Table of Contents Introduction Electron Theory Conductors, Insulators and Semiconductors Electric Charges. Current, Voltage Resistance Simple Electric Circuit Ohm's Law DC Series Circuit DC Parallel Circuit... Series-Parallel Circuits .. Power. Magnetism Electromagnetism Introduction to AC. AC Generators Frequency Voltage and Current Inductance... Capacitance Inductive and Capacitive Reactance . Series REC Circuit Parallel R-LC Circuit Power and Power Factor in an AC Circuit Transformers Three-Phase Transformers Review Answers Final Exam quickSTEP Online Courses oe Vaan 1B 5 16 18 23 30 34 37 39 42 44 47 48 51 56 61 67 69 n 75 80 83 84 88Introduction Welcome to the first course in the STEP series, Siemens Technical Education Program designed to prepare our distributors to sell Siemens Energy & Automation products more effectively. This course covers Basics of Electricity and is designed to prepare you for subsequent courses on Siemens Energy & Automation products Upon completion of Basics of Electricity you will be able to: * Explain the difference between conductors and insulators * Use Ohm's Law to calculate current, voltage, and resistance * Calculate equivalent resistance for series, parallel, or series-parallel circuits * Calculate voltage drop across a resistor * Calculate power given other basic values * Identify factors that determine the strength and polarity of a current-carrying coil’s magnetic field * Determine peak, instantaneous, and effective values of an AC sine wave * Identify factors that effect inductive reactance and capacitive reactance in an AC circuit * Calculate total impedance of an AC circuit * Explain the difference between real power and apparent power in an AC circuit *© Calculate primary and secondary voltages of single-phase and three-phase transformers * Calculate KVA of a transformerThe objectives listed above may sound strange to you. You may also wonder why you would need to know these things to sell Siemens Energy & Automation products. Developing a basic knowledge of electrical concepts, however, will help you to better understand customer applications. In addition, you will be better able to describe products to customers and determine important differences between products. If you are an employee of a Siemens Energy & Automation authorized distributor, fill out the final exam tearout card and mail in the card. We will mail you a certificate of completion if you score a passing grade. Good luck with your efforts.Elements of an Atom Free Electrons Electron Theory All matter is composed of molecules which are made up of a combination of atoms, Atoms have a nucleus with electrons orbiting around it. The nucleus is composed of protons and neutrons (not shown). Most atoms have an equal number of electrons and protons, Electrons have a negative charge (1 Protons have a positive charge (+). Neutrons are neutral. The negative charge of the electrons is balanced by the positive charge of the protons, Electrons are bound in their orbit by the attraction of the protons, These are referred to as bound electrons. !—Etection Proton Nusleus Electrons in the outer band can become free of their orbit by the application of some external force such as movement through a magnetic field, friction, or chemical action. These are referred to as free electrons. A {ree electron leaves a void which can be filled by an electron forced out of orbit from another atom. As free electrons move fram one atom to the next an electron flow is produced. This is the basis of electricity.Conductors Insulators Conductors, Insulators and Semiconductors An electric current is produced when free electrons move from one atom to the next. Materials that permit many electrons to move freely are called conductors. Copper, silver, aluminum, zine, brass, and iron are considered good conductors. Copper is the most common material used for conductors and is relatively inexpensive. Materials that allow few free electrons are called insulator Materials such as plastic, rubber, glass, mica, and ceramic are good insulators An electric cable is one example of how conductors and insulators are used. Electrons flow along a copper conductor to provide energy to an electric device such as a radio, lamp, or a motor, An insulator around the outside of the copper conductor is provided to keep electrons in the conductor. Rubber Insulator C Copper ConductorSemiconductors Review 1 Semiconductor materials, such as silicon, can be used to manufacture devices that have characteristics of both conductors and insulators. Many semiconductor devices will act like @ conductor when an external force is applied in one direction. When the external force is applied in the opposite direction, the semiconductor device will act like an insulator. This principle is the basis for transitors, diodes, and other solid- state electronic devices 1. List the three basic elements of an atom and state the charge of each (positive, negative, or neutral). Element Charge 2. An electron forced out of orbit by an external force is called a 3. Conductors allow free electrons to flow when an external electric force is applied 4. Which of the following materials are good conductors? a, copper e. aluminum b. plastic f. glass c. silver g. iron d.rubber h. mica 5. Semiconductor devices can be manufactured to allow electrons to flow in one direction and ___ electrons to flow in the opposite direction.Neutral State of an Atom Positive and Negative Charges Electric Charges Elements are often identified by the number of electrons in orbit around the nucleus of the atoms making up the element and by the number of protons in the nucleus. A hydrogen atom, for example, has only one electron and one proton. An aluminum atom illustrated) has 13 electrons and 13 protons. An atom with an equal number of electrons and protons is said to be electrically neutral Electrons in the outer band of an atom are easily displaced by the application of some external force. Electrons which are forced out of their orbits can result in a lack of electrons where they leave and an excess of electrons where they come to rest. The lack of electrons is called a positive charge because there are more protons than electrons. The excess of electrons has a negative charge. A positive or negative charge is caused by an absence or excess of electrons. The number of protons remains constant. Gaon) Gloss Guo 6 6 6) IGOG) | 6 Neutral Charge Negative Charge Postive ChargeAttraction and Repulsion of Electric Charges Coulomb’s Law The old saying, “opposites attract” is true when dealing with electric charges. Charged bodies have an invisible electric field around them. When two like-charged bodies are brought together, their electric fields repel one body from the other. When two unlike-charged bodies are brought together, their electric fields attract one body to the other. The electric field around a charged body forms invisible lines of force. These invisible lines of force cause the attraction or repulsion. Lines of force are shown leaving a body with a positive charge and entering a body with a negative charge. vane (ie. During the 18th century a French scientist, Charles A. Coulomb, studied fields of force that surround charged bodies. Coulomb discovered that charged bodies attract or repel each other with a force that is directly proportional to the product of the charges, and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. Today we call this Coulomb's Law of Charges. Simply put, the force of attraction or repulsion depends on the strength of the charges and the distance between them.Units of Measurement Current Electricity is the flow of free electrons in a conductor from ‘one atom to the next atom in the same general direction. This flow of electrons is referred to as current and is designated by the symbol “I” Electrons move through a conductor at different rates and electric current has different values. Current is determined by the number of electrons that pass through a cross-section of a conductor in one second. We must remember that atoms are very small. It takes about 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 atoms to fill one cubic centimeter of a copper conductor. This number can be simplified using mathematical exponents. Instead of writing 24 zeros after the number 1, write 10%, Trying to measure even small values of current would result in unimaginably large numbers. For this reason current is measured in amperes which is abbreviated “amps” The letter "A" is the symbol for amps. A current of one amp means that in one second about 6.24 x 10"* electrons move through a cross-section of conductor. These numbers are given for information only and you do not need to be concerned with them. It is important, however, to understand the concept of current flow. The following chart reflects special prefixes that are used when dealing with very small or large values of current: Prefix ‘Symbol Decimal 1 kiloampere 1kA 1000 1 milliampere 1mA 1/1000 A 1 microampere 1mA 1/1,000,000 ADirection of Current Flow 10 Some authorities distinguish between electron flow and current flow. Conventional current flow theory ignores the flow of electrons and states that current flows from positive to negative. To avoid confusion, this book will use the electron flow concept which states that electrons flow from negative to positive. - + - + scion