Controller
Controller
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
Why Digital?
Why in military and commercial communication systems use digits ?
There are many reasons . the main advantage is the ease of restoring digital
signals compared to analog .the pulse is amplified by a digital amplifier that restores its
original ideal forum.
Digital channels are less prone to distortion and interference than analog
channels. Since binary digital channels give a meaningful signal only when working in
one of two states- on or off- The outrage must be sufficiently large ,to translate the
channel work point from one state to another . Analogue signals , on the contrary , are
not signals with two states ; they can take a countless number of forms . With the use of
digital technologies , the very low error rate plus the use of detection and error
correction procedures make it possible to achieve high signal accuracy .Digital channels
are more reliable and can be produced at low prices , than analog . Besides, Digital
software allows for more flexible implementation than analog ( for example,
microprocessor, digital switch, large scale integrated circuit ).
Using digital signals and time division multiplexing (TDM) easier to use analog signal
and frequency division multiplexing (FDM). During transmission and switching separate
types of digital signal (data, telegraph, telephone, television ) can be considered as
identical ; after all-this bit is the bit. But digital systems require more intensive
processing then analog. In addition, foe digital systems-it is necessary to allocate a
significant amount of resources for synchronization at various levels. Conversely, analog
systems are easier to synchronize.
Another drawback of digital communication systems is that deterioration in quality is of
a threshold nature. If the ration S/N falls below a certain threshold, quality of service can
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jump from very good to very bad. In analog systems, the deterioration of quality occurs
more smoothly.
In digital communication the message signal to be transmitted is digital in nature . This
means that digital communication involves the transmission of information in digital
form .
Model of a digital communication system
a. Source alphabet : These are the letters , digits or special characters available from the
information source .
b. Symbol rate : It is the rate at which the information source generates source alphabets
. ( symbols / sec) .
c .Source alphabet probabilities : Hence probability of the occurrence of each source
alphabet can become one of the important property which is useful in digital
communication .
d. Probabilistic dependence of symbols in a sequence : The information carrying
capacity of each source alphabet is different in a particular sequence . This parameter
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defines average information content of the symbols . Entropy may be defined in terms of
bits per symbols .
Information rate = Symbol rate * Source entropy
(bits/sec) (symbols/sec) (bits/symbol)
a-Block size
Block size describes the maximum number of distinct code words which can be
represented by a source encoder. This depends on the number of bits in the code word.
As an example, the block size of 8 bits source encoder will be 28, i.e. 256 code words.
b-Code word length
Code word length is the number of bits used to represent each code word. As an
example, if 8 bits are assigned to each code ward, then the code word length will be 8
bits.
C- Average data rate
Average data rate is the output bits per second from the source encoder .
Data rate = Symbol rate * code word length
= 10* 8
Data rate = 80 bits / seconds
Also , since the information rate is the minimum number of bits per second
needed to convey information from source to destination .
d- Efficiency of the Encoder
The efficiency of the encoder is the ratio of minimum source information
rate to the actual output data rate of the source encoder .
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a)The coding rate that depends upon the redundant bits added by the cannel encoder .
b)The coding method used.
c)Coding efficiency which is the ratio of data rate at the input to the data rate at the
output of the encoder.
d)Error control capabilities.
e)Feasibility of the encoder and decoder.
4.Digital Modulators and Demodulators
If the modulation signal is digital ,then digital modulation techniques are used.
The carrier signal used by digital modulation is a always continuous sinusoidal wave of
high frequency . A digital modulation method must have following important parameters :
a-Bandwidth needed to transmit the signal ,
b-Probability of symbol or bits error ,
c-Synchronous or asynchronous method of detection,
d-Complexity of implementation .
5. Communication channel has some inherent problems .These are :
a- Signal attenuation.
b- Amplitude and phase distortion .
c- Additive noise interference .
d- Multipath distortion .
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF DIGITAL
COMMUNICATION
Advantages:
1.The digital communication systems are simpler and cheaper compared to analog
communication systems because of the advances made in the IC technologies.
2. In digital communication, the speech, video and other data may be merged and
transmitted over a common channel using multiplexing.
3. Using data encryption, only permitted receivers may be allowed to detect the
transmitted data. This property is of its most importance in military applications.
4. Since the transmission is digital and the channel encoding is used, therefore the noise
does not accumulate from repeater to repeater in long distance communications.
5. Since the transmitted signal is digital in nature, therefore a large amount of noise
interference may be tolerated.
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6. Since in digital communication, channel coding is used, therefore the errors may be
detected and corrected in the receivers.
7. Digital communication is adaptive to other advanced branches of data processing such
as digital signal processing, image processing and data compression, etc.
Disadvantages
1-Due to analog to digital conversion, the data rate becomes high. Therefore more
transmission bandwidth is required for digital communication.
2-Digital communication needs synchronization in case of synchronous modulation.
(c) It is not possible to separate out noise and It is possible to separate signal form
signal. Therefore, repeaters cannot be used. noise. Therefore, repeaters can be
used.
(d) Coding is not possible. Coding techniques can be used to
detect and correct the errors.
(e) Bandwidth required is lower that for the Due to higher bit rates, higher
digital modulation methods. channel bandwidth is required.
(h) Analog modulation systems are AM FM, PM, Digital modulation systems are
PAM, PWM, etc. PCM, DM, ADM, DPCM, etc.
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A periodic signal is that type of signal which has a definite pattern and repeats
over and over with a repetition period of T .
( ) ( )
T is the period of the signal . The smallest value of period T which satisfies above
equation is called the fundamental period T0 . Fig 2 .2 shows a periodic signal .
A signal is said to be Aperiodic if it does not repeat . Some times aperiodic signals are
said to pulse given by the equation :
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )
Which is not equal to x(t) . This shows that the signal having period T0=∞ is nothing but
a periodic signal .
EXAMPLE 2.1 Determine whether the following signals are periodic or not:
a. x(t)=sin 15πt
b. x(t)=sin √2πt
Solution: (a) x(t)=sin 15πt is a periodic signals.
The fundamental period T is given as
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Or
[ω=√2 π]
Or
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If we take the product of unit impulse function ( ) and any give function ( ) existing
only at since ( ) exists only at
Mathematically ,
∫ ( ) ( ) ( ) ∫ ( ) ( )
The shifting or sampling may also be done at any instant t=t0 if we define the impulse
function at the instant to , Mathematically
∫ ( ) ( ) ( )
EXAMPLE 1 Solve the following integral
∫ ( )
∫ ( ) ∫ ( ) ∫ ( )
∫ ( )
= 0+1= 1
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( ) ( ) ∫ ( ) ∫ ( )
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