) We first note that for all x and y in G, G(1) = [x, y]G(1) = xG(1) yG(1) x−1 G(1) y −1 G(1) .
This implies that xG(1) yG(1) = (x−1 G(1) y −1 G(1) )−1 = yG(1) xG(1) and we conclude that G/G(1)
is an abelian group.
If G(1)  N , then G(1) is normal in both N and G.
Since G/G(1) is abelian then N/G(1) is a normal subgroup of G/G(1) . By the Correspondence
Theorem, N is a normal subgroup of G.
Finally the correspondence xG(1) −→ xN gives a homomorphism from G/G(1) onto G/N .
Since G/G(1) is an abelian group, then G/N will also be an abelian group.
Conversely, if N  G and G/N is abelian, then ∀x, y ∈ G, [xN, yN ] = [x, y]N is the identity
element of G/N , that is, [xy]N = N ⇔ [x, y] ∈ N ⇔ G(1) ⊆ N .

ˆ Any normal subgroup N of G such that G/N is abelian contains G(1) .

ˆ G(1) is the unique smallest subgroup of G such that G/G(1) is abelian.

ˆ G/G(1) is called the abelianization of G written Gab .

ˆ G is abelian if and only if [x, y] = iG .

ˆ G/N is abelian if and only if [xN, yN ] = iG/N .

Proposition 11. Let G be a group and N a normal subgroup of G. Then G is solvable if and only
if both N and G/N are solvable.

Proof
If G is solvable then every subgroup of G is solvable and every homomorphic image of G is solvable.
Thus, both N ad G/N are solvable.
Conversely, suppose that both N and G/N are solvable. 
Then there exist integers r and s such that N = N (r) = {iG } and (G/N )(s) = (G(s) N )/N = iG/N .
Thus G(s) ≤ N and (G(s) )(k) ≤ N (k) .
In particular (G(s) )(r) = G(r+s) ≤ N (r) = {iG } and therefore G is solvable.

Examples

(1) All abelian groups are solvable since all commutators are trivial.

(2) Every finite p-group is solvable.

ˆ Let p be a prime and let |G| = pn .

For n = 1, 2 we have that G is abelian and hence solvable.
We will proceed by induction to show that G is solvable. Suppose all p-groups of order
pn−1 are solvable.
Choose any subgroup H of G of order pn−1 . Then H  G and is solvable (induction
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hypothesis).
G/H is of order p and is a cyclic abelian group and therefore solvable.
Since both H and G/H are solvable, then G is solvable.

(3) G = D2n , the n-th dihedral group, is solvable.

ˆ G = ⟨a; b : an = b2 = (ab)2 = 1⟩ = {1, a, a2 , . . . ., an−1 , b, ab, a2 b, . . . ., an−1 b}.

The commutators in G are :
(i) [ar , as ] = iG ; [ar , b] = ar ba−r b = ar ar bb = a2r = (a2 )r ;

(ii) [ar , as b] = ar as ba−r ba−s = ar+s bbar−s = a2r = (a2 )r ;

(iii) [b, ar b] = bar bbba−r = a−r bbbba−r = (a2 )−r;

(iv) [ar b, as b] = ar bas bba−r ba−s = ar−s bbbbar−s = (a2 )r−s .

Consequently G(1) = ⟨a2 ⟩ is a cyclic (abelian) group.
Thus G(2) = (G(1) )(1) = {iG }.
Thus D2n is a solvable group and its derived length is 2.

(4) If p and q are distinct primes then all groups of order pq and order p2 q are solvable.

ˆ If |G| = pn q, where p > q and n ≥ 1, then G contains a normal Sylow subgroup P of

order pn (solvable). G/P is of order q and cyclic and solvable.
Then G is also solvable.

ˆ If |G| = p2 q, in view of conclusion above, we may assume that p < q. Then either G
contains a normal Sylow q-subgroup Q of order q and both G/Q and Q will be solvable.
Or G contains p2 Sylow q-subgroups of order q and therefore exactly one Sylow p-
subgroup P which will be normal and both P and G/P are solvable and G will also
be solvable.

(5) If |G| = 2n p, where p = 3 or 5, then G is solvable.

In particular, S4 and A4 are solvable.

(5) BURNSIDE’s pα q β THEOREM:

For any primes p and q, every group of order pα q β is solvable.

(6) Feit-Thompson Odd-Order Theorem: Every finite group of odd order is solvable.