Flaw conventional Carent FlowVoltage Electricity can be compared with water flowing through a pipe. A force is required to get water to flow through a pipe. This, force comes from either a water pump or gravity. Voltage is the force that is applied to a conductor that causes electric current to flow. Water Flow Through a Pie Electrons are negative and are attracted by positive charges. They will always be attracted from a source having an excess of electrons, thus having a negative charge, to @ source having a deficiency of electrons, giving it a positive charge, The force required to make electricity flow through a conductor is called a difference in potential, electromotive force (emf), or voltage Voltage is designated by the letter "E’’or the letter “V" The unit of measurement for voltage is volts which is also designated by the letter "V" uVoltage Sources Voltage Circuit Symbol Units of Measurement 12 An electrical voltage can be generated in various ways. A battery uses an electrochemical process. A car's alternator and a power plant generator utilize a magnetic induction process. All voltage sources share the characteristic of an excess of electrons at one terminal and a shortage at the other terminal This results in a difference of potential between the two terminals. Shortage of El Battery The terminals of a battery are indicated symbolically on an electrical drawing by two lines. The longer line indicates the positive terminal, The shorter line indicates the negative terminal. The following chart reflects special prefixes that are used when dealing with very small or large values of voltage: Prefix Symbol Decimal 1 kilovolt 1kV 1000 V 1 millivolt imv 11000 1 microvolt TV 1/1,000,000VResistance Circuit Symbols Units of Measurement Resistance A third factor that plays a role in an electrical circuit is resistance. All material impedes the flow of electrical current to some extent. The amount of resistance depends upon composition, length, cross-section and temperature of the resistive material. As a rule of thumb, resistance of a conductor increases with an increase of length or a decrease of cross- section, Resistance is designated by the symbol “R” The unit of measurement for resistance is ohms (Q) Resistance is usually indicated symbolically on an electrical drawing by one of two ways. An unfilled rectangle is commonly used. A zigzag line may also be used WW r Resistance can be in the form of various components. A resistor may be placed in the circuit, or the circuit might contain other devices that have resistance. The following chart reflects special prefixes that are commonly used when dealing with values of resistance Prefix ‘Symbol Decimal 1 kilohm 1kQ 10002 ‘1 megohm 1MQ 7,000,000 2 13Review 2An Electric Circuit An Electrical Circuit Schematic Simple Electric Circuit A fundamental relationship exists between current, voltage, and resistance. A simple electrie circuit consists of a voltage source, some type of load, and a conductor to allow electrons to flow between the voltage source and the load. In the following circuit a battery provides the voltage source, electrical wire is used for the conductor, and a light provides the resistance, An additional component has been added to this circuit, a switch. There must be a complete path for current to flow. If the switch is open, the path is incomplete and the light will not illuminate. Closing the switch completes the path, allowing electrons to leave the negative terminal and flow through the light to the positive terminal The following schematic is a representation of an electrical circuit, consisting of a battery, a resistor, a voltmeter and an ammeter. The ammeter, connected in series with the circuit will show how much current flows in the circuit. The voltmeter, connected across the voltage source, will show the value of voltage supplied from the battery. Before an analysis can be made of a circuit, we need to understand Ohm's Law. 15George Simon Ohm and Ohm’s Law Ohm’s Law Triangle 16 Ohm’s Law The relationship between current, voltage and resistance was studied by the 19th century German mathematician, George Simon Ohm. Ohm formulated a law which states that current varies directly with voltage and inversely with resistance. From this law the following formula is derived Voltage Fesislance 1-5 or Curent = Ohm's Law is the basic formula used in all electrical circuits. Electrical designers must decide how much voltage is needed for a given load, such as computers, clocks, lamps and motors. Decisions must be made concerning the relationship of current, voltage and resistance. All electrical design and analysis begins with Ohm's Law. There are three mathematical ways to express. Ohm's Law. Which of the formulas is used depends on what facts are known before starting and what facts need to be known. -& Ine OE There is an easy way to remember which formula to use. By arranging current, voltage and resistance in a triangle, one can quickly determine the correct formula: /\ E\ /-\ /IR\Using the Triangle Examples of Solving Ohm's Law To use the triangle, cover the value you want to calculate. The remaining letters make up the formula. Ohm's Law can only give the correct answer when the correct values are used, Remember the following three rules Current is always expressed in amperes or amps Voltage is always expressed in volts * Resistance is always expressed in ohms Using the simple circuit below, assume that the voltage supplied by the battery is 10 volts, and the resistance is § @ ue, A To find how much current is flowing through the circuit, cover the I” in the triangle and use the resulting equation Amps aim 1 Using the same circuit, assume the ammeter reads 200 mA and the resistance is known to be 10 2.To solve for voltage, cover the “E” in the triangle and use the resulting equation E=IxR — £=02x10 — E=2Volts Remember to use the correct decimal equivalent when dealing with numbers that are preceded with mill (m), micro (j) or kilo {ki. In this example, had 200 been used instead of converting the value to 0.2, the wrong answer of 2000 volts would have been calculated v7Resistance in a Series Circuit Formula for Series Resistance 18 DC Series Circuit A series circuit is formed when any number of resistors are connected end-to-end so that there is only one path for current to flow. The resistors can be actual resistors or other devices that have resistance. The following illustration shows four resistors connected end-to-end. There is one path of current flow from the negative terminal of the battery through R4, R3, R2, R1 returning to the positive terminal Ca) Ry Ro Rg Rq — The values of resistance add in a series circuit. If a4. Q resistor is placed in series with a 6 Q resistor, the total value will be 10 Q. This is true when other types of resistive devices are placed in series. The mathematical formula for resistance in series is’ Re= Ay + Ro + Rg + Ra + R5 + Ry In this example, the circuit includes five series resistors. MKQ 2KQ —2KQ_ 100M 1K C7 7 Lt Ry Ra. Rg Ra Ro. Rr=Ri +R2+R3 + Rg + Rs Ri = 11,000 + 2,000 + 2,000 + 100 + 1,000 Ry = 16,100 0a Series Circuit a Series Circuit The equation for total resistance in a series circuit allows us to simplify a circuit. Using Ohm's Law, the value of current can be calculated. Current is the same anywhere it is measured in a series circuit. £ R 2 |= 1.2 Amps 5a 12 22 22 12 Volts, Original Circuit Equivalent Circuit Voltage can be measured across each of the resistors in a circuit. The voltage across a resistor is referred to as a voltage drop. A German physicist, Gustav Kirchhoff, formulated a law which states the sum of the voltage drops across the resistances of a closed circuit equals the total voltage applied to the circuit. In the following illustration, four equal value resistors 5 Qeach have been placed in series with a 12 volt battery, Ohm's Law can be applied to show that each resistor will “drop” an equal amount of voltage. o>) D> 3) av. CY Na 52 159 R Ra 12VoItBatiery |, 19Voltage Division in a Series Circuit 20 First, solve for total resistance: Re= Ry + Ro +R3 +Re p= 15 +15 415 +15 Rt= 62 Second, solve for current: Third, solve for voltage across any resistor: [xR x15 Volts If voltage were measured across any single resistor, the meter would read three volts. If voltage were read across a combination of Rg and Rg the meter would read six volts. If voltage were read across a combination of Rz, Rg, and Rq the meter would read nine volts. If the voltage drops of all four resistors were added together the sum would be 12 volts, the original supply voltage of the battery. It is often desirable to use a voltage potential that is lower than the supply voltage, To do this, a voltage divider, similar to the one illustrated, can be used, The battery represents Ejn which in this case is 50 volts, The desired voltage is represented by Eout, which mathematically works out to be 40 volts. To calculate this voltage, first solve for total resistance. Ry +R 5 +20 252 Ri Ri ReSecond, solve for current fn Rt 50 a 2.Amps Finally, solve for voltage: Eout = 1x Ra, Eout = 2 x 20 Eout = 40 Volts Eout 202 40 Volts Ra] 21Review 3 22Resistance in a Parallel Circuit Formula for Equal Value Resistors in a Parallel Circuit DC Parallel Circuit A parallel circuit is formed when two or more resistances are placed in a circuit side-by-side so that current can flow through more than one path, The illustration shows two resistors placed side-by-side. There are two paths of current flow. One path is from the negative terminal of the battery through Ry returning to the positive terminal, The second path is from the negative terminal of the battery through Ra returning to the positive terminal of the battery, + ot ft To determine the total resistance when resistors are of equal value in parallel circuit, use the following formula: ay = Nalue of any one Resistor Number of Resistors In the following illustration there are three 15 Q resistors. The total resistance is: Value of any one Resi Rs Number of Resistor 16 te ay=5a | | ' aa Re R3 -T 6a 6a 16a 23Formula for Unequal Resistors in a Parallel Circuit 24 There are two formulas to determine total resistance for resistors of any value in a parallel circuit, The first formula is used when there are any number of resistors. In the following illustration, there are three resistors, each of different value. Solve for the total resistance as follows: a tet Rr R2 ” Rg 1 1.1. insertValues for the Resistors e r+ FE Insert Values forthe Resist 1-4. 