Computer Architecture

A Computer device is made up of a range of components, both internal and external. All the
components have important roles in the successful operation of the device. Whether it is a desktop
computer, a laptop, a tablet or a smartphone, the basic principles of the architecture are the same. An
important part of this architecture is the rules and methods the components follow

All computing devices are based upon the straightforward premise that items of processing hardware
require some input information. This information is converted into data that the processor can carry out
calculations with and turns the information into instruction. Some of this data may need to be stored
and recalled, and the computer will then produce an output depending on the instructions and data that
has been processed.

The Central Processing Unit (CPU)

At the heart of every computer system sits a processor chip. This central processing unit (CPU) is crucial
to the operation of computer system, and it is the job of this device to process the instructions and data
entered through the input devices. The CPU then uses the data to perform various operations and
ultimately produces an output. The CPU is also known as microprocessor, which is an intricate set of
circuits contained on a chip. These circuits are microscopic in size so can be built into a variety of
devices.

Stored Program Concept

1. The program is stored on a secondary storage device.
2. Data and instructions are moved to memory (RAM).
3. Data and instructions are stored in the same memory (RAM).
4. Data and instructions are to register to be executed instructions are fetch one at a time.
Von Neumann Architecture
In the 1940s, computer scientist and mathematician John von Neumann further developed the
computer architecture principles. He established a design still used in the development and
manufacture of computer system today – to work effectively, computer systems need a method of
storing programs while they are running.

This type of architecture is used as the starting point for most computer devices. Von Neumann
discussed how the CPU requires input and produces output, and that the microprocessor contains
several different components: a Control Unit, an Arithmetic Logic Unit and a set of a smaller
components called registers. The architecture also includes a memory unit with instructions and data,
both read from and written to. This acts as a storage bank for instructions that are used regularly by the
CPU while the computer is powered, and is called random access memory (RAM). Finally, buses or
connections carry the data from one component of the CPU to another, as shown by the arrows

Control Unit (CU)

The control unit is the part of the CPU that controls all of the input and output devices as well as the
arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and the memory unit. The CU is responsible for making sure all these
components follow the instructions it has processed from the input.

 Contain PC and CIR

 Control all activity of computer
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
As the name of suggests, the arithmetic logic unit enables the processor to carry out mathematical
operations on data, such as adding and subtracting and logical operations, such as AND, OR and NOT.
This is important in respect of processing data, which is numerical digits in its most basic form.

 Arithmetic = ADD/SUB , Logic = AND/OR/NOT

 Calculation on data

Memory Unit (MU)

The memory unit consists of RAM, sometimes referred to as primary or main memory. Unlike a hard
drive (secondary memory), this memory is fast and also directly accessible by the CPU. RAM is split
into partitions. Each partition consists of an address and its contents (both in binary form). The address
will uniquely identify every location in the memory.

 Contain MAR, MDR

 Uniquely identify the memory MAP

Registers
 Register are used to temporarily hold data and instructions during processing
 Stored data in binary bits

There are five different registers contained within a CPU

1. Memory Address Register (MAR)

This stores the address of the instruction to be processed

2. Memory Data Register (MDR)

This stores the data to be processed

3. Program Counter (PC)

This is used to keep the track of address of the next instruction to fetched

4. Current Instruction Register (CIR)

This temporarily stores the instruction currently being processed

5. Accumulator (ACC)
The ALU uses as a register called Accumulator, which stores the results of its calculations. Accumulator
holds data temporarily that is currently being used in a calculation
Immediate Access Store (IAS)
 A temp memory that store all the content of the control Unit
 Wait for instructions
 Before they processed

ROLE OF ALU
 Carried out calculations
 Carried out logical operations
 Holds temporarily
 In a register called Accumulator (ACC)

BUSES
Path way of transmitting data and instruction

There are four different buses contained within a CPU

1. System Bus
 System bus contain Address bus, data bus and control bus

2. Address Buss
 Uni – directional bus
 It carries signals relating to memory addresses between processor (ALU) or memory (MU)

3. Data Bus
 Bi – directional bus
 It is used to exchange data between processor (ALU) , memory (MU) and input / output devices

4. Control Bus
 It can be Uni – directional or Bi – directional due to internal connections
 A bus carries signals used to coordinate the computer activities
Fetch – Decode – Execute Cycle
All modern computers with architecture based upon the work of John von Neumann use a method of
processing data known as the fetch-decode-execute cycle. This cycle happens in a matter of milliseconds
and enables a computer to logically process the data it receives in the correct order for the user’s
requirements.

All the component parts of the Central Processing Unit (CPU) are used to make the cycle work. The cycle
begins with an instruction given by a user via an input device and is cent to the Control Unit (CU) via the
control bus. The CU then moves the appropriate processing instructions into the RAM

1. The Program Counter (PC) contains the address of the next instruction to be fetched. PC
2. The address contain in the Program Counter (PC) is copied to the Memory Address Register
(MAR) via the address bus. MAR  PC
3. The instruction is then copied from the memory location contained in the Memory Address
Register (MAR) and is placed in the Memory Data Register (MDR). MDR  MAR
4. The entire instructions is then copied from the Memory Data Register (MDR) and placed in the
Current Instruction Register (CIR). CIR  MDR
5. The value in the Program Counter (PC) is then incremented. So that it points to the next
instruction to be fetched. PC + 1
6. The address part of the instruction is placed in the Memory Address Register (MAR). MAR  PC
7. The instruction is finally decoded and is then execute.

Factors Which Improve Better CPU Performance

System Clock Cache Width Of Bus Over Clock Core
Clock cycle Frequently used Amount of data Can lead to over Core contain
synchronized all instructions transfer via data heating or ALU, Register or
computer activities bus is called width incorrect operation CU
of data bus
Increase the Cache memory is Large width of data More over clocking Dual Core
system clock will temporary bus improves less CPU 2 Processor
improve CPU better performance
performance performance
Data access is Quad Core
faster 4 Processor
Large cache More Cores
memory better improves CPU
performance performance
Instruction Set
A set of common instruction have been developed by processor manufacturers so that CPUs operate as
efficiently as possible. This instruction set is all the commands that can be processed by a CPU. The
instructions are the most basic types of command a computer can respond to and execute., and these
are referred to as operations. These operations ensure that the Control Unit (CU) and Arithmetic Logic
Unit (ALU) can carry out their respective jobs easily

Operations are made up of opcodes and operands. Opcode are used to perform an action on an
operand. We refer to coding such as this as machine cone

Opcodes
Opcode is the first part of an instruction that tells the computer what function to perform and is also
called Operation codes. Opcodes are the numeric codes that hold the instructions given to the computer
system.
These are the instructions that describe the CPU what operations are to be performed. The computer
system has an operation code or opcode for each and every function given to it.

Operands
An operand is the data that is required for the specific job as detailed by the opcode. The operand may
be a piece of data itself, or it may be an address location within the main RAM or a register.

Embedded Systems
An embedded system is a combination of hardware and software which is designed to carry out a
specific set of functions. The hardware is electronic, electrical or electro-mechanical.

 Can do some specific task

 Embedded system consists of 3 things
1. Microprocessor
2. System on chips (SoC)
3. Micro-Controllers

Application Of Embedded Systems

 Washing Machine
 Vehicle
 Security System