Abelian and Central series

Let G be a group and let Gk : k = 0, 1, 2, · · · be subgroups of G.

Definition 12. A series (Gk : k = 0, 1, 2, · · · ) of subgroups Gk of a fixed group G is called an

ascending normal subnormal series if G0 = {iG } and for every k we have that G  Gk+1 .
The series is a descending series if G0 = G and for every k, Gk+1  Gk
The series (Gk : k = 0, 1, 2, · · · ) is a normal series if Gk  G for all k.
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Definition 13 (Abelian series). An ascending normal series is called an abelian series if Gk+1 /Gk
is an abelian group for all k.
Definition 14 (Central series). An ascending normal series is called a central series if for every
k Gk+1 /Gk ≤ Z(G/Gk ).
Proposition 15. An ascending (sub)normal series

iG = G0 ≤ G1 ≤ · · · ≤ Gk ≤ · · ·
(1)
(a) is an abelian series if and only if Gk+1 ≤ Gk for every k;

(b) is a central series if and only if [G, Gk+1 ] ≤ Gk for every k.

Proof

(a) The series is abelian if and only if, for every k, Gk  Gk+1 and Gk+1 /Gk is an abelian group.
(1)
This holds if and only if Gk+1 ≤ Gk for every k.

(b) The series is central if and only if, for every k, Gk is a normal subgroup of G and Gk+1 /Gk ≤
Z(G/Gk ).
This is valid if and only if, for every g ∈ G and every x ∈ Gk+1 , we have that (gGk )(xGk ) =
(xGk )(gGk ). This is true if and only if
Gk = ((xGk )(gGk ))((gGk )(xGk ))−1 = xgx−1 g −1 Gk .
This holds if and only if, for all for every g ∈ G and every x ∈ Gk+1 .
We have xgx−1 g −1 = [x, g] ∈ Gk and this is true if and only if [G, Gk+1 ] ≤ Gk .
Theorem 16. A group G is solvable if and only if it has an abelian series which terminates at
{eG }.

Proof

ˆ Suppose G is solvable, then the derived series of G is a descending series of G which terminates
at {iG }.

ˆ Conversely, suppose that G = G0 ≥ G1 ≥ · · · Gk ≥ · · · ≥ Gn = {eG } is an abelian series of G.

The we have that G(k) ≤ Gk for all k, and in particular G(n) ≤ Gn = {eG }, and therefore G
is solvable.

For any group G, we define a descending sequence (Γk (G) : k = 0, 1, 2, · · · ) of subgroups of G as

follows:

Γ0 (G) = G; Γ1 (G) = [G, Γ0 (G)] = G(1) ; Γ2 (G) = [G, Γ1 (G)], · · · ; Γk (G) = [G, Γk−1 (G)].

The following lemma provides some of the important properties of this sequence:
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Lemma 17. (a) The subgroup Γk (G) is a characteristic subgroup of G for every k;

(b) For every k, Γk+1 (G) ≤ Γk (G);

(c) For every k, Γk (G)/Γk+1 (G) ≤ Z(G/Γk+1 (G)).

ˆ Γk (G) : k = 0, 1, 2, · · · is a descending normal series known as the lower central series of G.

ˆ upper central series:

Zk (G : k = 0, 1, 2 · · · ) ; Z0 (G) = {iG } , Z1 (G) = Z(G) : Z(G/Zk−1 (G))  G/Zk−1 (G).

ˆ There exist a normal subgroup Zk (G) of G containing Zk−1 (G) such that Zk (G)/Zk−1 (G) =
Z(G/Zk−1 (G)).

Nilpotent groups

Definition 18. A group G is nilpotent if it has an ascending sequence that terminates at G; equiv-
alently if it has a descending central series that terminates at {iG }.

Theorem 19. For any group G, the following conditions are equivalent:

(a) G is nilpotent,

(b) Zn (G) = G for some integer n,

(c) Γn (G) = {eG } for some integer n.

Example

(1) Every finite p-group is nilpotent.

ˆ Suppose |G| = pn , p prime.

We will show by induction on n. We will show that |Zk (G)| ≥ pk .
When n = 1 or 2 is trivial since when |G| = p, p2 then G is abelian and G is of nilpotency
class 1.
Assume that |Zk−1 (G)| ≥ pk−1 . Note that since G/Zk−1 (G) is a p-group, then p ≤
|Z(G/Zk−1 (G))| = |Zk (G)/Zk−1 (G)|. Then |Zk (G)| ≥ p|Zk−1 (G)| ≥ p · pk−1 = pk .
In particular pn = |G| ≥ |Zn (G)| ≥ pn which means that |G| = |Zn (G)|.
Therefore G = Zn (G) and the nilpotency is at most n.