2644 Find the Lowest Common Denominator Fr DB FindtheLowest c be 1.2 the Numerators Es ‘Add the Ni h-B Invert Both Sides of the Equation Ry = 2860 Divide ' A Ro Rg | 52 102 202Voltage Parallel The second formula is used when there are only two resistors. — Rixhg Ri Ro In the following illustration there are two resistors, each of different value. The total resistance is. — Behe Rr Ry + R2 5x10 Rr= B+ 10 50 a= & Rt = 3.339 . Ry Ro 7 5Q 102 When resistors are placed in parallel across a voltage source, the voltage is the same across each resistor. In the following illustration three resistors are placed in parallel across a 12 volt battery, Each resistor has 12 volts available to it 12 Volt Battery 25Current in a Parallel Circuit Current Flow with Equal Value Resistors in a Parallel Circuit 26 Current flowing through a parallel circuit divides and flows through each branch of the circuit if yl vy» Total current in a parallel circuit is equal to the sum of the current in each branch. The following formula applies to current ina parallel circuit Ie Ht iat Igor ly When equal resistances are placed in a parallel circuit, opposition to current flow is the same in each branch. In the following circuit Ry and Ro are of equal value. If total current (I) is 10 amps, then 5 amps would flow through Ry and § amps would flow through R2 Te) +l2 Amps +5 Amps 10 AmpsCurrent Flow with Unequal Value Resistors in a Parallel Circt When unequal value resistors are placed in a parallel circuit, opposition to current flow is not the same in every circuit branch. Current is greater through the path of least resistance. In the following circuit Ry is 40 Q and Rp is 20 2. Small values resistance means less opposition to current flow. More current will flow through Ro than By 12 Volts, —=— Ra 400 209 he a= 0.3 Amps/_ | 0.6 Amps ht=0.9 Amps Using Ohm's Lawy, the total current for each circuit can be calculated. = 1 Fe 12 Volts "= “Toa h =0.3 Amps 12 Volts bo Don 12 =0.6 Amps hele l= 0.3 Amps + 0.6 Amps l= 0.9 Amps 2728 Total current can also be calculated by first calculating total resistance, then applying the formula for Ohm's Law. — Bixhg i+ Rp _ 402x200 Waa 3000 R= oa Rt = 13.933. 0 E _—s te = 12Wolts, k= qgaaaa k= 09 AmpsReview 4Simplifying a Series-Parallel 30 Series-Parallel Circuits Series-parallel circuits are also known as compound circuits. At least three resistors are required to form a series-parallel circuit. The following illustrations show the two simplest ways a series-parallel combination can be represented ——— devices in Series The formulas required for solving current, voltage and resistance problems have already been defined. To solve a series-parallel circuit, reduce the compound circuits to equivalent simple circuits. In the following illustration, Ry and Rz are parallel with each other. Rg is in series with the parallel circuit of Ry and Ra. Ry 100 Rg 109 Fz 109Simplifying a Series-Parallel Circuit to a Parallel Circuit First, use the formula to determine total resistance of a parallel circuit to find the total resistance of Ry and Rz. When the resistors in a parallel circuit are equal, the following formula is used: 3 — Value of any One Resistor Number of Resistors 109 Ray R= 52 Second, redraw the circuit showing the equivalent values. The result is a simple series circuit which uses already learned equations and methods of problem solving Rg 102 Rg 50 In the following illustration Ry and R2 are in series with each ther. Rg is in parallel with the series circuit of Ry and Ra Ra 10a | =>— First, use the formula to determine total resistance of a series circuit to find the total resistance of R1 and R2. The following formula is used R=Ry + Ro R= 102+ 100 R=200 3132 Second, redraw the circuit showing the equivalent values, The result is a simple parallel circuit which uses already learned equations and methods of problem solving R=209 | | Ag=200Review 5 33Work Electric Power Power Formulas 34 Power Whenever a force of any kind causes motion, work is accomplished. In the illustration below work is done when a mechanical force is used to lift a weight. If a force were exerted without causing motion, then no work is done. In an electrical circuit, voltage applied to a conductor will cause electrons to flow. Voltage is the force and electron flow is the motion. The rate at which work is done is called power and is represented by the symbol "P” Power is measured in watts, represented by the symbol "W" In a direct current circuit, one watt is the rate work is done ina circuit when 1 amp flows with 1 volt applied. Ina DC circuit, power is the product of voltage times current Later in this course, you will learn a slightly different version of this relationship for an alternating current (AC) circuit, P=Exl P=El Two other power equations can be derived from this formula by substituting other components of Ohm's Law. p= PR and 2 ep. &DC Circuit Example Additional Calculations In the following illustration, power can be calculated using any of the power formulas. 1=2Amps R=60 12 Volts P=el P = 12 Volts x 2 Amps P = 24 Watts p=PR P= (2 Amps}? x62 P = 24 Watts P = 24 Watts Electrical equipment often has a power rating expressed in watts. This rating is an indication of the rate at which electrical equipment converts electrical energy into some other form of energy, such as heat or mechanical energy. If the power associated with a device and its operating voltage are known, other quantities can be easily calculated. For example, a common household lamp may be rated for 120 volts and 100 watts. Using Ohm’s Law, the rated value of resistance of the lamp can be calculated & ransposed to P= © which can be transp Re a (120Velts)2 700 Watts Aa 146g 3536 Using the basic Ohm’s Law formula, the amount of current flow for the 120 volt, 100 watt lamp can be calculated. 20 Volts. 144.2 |= 0.833 Amps By comparison, a lamp rated for 120 volts and 75 watts has a resistance of 192 Q and a current of 0.625 amps would flow if the lamp had the rated voltage applied to it. 2 r (120 Volts)? 7B Waris, 192.0 Be r 120 Volts 7322 |= 0.625 Amps.Types of Magnets Magnetic Lines of Flux Magnetism The principles of magnetism are an integral part of electricity. In fact, magnetism can be used to produce electric current and vice versa. When we think of a permanent magnet, we often envision a horse-shoe or bar magnet or a compass needle, but permanent magnets come in many shapes. However, all magnets have two characteristics. They attract iron and, if free to move (like the compass needle), a magnet will assume a north-south orientation Every magnet has two poles, one north pole and one south pole, Invisible magnetic lines of flux leave the north pole and enter the south pole. While the lines of flux are invisible, the effects of magnetic fields can be made visible. When a sheet of paper is placed on a magnet and iron filings loosely scattered over it, the filings will arrange themselves along the invisible lines of flux 37Interaction between ‘Two Magnets 38 By drawing lines the way the iron filings have arranged themselves, the following picture is obtained. Broken lines indicate the paths of magnetic flux lines. The field lines exist outside and inside the magnet. The magnetic lines of flux always form closed loops. Magnetic lines of flux leave the north pole and enter the south pole, returning to the north pole through the magnet. r - > wom Nee S ame > ~ v When two magnets are brought together, the magnetic flux field around the magnets causes some form of interaction. Two unlike poles brought together cause the magnets to attract each other. Two like poles brought together cause the magnets to. repel each other. - » > aby Nee Sg (Ns woe x » . r a . » “ rs “aos INS) FS Ny] ao woe > » mo 4Left-Hand Rule for Conductors Current-Carrying Coil Electromagnetism An electromagnetic field is a magnetic field generated by current flow in a conductor. Every electric current generates a magnetic field and a relationship exists between the direction of current flow and the direction of the magnetic field. The hand rule for conductors demonstrates this relationship. If a current-carrying conductor is grasped with the left hand with the thumb pointing in the direction of electron flow, the fingers will point in the direction of the magnetic lines of flux. A coil of wire carrying a current, acts like a magnet. Individual loops of wire act as small magnets. The individual fields add together to form one magnet. The strength of the field can be increased by adding more turns to the coil, inereasing the amount of current, or winding the coil around a material such as iron that conducts magnetic flux more easily than air 39Left-Hand Rule for Coil Electromagnets 40 A left-hand rule exists for coils to determine the direction of the magnetic field, The fingers of the left hand are wrapped around the coil in the direction of electron flow. The thumb points to the north pole of the coil An electromagnet is composed of a coil of wire wound around a core. The core is made of soft iron or some other material that easily conducts magnetic lines of force. When current is passed through the coil, the core becomes magnetized. The ability to control the strength and direction of the magnetic force makes electromagnets useful. As with permanent magnets, opposite poles attract, An electromagnet can be made to control the strength of its field which controls the strength of the magnetic poles. A large variety of electrical devices such as motors circuit breakers, contactors, relays and motor starters use electromagnetic principles.Review 6 4142 Introduction to AC The supply of current for electrical devices may come from a direct current (DC) source, or an alternating current (AC) source. In a direct current circuit, electrons flow continuously in one direction from the source of power through a conductor to aload and back to the source of power. Voltage in direct current remains constant. DC power sources include batteries and DC generators, By contrast, an AC generator makes electrons flow first in one direction then in another. In fact, an AC generator reverses its terminal polarities many times a second, causing current to change direction with each reversalAC Sine Wave Single-Phase and Three-Phase AC Power Alternating voltage and current vary continuously. The graphic representation for AC is a sine wave. A sine wave can represent current or voltage. There are two axes. The vertical axis represents the direction and magnitude of current or voltage. The horizontal axis represents time Direction When the waveform is above the time axis, current is flowing in one direction. This is referred to as the positive direction. When the waveform is below the time axis, current is flowing in the opposite direction, This is referred to as the negative direction A sine wave moves through a complete rotation of 360 degrees, which is referred to as one cycle, Alternating current goes through many of these cycles each second Alternating current is divided into single-phase and three- phase types. Single-phase power is used for small electrical demands such as found in the home. Three-phase power is used where large blocks of power are required, such as found in commercial applications and industrial plants. Single-phase power is shown in the above illustration, Three-phase power, as shown in the following illustration, is a continuous series of three overlapping AC cycles. Each wave represents a phase, and is offset by 120 electrical degrees. Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 43Basic Generator Basic Generator Operation 44 AC Generators A basic generator consists of a magnetic field, an armature, slip rings, brushes and a resistive load. In a commercial generator, the magnetic field is created by an electromagnet, but, for this simple generator, permanent magnets are used. An armature is any number of conductive wires wound in loops which rotates through the magnetic field. For simplicity, one loop is shown. When a conductor is moved through a magnetic field, a voltage is induced in the conductor. As the armature rotates through the magnetic field, a voltage is generated in the armature which causes current to flow. Slip rings are attached to the armature and rotate with it. Carbon brushes ride against the slip rings to conduct current from the armature to a resistive load Pole Pose Cpt Rr Brush Slo Ring An armature rotates through the magnetic field, At an initial position of zero degrees, the armature conductors are moving parallel to the magnetic field and not cutting through any magnetic lines of flux. No voltage is inducedGenerator Operation from Zero to 90 Degrees Generator Operation from 90 to 180 Degre Generator Operation from 180 to 270 Degrees As the armature rotates from zero to 90 degrees, the conductors cut through more and more lines of flux, building up to a maximum induced voltage in the positive direction eo Degrees 7 The armature continues to rotate from 90 to 180 degrees, cutting fewer lines of flux. The induced voltage decreases from a maximum positive value to zero. 180 2 Degrees As the armature continues to rotate from 180 degrees to 270 degrees, the conductors cut more lines of flux, but in the opposite direction, and voltage is induced in the negative direction, building up to a maximum at 270 degrees. 4546 Generator Operation from 270 to 360 Degrees As the armature continues to rotate from 270 to 360 degrees, induced voltage decreases from a maximum negative value to zero. This completes one cycle. The armature continues to rotate at a constant speed causing the cycle to repeat as long as the armature rotates. 260 Dogre <— one Revolution, >FourPole AC Generator Frequency The number of cycles per second of voltage induced in the armature is the frequency of the generator, If the armature rotates at a speed of 60 revolutions per second, the generated voltage will be 60 cycles per second. The recognized unit for frequency is hertz, abbreviated "Hz" 1 Hz is equal to 1 cycle per second. Power companies generate and distribute electricity at very low frequencies. The standard power line frequency in the United States and many other countries is 60 Hz. 50 Hz is also a common power line frequency used throughout the world The following illustration shows 15 cycles in 1/4 second which is equivalent to 60 Hz << ikssecons + The frequency is the same as the number of rotations per second if the magnetic field is produced by only two poles. An increase in the number of poles, would cause an increase in the number of cycles completed in a revolution. A two-pole generator would complete one cycle per revolution and a four pole generator would complete two cycles per revolution. An ‘AC generator produces one cycle per revolution for each pair of poles. <= one Revolution, me a7Peak Value Peak-to-Peak Value Instantaneous Value 48 Voltage and Current Voltage and current in an AC circuit rise and fall over time in a pattern referred to as a sine wave. The peak value of a sine wave occurs twice each cycle, once at the positive maximum value and once at the negative maximum value — Peak value ime———> Peak Value The value of the voltage or current between the peak positive and peak negative values is called the peak-to-peak value Peakto-Peak o Value Time > The instantaneous value is the value at any one point in the sine wave. — Instantaneous ValueCaleul Voltage g Instantaneous The voltage waveform produced as the armature rotates through 360 degrees rotation is called a sine wave because the instantaneous voltage (e) is related to the sine trigonometric function. The sine of an angle is represented symbolically as sin 0, where the Greek letter theta (0) represents the angle. The sine curve is a graph of the following equation for values of 8 from 0 to 360 degrees: Epeak x sin 0 Instantaneous voltage is equal to the peak voltage times the sine of the angle of the generator armature. The sine value is obtained from trigonometric tables. The following table shows selected instantaneous values. Angle sin @ Angle sin @ 30 Degrees 05 210 Degrees 05 60 Degrees 0866 | 240 Degrees | -0.866, 90 Degrees 1 270 Degrees a 120 Degrees | 0.866 |: 300 Degrees | -0.866, 150 Degrees 05 330 Degrees 05 180 Degrees ° 360 Degrees 0 The following example illustrates instantaneous values at 90, 180, and 240 degrees, The peak voltage is equal to 100 volts By substituting the sine at the instantaneous angle value, the instantaneous voltage can be calculated. 90° = +100 Volts 150° = +50 Volts 240° = -86.6 Volts Any instantaneous value can be calculated, For example: 240° 100 x 0,866 -86.6 volts 49Effective Value of an AC Sine Wave Review 7 50 The instantaneous value of an alternating voltage and current are constantly changing values. However, there is a method for translating the varying values into an equivalent constant value, referred to at the effective value of voltage or current. This is also known as the RMS value. RMS is an abbreviation of the mathematical term root-mean-square. For example, a common voltage used in many applications is 120 volts, this is an RMS value, which is equal to the peak value times 0.707. f Posk Value 169.7 Valts t The effective value of AC is defined in terms of an equivalent heating effect when compared to DC. One RMS ampere of current flowing through a resistance will produce heat at the same rate as one DC ampere. Itis sometimes necessary to know the peak value of an AC voltage or current when the RMS value is known. To calculate the peak value, multiply the effective value by 1.41. For example, if the effective value is 100 volts, the peak value is 141 volts. LA is the graphic representation of AC voltage or current values over time. 2. Each phase of three phase AC power is offset by degrees. 