Proposition 20. (a) Every subgroup of a nilpotent group is nilpotent;

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(b) Every homomorphic image of a nilpotent group is nilpotent;

(c) The direct product of nilpotent groups is nilpotent.

Corollary 21. A finite group G that has exactly one Sylow p-subgroup for every prime p dividing
|G|, is nilpotent.

Proof
If G has exactly one Sylow p-group for every prime p dividing order of G then G is a direct product
of its Sylow p-subgroups.
Since every p-group is nilpotent and a direct product of nilpotent groups is nilpotent, then G is also
nilpotent.
Any group that is a direct product of p-groups is nilpotent. The converse is is true. A finite
nilpotent group is a direct product of p-groups.
Definition 22 (Maximal subgroup). A proper subgroup M of a group G is a maximal subgroup if,
for any subgroup N of G satisfying M ≤ N ≤ G, either N = M or N = G
Definition 23 (Frattini subgroup). The Frattini subgroup of G is the intersection of all maximal
subgroups of a finite group G denoted by Φ(G).

Note

(a) If M is a maximal subgroup of a group G and θ ∈ Aut(G) then θ(M ) is also a maximal
subgroup of G. Otherwise if θ(M ) < N < G then M < θ−1 (N ) < G. Which is a contradiction
since M is maximal.

ˆ Ω = {M : M maximal in G} = {θ(M ) : M maximal in G}.

ˆ The Frattini subgroup Φ(G) is a characteristic

T subgroup of G.
T θ ∈ Aut(G). We have Φ(G) = Mi ; Mi maximal subgroup of G and θ(Φ(G)) =
Let
θ(Mi ) ; Mi maximal
T in G.
Thus θ(Φ(G)) = Ni ; Ni maximal in G where Ni = θ(Mi ). Thus θ(Φ(G)) = Φ(G) and
Φ(G) char G. Consequently Φ(G)  G.

(b) if N is any subgroup of G such that G = N Φ(G), then N = G.

Proof
If N ̸= G then N < G and N is not maximal in G, otherwise Φ(G) ≤ N and N = G which is a
contradiction.
Then there exist a maximal subgroup M that contain N . Thus N and Φ(G) are in M and therefore
G = N Φ(G) ≤ M < G. A contradiction. Thus N = G.
Lemma 24 (Frattini Argument). If N is a normal subgroup of G and P is a Sylow p-subgroup of
N with p a prime dividing order of N then G = NG (P )N .

Proof
We show that any x ∈ G is written as x = yn′ with y ∈ NG (P ), n′ ∈ N .
Now N  G and N NG (P ) is a subgroup of G.
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For any x ∈ G, Q = xP x−1 ≤ xN x−1 = N since N  G and Q is also a Sylow p-subgroup of N .

Then P = x−1 Qx = xQx−1 ≤ xN x−1 = N .
Thus, there exists n ∈ N such that P = (xn)P (xn)−1 = xnP n−1 x−1 ≤ N .
Therefore y = xn ∈ NG (P ) and y = xn ⇒ x = yn−1 ∈ NG (P )N

Summary of results on finite nilpotent groups

Theorem 25 (Grand Theorem for Finite Nilpotent Groups). For any finite group G, the following
are equivalent:

(a) G has an ascending central series that terminates at G;

(b) G has a descending central series that terminates at {eG };

(c) Zn (G) = G for some positive inter n;

(d) Γn (G) = {eG } for some positive integer n;

(e) Every proper subgroup H of G is properly contained in its normalizer, that is, if H < G, then
H < NG (H);

(f ) For every prime p dividing |G|, every Sylow p-subgroup of G is a normal subgroup of G;

(g) G is an internal direct product of its Sylow p-subgroups;

(h) G is an internal direct product of p-subgroups for primes p dividing |G|;

(i) Every maximal subgroup of G is a normal subgroup of G;

(j) The commutator subgroup of G is contained in the Frattini subgroup of G;

(k) Every Sylow p-subgroup of G/Φ(G) is a normal subgroup;

(l) Every Sylow p-subgroup of G/Z(G) is a normal subgroup.