3. An AC generator produces cycle(s) per revolution for each pair of poles 4, What is the instantaneous voltage at 240 degrees for a sine wave with a peak voltage of 150 volts? 5. What is the effective voltage for a sine wave with a peak voltage of 150 volts?Current Flow and Field Strength Inductance The circuits studied to this point have been resistive. Resistance and voltage are not the only circuit properties that effect current flow, however. Inductance is the property of an electric circuit that opposes any change in electric current. Resistance opposes current flow, inductance opposes change in current flow. Inductance is designated by the letter "L’. The unit of measurement for inductance is the henry (h) Current flow produces a magnetic field in a conductor. The amount of current determines the strength of the magnetic field. As current flow increases, field strength increases, and as current flow decreases, field strength decreases. © Degrees 30 Degrees 20 Degrews No Current Increasing ‘Maximum Curtont ‘Carrent Any change in current causes a corresponding change in the magnetic field surrounding the conductor. Current is constant for a regulated DC source, except when the circuit is turned on and off, or when there is a load change. However, alternating current is constantly changing, and inductance is continually opposing the change. A change in the magnetic field surrounding the conductor induces a voltage in the conductor. This self-induced voltage opposes the change in current. This is known as counter emf. This opposition causes a delay in the time it takes current to attain its new steady value. If current increases, inductance tries to hold it down. If current decreases, inductance tries to hold it up. Inductance is somewhat like mechanical inertia which must be overcome to get a mechanical object moving or to stop a mechanical object from moving. A vehicle, for example, takes a few moments to accelerate to a desired speed, or decelerate to a stop. 51Inductors Inductive Time Constant 52 All conductors have inductance, but induetors are coils of wire wound for a specific inductance. For some applications, inductors are wound around a metal core to further concentrate the inductance. The inductance of a coil is determined by the number of turns in the coil, the coil diameter and length, and the core material. An inductor is usually indicated symbolically on an electrical drawing as a curled line or a filled rectangle. In a resistive circuit, current change is considered instantaneous. If an inductor is used, the current does not change as quickly. For the purpose of explanation, a DC circuit is used here to describe the operation of an inductor. There will always be some amount of resistance and inductance in any circuit. The electrical wire used in the circuit has some resistance and inductance. In addition, inductors also have resistance. However, to simplify examples in this book, the resistance and inductance of the wiring and the resistance of inductors are not considered. In the following circuit, initially the switch is in position 2, and there is no current flowing through the ammeter (A). When the switch is moved to position 1, current will rise rapidly at first, then more slowly as the maximum value is approached. The time required for the current to rise to its maximum value is determined by the ratio of inductance (in henrys) to resistance (in ohms). This ratio is called the time constant of the inductive circuit. A time constant is the time (in seconds} required for the circuit current to rise to 63.2% of its maximum value. When the switch is closed in the previous circuit, current will begin to flow. During the first time constant current rises to 63.2% of its maximum value. During the second time constant, current rises to 63.2% of the remaining 36.8%, or a total of 86.4%. It takes about five time constants for current to reach its maximum valueCalculating the Constant of an Inductive Circuit 63.2% First Time | Second Time! Third Time ! Fourth Time Filth Time Constant! Constant’: Constant Constant’! Constant Similarly, when the switch in the previous circuit is returned to position 2, the magnetic field around the inductor will begin to collap: about 100.0% se, returning stored energy to the circuit, and it will take five time constants for current to reach zero. Fist Time = Second Time: Third Time | Fourth Time « Fith Time Constant | Constant’ © Constant? Constant’ | Constant The time constant is designated by the symbol "«" To determine the time constant of an inductive circuit use one of the following formulas: ‘(in seconds) Lithenrys) R fonms) L (millihenrys) “in miliseconds) = “Tren ‘(in microsecond Limicrohenrys) R (ohms) 53Formula for Series Inductors 54 In the following illustration, Ly is equal to 15 millinenrys and Ry is equal to § @. When the switch is closea, it will take 3 milliseconds for current to rise from zero to 63.2% of its maximum value and approximately 15 milliseconds for full current to be reached R15a 5 mh =F. 1 =3 milliseconds The same rules for calculating total resistance can be applied to calculating total inductance. In the following circuit, an AC generator is used to supply electrical power to four inductors. Total inductance of series inductors is calculated using the following formula: me ee === LrsLitlaslg ela Lt=2mb+2mh+1mh4t mh Lt=6mbhFormula for Parall Inductors In the following circuit, an AC generator is used to supply electrical power to three inductors. Total inductance is calculated using the following formula 55Capacitance and Capacitors Capacitor Circuit Symbols 56 Capacitance Capacitance is a measure of a circuit's ability to store an electrical charge. A device manufactured to have a specific amount of capacitance is called a capacitor. A capacitor is made up of a pair of conductive plates separated by a thin layer of insulating material. Another name for the insulating material is dielectric material. When a voltage is applied to the plates, electrons are forced onto one plate. That plate has an excess of electrons while the other plate has a deficiency of electrons The plate with an excess of electrons is negatively charged. The plate with a deficiency of electrons is positively charged Nogativo Plate (Dielectric Material [Poste Pte } DOG @®OOO Direct current cannot flow through the dielectric material because it is an insulator; however, the electric field created when the capacitor is charged is felt through the dielectric. Capacitors are rated for the amount of charge they can hold. The, capacitance of a capacitor depends on the area of the plates, the distance between the plates, and type of dielectric material used, The unit of measurement for capacitance is farads (F) However, the farad is a large unit and capacitors are often rated in microfarads (uF) or picofarads (pF). Capacitance is usually indicated symbolically on an electrical drawing by a combination of a straight line with a curved line, or two straight lines.Simple Capacitive Circuit Capacitive Time Constant For the purpose of explanation, a DC circuit is used here to describe the operation of an capacitor. The resistance of wiring and stray values of capacitance found in any circuit are not considered in this explanation Ina resistive circuit, voltage change is instantaneous. In a circuit with a resistor and capacitor in series, the voltage across the capacitor does not change as quickly. In the following circuit, initially the switch is in position 2 and no voltage is measured by the voltmeter (V). When the switch is moved to position 1, voltage across the capacitor will rise rapidly at first, then more slowly as the maximum value is approached. a) a) The time required for voltage across the capacitor in this simple circuit to rise to its maximum value is determined by the product of capacitance, in farads, times resistance, in ohms. This product is the time constant of a capacitive circuit. The time constant gives the time in seconds required for voltage across the capacitor to reach 63.2% of its maximum value. When the switch in the previous circuit is moved to position 1, the voltage measured by the voltmeter will begin to rise. During the first time constant, voltage will rise to 63.2% of its maximum value. During the second time constant, voltage will rise to 63.2% of the remaining 36.8%, or a total of 86.4%. It takes about five time constants for voltage across the capacitor to reach its maximum value. 1 0 8 3 233 63.234 First Time | Second Time! Third Time | Fourth Time ‘Fifth Time Constant! Constant’; Constant Constant’! Constant 57Calculating the Time Constant of a Capacitive Circuit 58 The voltage across the capacitor will reach its maximum value when it is equal to the supply voltage. At that point, current flow will reach zero When the switch in the previous circuit is returned to position 2, the capacitor will retain its charge because there is no path for current flow. When the switch is moved to position 3, the capacitor will begin to discharge, and it will take about five time constants for the voltage across the capacitor and the current through the resistor to reach zero 100.0% Fret Time 1 Thad Time | Fou Time Constant Constant: Constant”: ‘Constant 38.8% 13.6% O% To determine the time constant of a capacitive circuit, use one of the following formulas: + in seconds) = R (megohms) x ¢ {microfarads) + {in microseconds) = R {megohms) x C (picofarads) ‘in microseconds) = R fohms) x C (microfarads) In the following illustration, Cy is equal to 2 uF and Ry is equal to 10 2. When the switch is closed, it will take 20 microseconds for voltage across the capacitor to rise from zero to 63.2% of its maximum value. It will take about five time constants, 100 microseconds, for this voltage to rise to its maximum value ‘<= 20 microsecondsFormula for Series Capacitors Formula for Parall Capacitors Connecting capacitors in series decreases total capacitance The formula for series capacitors is similar to the formula for parallel resistors. In the following circuit, an AC generator supplies electrical power to three capacitors. Total capacitance is calculated using the following formula: 1 144 GO TG Sur 10mF 20 uF ptt Adding capacitors in parallel increases circuit capacitance. In the following circuit, an AC generator is used to supply electrical power to three capacitors, Total capacitance is calculated using the following formula: C= C1 + CQ 4+ C3 ty c C2 C3 Sur OnF 20 nF Cy= 5 pF 4 10pnF + 20 pF Cy = 35 uF 59Review 8 60Inductive Reactance Inductive and Capacitive Reactance Ina purely resistive AC circuit, resistance is the only opposition to current flow. In an AC circuit with only inductance, capacitance, or both inductance and capacitance, but no resistance, opposition to current flow is called reactance, designated by the symbol "X" Total opposition to current flow in an AC circuit that contains both reactance and resistance is called impedance, designated by the symbol "Z"Just like resistance, reactance and impedance are expressed in ohms. Inductance only affects current flow when the current is changing. Inductance produces a self-induced voltage (counter emf) that opposes changes in current. In an AC circuit, current is changing constantly. Inductance in an AC circuit, therefore, causes a continual opposition. This opposition to current flow is called inductive reactance and is designated by the symbol \ Inductive reactance is proportional to both the inductance and the frequency applied. The formula for inductive reactance is: Xt = 2nfL X= 2x 8.14 x frequency x inductance For a 60 hertz circuit containing a 10 mh inductor, the inductive reactance is: XL = 2nfL XL =2x3.14 x 60x 0,010 XL = 3.7689 For this example, the resistance is zero so the impedance is, equal to the reactance, If the voltage is known, Ohm’s Law can be used to calculate the current. If, for example, the voltage is 10 volts, the current is calculated as follows; 61Phase Relationship between Current and Voltage in an Inductive Circuit 62 In a purely resistive circuit, current and voltage rise and fall at the same time. They are said to be “in phase” In this circuit, there is no inductance. Resistance and impedance are the same. Votage A . T In a purely inductive circuit, current lags behind voltage by 90 degrees. Current and voltage are said to be “out of phase” In this circuit, impedance and inductive reactance are the same. 20 Degrees —Votiage crrent In a circuit with both resistance and inductive reactance, AC current will lag the voltage by more than 0 degrees and less than 90 degrees. The exact amount of lag will depend upon the relative amounts of resistance and inductive reactance. The more resistive a circuit is, the closer it is to being in phase. The more reactive a circuit is, the more out of phase it is. In the following illustration, resistance and inductive reactance are equal. Current lags voltage by 45 degrees. 45 Dogroos —VotageCalculating Impedance an Inductive Circuit Vectors When working with a circuit containing elements of inductance, capacitance, and resistance, impedance must be calculated Because electrical concepts deal with trigonometric functions, this is not a simple matter of subtraction and addition. The following formula is used to calculate impedance in a circuit with resistance and inductive reactance: 2- KE In the previous example, resistance and inductive reactance are each 10 ohms, Impedance for this circuit can be calculated as follows Z= fire z- {200 Z= 1414210 Acommon way to represent AC circuit values is with a vector. A vector is a graphic representation of a quantity that has direction and magnitude. A vector on a map might indicate that one city is 50 miles southwest from another. The magnitude is 50 miles and the direction is southwest. Vectors are also used to show electrical relationships. The following vector illustrates the relationship between resistance and inductive reactance for a circuit containing 10 ohms of each. The angle between the vectors is the phase angle represented by the symbol 0. When inductive reactance is equal to resistance the resultant angle is 45 degrees. This angle represents how much current lags voltage for this circuit, 63Capacitive Reactance Phase Relationship between Current and Voltage 64 Capacitance also opposes AC current flow. Capacitive reactance is designated by the symbol Xc. The larger the capacitor, the smaller the capacitive reactance. Current flow in a capacitive AC circuit is also dependent on frequency. The following formula is used to calculate capacitive reactance: a Tic Xc= The capacitive reactance for a 60 hertz circuit with a 10 microfarad capacitor is calculated as follows: 1 XC= Fae 1 XC= FBTEROOXO.GOOOTO Xc = 265.39 0 For this example, the resistance is zero so the impedance is equal to the reactance. If the voltage is known, Ohm's Law can be used to calculate the current. If, for example, the voltage is 10 volts, the current is calculated as follows: E a \- _10 765.38 |= 0.0376 Amps The phase relationship between current and voltage are opposite to the phase relationship of an inductive circuit. In a purely capacitive circuit, current leads voltage by 90 degrees. 90 DegreesCalculating Impedance a Capacitive Circuit Ina circuit with both resistance and capacitive reactance, AC current will lead the voltage by more than 0 degrees and less than 90 degrees. The exact amount of lead will depend upon the relative amounts of resistance and capacitive reactance. The more resistive a circuit is, the closer it is to being in phase. The more reactive a circuit is, the more out of phase itis. In the following illustration, resistance and capacitive reactance are equal. Current leads voltage by 45 degrees. 48 Degrevs Xe= 10.0 Vohage cunene A) YY 108 The following formula is used to calculate impedance in a circuit with resistance and capacitive reactance: In the previous example, resistance and capacitive reactance are each 10 ohms. Impedance for this circuit can be calculated as follows: 22 fire z= {200 Z= 1414210 The following vector illustrates the relationship between resistance and capacitive reactance for a circuit containing 10 ohms of each. The angle between the vectors is the phase angle represented by the symbol 0, When capacitive reactance is equal to resistance, the resultant angle is 45 degrees. This angle represents how much current leads voltage for this circuit. X= 10.0 65Review 9 66Calculating Total Impedance in a Series R-L-C Circuit Series R-L-C Circuit Circuits often contain elements of resistance, inductance, and capacitance. In an inductive AC circuit, current lags voltage by 90 degrees. In a capacitive AC circuit, current leads voltage by 90 degrees. When represented in vector form, inductive and capacitive reactance are 180 degrees apart. As a result, the net reactance is determined by taking the difference between the two quantities XL Xe An AC circuit is: Resistive if X_ and Xc are equal Inductive if X is greater than Xc * Capacitive it X¢ is greater than X| The following formula is used to calculate total impedance of a circuit containing resistance, capacitance, and inductance: ARP L-Xc In the case where inductive reactance is greater than capacitive reactance, subtracting X¢ from X_results in a positive number. The positive phase angle is an indicator that the net circuit reactance is inductive, and current lags voltage. In the case where capacitive reactance is greater than inductive reactance, subtracting X¢ from X|_ results in a negative number. The negative phase angle is an indicator that the net circuit reactance is capacitive and current leads voltage. In either case, the value squared will result in a positive number. 67Calculating Reactance and Impedance in a Series R-L-C Circuit 68 In the following 120 volt, 60 hertz circuit, resistance is 1000 Q, inductance is § mh, and capacitance is 2 uF The following example shows the method for calculating impedance for this circuit. Ca R= 10000 L=Smh C=2uF X= 2a X{_ = 6.28 x 60 x 0.005 XL = 18840 Xe a SFBXED 00000 Xe = 1927.0 Ze FF + (XL Xcl* Z = food? + (1880-1327 Z= $000,000 + (-1,325.116" Z = 000,000 + 1,756,932.47 2 = P.755932.47 1,860.1 0 Given that the applied voltage is 120 volts, current can be calculated as follows Z | - 120 77660.1 |= 0.0723 AmpsCalculating Impedance in a Parallel R-L-C Circuit Parallel R-L-C Circuit Total impedance (Zt) can be calculated in a parallel R-LC circuit i values of resistance and reactance are known, One method of calculating impedance involves first calculating total current, then using the following formula aA te Total current is the vector sum of current flowing through the resistance plus, the difference between inductive current and capacitive current. This is expressed in the following formula tein e-1 In the following 120 volt, 60 hertz circuit, capacitive reactance is 25 Q, inductive reactance is 50 Q, and resistance is 1000 Q. A simple application of Ohm's Law will find the branch currents, Remember, voltage is constant throughout a parallel circuit. Zz R) 120v OR = 1000 a | XL ~off Xc= 25.2 > 20 Wes Ie IR = 0.12 Amps IL= 2.4 Amps lo= 4.8 Amps 6970 Once the branch currents are known, total current can be calculated. te= JiR? + e-1 b= fon? + (a8- 24 b= foo +576 = S574 hy = 2.403 Amps Impedance can then be calculated as follows:True Power and Apparent Power Formulas Power and Power Factor in an AC Circuit Power consumed by a resistor is dissipated in heat and not returned to the source. This is called true power because it is the rate at which energy is used. Current in an AC circuit rises to peak values and diminishes to zero many times a second. The energy stored in the magnetic field of an inductor, or plates of a capacitor, is returned to the source when current changes direction Although reactive components do not consume energy, they do increase the amount of energy that must be generated to do the same amount of work. The rate at which this non-working energy must be generated is called reactive power. If voltage and current are 90 degrees out of phase, as would be the case in a purely capacitive or purely inductive circuit, the average value of true power is equal to zero. There are high positive and negative peak values of power, but when added together the result is zero. Power in an AC circuit is the vector sum of true power and reactive power. This is called apparent power. True power is equal to apparent power in a purely resistive circuit because voltage and current are in phase. Voltage and current are also in phase in a circuit containing equal values of inductive reactance and capacitive reactance. In most circuits, however, apparent power is composed of both true power and reactive power. The formula for apparent power is: Apparent power is measured in volt-amps (VA), True power is calculated from another trigonometric function, the cosine of the phase angle (cos @), The formula for true power is nCalculating Apparent Power in a simple R-LC Circuit 72 In a purely resistive circuit, current and voltage are in phase. There is a zero degree angle displacement between current, and voltage. The cosine of zero is one. Multiplying a value by one does not change the value. Therefore, in a purely resistive circuit, the cosine of the angle is ignored In a purely reactive circuit, either inductive or capacitive, current and voltage are 90 degrees out of phase. The cosine of 30 degrees is zero. Multiplying a value times zero results in a zero product, Therefore, no power is consumed in a purely reactive circuit. In the following 120 volt circuit, current is equal to 84.9 mA Inductive reactance is 100 Q and capacitive reactance is 1100 Q. The phase angle is -45 degrees. By referring to a trigonometric table, the cosine of -45 degrees is found to be 0.7071. i} _— R~ 10008 XL - 1002 Xe~ 1000 A) rev) The apparent power consumed by the circuit is: Pel P= 120 x 0.0849 P= 10.2VA The true power consumed by the circuit is: P= Elcos 0 P = 120 x 0.0849 x 0.7071 P= 72 Watts Another formula for true power is: p=PR P = 0.0849? x 1000 P= 72 WattsPower Factor Power factor is the ratio of true power to apparent power in an AC circuit. Power factor is expressed in the following formula pr = —Tiue Power Apparent Power Power factor can also be expressed using the formulas for true power and apparent power. The value of El cancels out because itis the same in the numerator and denominator, Power factor is the cosine of the angle. pp - Elcosé er PF = cos@ In a purely resistive circuit, where current and voltage are in phase, there is no angle of displacement between current and voltage. The cosine of a zero degree angle is one. The power factor is one. This means that all energy delivered by the source is consumed by the circuit and dissipated in the form of heat. In a purely reactive circuit, voltage and current are 90 degrees apart. The cosine of a 90 degree angle is zero. The power factor is zero. This means the circuit returns all energy it receives from the source to the source. Ina circuit where reactance and resistance are equal, voltage and current are displaced by 45 degrees. The cosine of a 45 degree angle is .7071. The power factor is .7071. This means the circuit uses approximately 70% of the energy supplied by the source and returns approximately 30%. 73Review 10 74Mutual Induction Transformers Transformers are electromagnetic devices that transfer electrical energy from one circuit to another by mutual induction, A single-phase transformer has two coils, a primary and a secondary, Mutual induction is the transfer of electrical energy from the primary to the secondary through magnetic fields . The following circuit illustrates mutual induction. The AC generator provides electrical power to the primary coil. The magnetic field produced by the primary induces a voltage into the secondary coil, which supplies power to a load Secondary Col Transformers are used to step a voltage up to a higher level, or down to a lower level. To understand the need to stepping up or down voltages, consider how electrical power is generated and distributed, Generators used by power companies typically generate voltages of 30 KV or less. While this is a relatively high voltage compared to the voltages used by power customers, itis more efficient for utilities to transmit this power at still higher voltages, up to as high at 765 KV. The electrical power is received at substation transformers many miles away where it is stepped down and distributed locally. When it arrives at the customer's location, it is further stepped down to the level needed for the type of customer. Even within a customer's facility, voltage may need to be stepped down further to meet requirements of some equipment. 75Coefficient of Coupling Voltage, Current, and the Number of Turns in a Coil 76 This process of stepping up or down the voltage throughout a power distribution system is most often accomplished using transformers. The size and ratings of the transformers vary, but the basic operation of these devices is the same. Mutual inductance between two coils depends on their flux linkage. Maximum coupling occurs when all the lines of flux from the primary coil cut through the secondary winding The amount of coupling which takes place is referred to as. coefficient of coupling. To maximize coefficient of coupling, both coils are often wound on an iron core which is used to provide a path for the lines of flux. The following discussion of step-up and step-down transformers applies to transformers with an iron core Lines of Fux Confined to pe Iron Core that dont Couple There is a direct relationship between voltage, impedance, current, and the number of coil turns in a transformer. This relationship can be used to find either primary or secondary voltage, current, and the number of turns in each coil. It is the number of turns which determine if a transformer is a step up or step down transformer. The following “rules-of-thumb” apply to transformers * If the primary coil has fewer turns than the secondary coil, the transformer is a step-up transformer. * If the primary coil has more turns than the secondary coil, the transformer is a step-down transformer. When the number of turns on the primary and secondary coils of a transformer are equal, input voltage, impedance, and current are equal to output voltage, impedance, and current.Step-Up Transformer Step-Down Transformer A step-up transformer is used when it is desirable to step voltage up in value. The following circuit illustrates a step- up transformer. The primary coil has fewer turns than the secondary coil. When the primary has fewer turns than the secondary, voltage and impedance are stepped up. In the circuit illustrated, The transformer secondary has twice as many turns as the primary and voltage is stepped up from 120 VAC to 240 VAC. Because impedance is also stepped up, current is stepped down from 10 amps to 5 amps. Primary Coll =>) 900 Turns Secondary Coll 00 Turns 120,VAC Supply 240 VAC Amps 5 iAmps: A step-down transformer is used when it is desirable to step voltage down in value. The following circuit illustrates a step-down transformer. The primary coil has more turns than the secondary coil. The step-down ratio is 2:1. voltage and impedance are stepped down, current is stepped up. Seconday Coil 900 Turns 240 VAC Supply 120VAc ow 5 Amps TW Amps 7Single-Phase Transformer Formulas for Calculating the Number of Primary and Secondary Turns of a Transformer 78 120 or 240 VAC single-phase transformers are used to supply lighting, receptacle, and small appliance loads. A transformer with a 240 VAC secondary can be used to supply 240 VAC to larger appliances such as stoves, air conditioners and heaters A 240 VAC secondary can be tapped in the center to provide two sources of 120 VAC power. Primary | szovac_| so vac 20 VAC 240 VAC Secendery = Grovne Secondary There are a number of useful formulas for calculating, voltage, current, and the number of turns between the primary and secondary of a transformer. These formulas can be used with either step-up or step-down transformers. The following legend (0 the transformer formulas: Es = _ secondary voltage Ep = _ primary voltage Is = secondary current Ip = primary current turns in the secondary coil turns in the primary coil zz 3G now To find voltage: eg ~ Sexe ep = E8418 Is To find current: Ig- SEAR p= S8xls. eS ep To find the number of coil turns: Sx NP Ns‘Transformer Ratings Transformer Losses Using the values for the step-down transformer in the example of the previous page, the secondary voltage can be verified Ep x Ip Ts 240 Volts x 5 Amps: 70 Amps 1200 10 120 Volts, Transformers are rated for the amount of apparent power they can provide. Because values of apparent power are often large, the transformer rating is frequently given in kVA (kilovolt- amps). The kVA rating determines the current and voltage a transformer can deliver to its load without overheating. Given KVA and volts, amps can be calculated Volts x Amps KVA = “7900 KVA x 1000 Amps = —Tohis Using the illustrated step-down transformer, the kVA rating can be calculated. The kVA rating of a transformer is the same for both the primary and the secondary. Pinay v= BBR Primary kVA = 1.2 kVA 120 x10 Secondary kVA = ES Secondary kVA = 1.2 kVA Most of the electrical energy provided to the primary of a transformer is transferred to the secondary. Some energy, however, is lost in heat in the wiring or the core, Some losses in the core can be reduced by building the core of a number of flat sections called laminations 79Delta Connections 80 Three-Phase Transformers Three-phase transformers are used when three-phase power is required for larger loads such as industrial motors. There are two basic three-phase transformer connections, delta and wye. A delta is like three single-phase transformers connected together. The secondary of a delta transformer is illustrated below. For simplicity, the primary is not shown in this example The voltages shown on the illustration are examples. Just as with a single-phase transformer, the secondary voltage depends on both the primary voltage and the turns ratio. Delta transformers are schematically drawn in a triangle, The voltages across each winding of the delta triangle represents one phase of a three phase system. The voltage is always the same between any two wires, A single phase (such as L1 to L2) can be used to supply single phase loads. All three phases are used to supply three phase loads. 2mm | C An 80 Vals zal S A) | 10000 2 UU “480 Vote 280 Volts | L1 to L2 = 480 voltsBalanced Delta Current Unbalanced Delta Current When current is the same in all three coils, itis said to be balanced. In each phase, current has two paths to follow. For example, current flowing from L1 to the connection point at the top of the delta can flow down through one coil to L2, and down through another coil to L3. When current is balanced, the current in each line is equal to the square root of 3 times the current in each coil, The following example shows the line current calculation with the current in each coil equal to 29 amps Le JF x 29=1.792%29 = 50.2 Amps soaamps Li SA asAnps SS? >, ze ames LD cS a & ay Sonn nnn < 50.2 Amps a 200000 )% QYy 29 Amps s02Amps _L8 When current is not the same in all three coils, itis. unbalanced. The following diagram depicts an example of an unbalanced system. s28heee cota Zt aioe Dy a Day) coi Php sat inp 2 81Wye Connections Review 11 82 The wye connection is also known as a star connection. Three coils are connected to form a "Y" shape. The wye transformer secondary has four leads, three phase leads and one neutral lead. The voltage across any phase (line-to-neutral) will always be less than the line-to-line voltage. The line-to-ine voltage is the square root of 3 times the line-to-neutral voltage, The following example shows a wye transformer secondary with a line-o-neutral voltage is 277 volts and a line-to-line voltage of 480 volts. ELine-to-Line = {3 x 277 = 1.732 x 277 = 480 Volts | I 277s 1. I 277Vohs uu 90Valts 480olts 1. If the primary of a transformer has more turns than the secondary, it is a transformer. 2. If the primary of a transformer has fewer turns than the secondary, itis a transformer. 3. The secondary voltage of an iron-core transformer with 240 volts on the primary, 40 amps on the primary, and 20 amps on the secondary is volts: 4. A transformer with a 480 volt, 10 amp primary, and a 240 vol, 20 amp secondary will be rated for kVA. 5. Avwye connected, three-phase transformer secondary, with 240 volts line-to-line will have volts line-to-neutral.Review 1 Review 2 Review 3 Review 4 Review 5 Review 6 Review 7 Review 8 Review 9 Review 10 Review 11 Review Answers 1) electron (+), proton (+), neutron (neutral); 2) free electron; 3) many; 4) a, c, €, g; 5) many, few. 1) electrons; 2) negative; 3) positive; 4) repel, attract; 5) voltage: 6)b; 7)a 1)1= 5, 2) amps, volts, ohms; 3) 0.5; 4) 45; 5) 2 amps; 6) 6, 6; 7) 20, 80, 1) 5; 2) 5.46; 3) 3.33; 4) 12; 5) 6; 6) 2.4, 1.6, 1) 12, 22; 2) 40, 13.33. 1) power, 2) E, R, E2; 3) 36; 4) iron, north-south; 5) north, south; 6) left, thumb, lines of flux. 1) sine wave; 2) 120; 3) one; 4) -129.9 volts; 5) 106.05 volts RMS. 1) 10; 2) 2.5; 3) 2.5; 4) 25. 1) reactance; 2) impedance; 3) 3.14; 4) o; 5) b; 6) 318.5; 7) 1118; 8) 6.4. 1) resistive; 2) inductive; 3) capacitive; 4) 1198, 0.1; 5) 1414.2, 0.0849; 6) 1200; 7) 2400. 1) step-down; 2) step-up; 3) 480; 4) 4.8; 5) 138.56. 83Questions 84 Final Exam The final exam is intended to be a learning tool. The book may be used during the exam. A tearout answer sheet is provided. After completing the test, mail the answer sheet in for grading, A grade of 70% or better is passing. Upon successful completion of the test a certificate will be issued 1 is a good electrical insulator. a. copper c. silver b. aluminum d. rubber 2 A material with more protons than electrons has a a, negative charge cc. neutral charge b. positive charge d._-—_—no charge 3 In a simple electric circuit with a 12 volt supply, and a 24 Q resistor, current is a 2amps c. 0.2 amps b. Bamps d. 0.5 amps 4. The total resistance in a series circuit containing three, 109, resistors a 102 c 3339 b, 302 d 1009 In a 12 volt series circuit where R and Rg=10 Q, current flow i 0, Ry=20 2 a, 0.3 amps c. 0,25 amps b. 0.5 amps d. 3.33 amps10, nn. 12. 13. In a circuit containing three 30 resistors in parallel, the total resistance is a 302 ce 102 b. 902 d 012 The rate at which work is done is called a. energy c. efficiency b. power d. power factor Power in a simple DC 12 volt, 4 amp series circuit is a. 3.amps c. 48 amps. b. 3 watts d. 48 watts The instantaneous voltage at 150 degrees of an AC sine wave whose peak voltage is 480 volts is a 415.7 volts c 240 volts b. 480 volts d Ovolts The effective voltage of an AC sine wave whose peak voltage is 480 volts is a, 415.7 volts ce. 480 volts b. 339.4 volts d. 679 volts The time constant of a series circuit with a 10 mh inductor, and a § Q resistor is a, 2 milliseconds c. 2microseconds b. 2 seconds d. 0.5 seconds The total inductance of a series circuit containing three inductors with values of 10mh, 20 mh, and 40 mh is a 6.7 pF ce 702 b, 5.7mh d. 70mh The time constant for a series circuit with a 20 2 resistor and a4 uF capacitor is a. 80microseconds c. 5 microseconds b. 80 milliseconds d. milliseconds. 8586 4 15. 16. 7 18. 19. 20. Total capacitance for a series circuit containing a 2 WF 4 UF and 8 wF capacitors is a 14uF cc M4 pF b. 0.875 WF do aur Total opposition to current flow in an AC circuit that contains both reactance and resistance is called a, resistance c. impedance b. reactance d. capacitance In a 60 hertz circuit containing 5 millinenrys of inductance, inductive reactance is a 1884. Q ©. 0,005 b 1884.2 d 0.052 In a purely inductive circuit current leads voltage by 90 degrees current lags voltage by 90 degrees current and voltage are in phase current leads voltage by 30 degrees aege In a series AC circuit with a 20 Q resistor and a 10 Q inductive reactance, impedance is a 300 c 1419 b = 102 d. 22.42 A series AC circuit containing more capacitive reactance than inductive reactance is a, inductive ©. capacitive b. resistive d.— inphase An iron-core transformer with a primary voltage of 120 volts, primary current of 10 amps, and secondary current of 5 amps has a secondary voltage of a. 60 volts ©. 480 volts b. 240 volts d. 30 volts8788 quickSTEP Online Courses quickSTEP online courses are available at http/www.sea.siemens.cor/step. The quickSTEP training site is divided into three sections: Courses, Downloads, and a Glossary, Online courses include reviews, a final exam, the ability to print a certificate of completion, and the opportunity to register in the Sales & Distributor training database to maintain a record of your accomplishments, From this site the complete text of all STEP courses can be downloaded in PDF format. These files contain the most recent changes and updates to the STEP courses. A unique feature of the quickSTEP site is our pictorial glossary. The pictorial glossary can be accessed from anywhere within a quickSTEP course. This enables the student to look up an unfamiliar word without leaving the current work area.