EnginEEring MEchanics

for
Mechanical Engineering
 Engineering Mechanics
SYLLABUS
Free body Diagrams and Equilibrium; Trusses and Frames; Virtual work; Kinematics and
Dynamics of Particles and of Rigid bodies in Plane motion, including impulse and
Momentum (linear and angular) and Energy formulations; Impact.
2019 2 2 6
2020 0 2 4
2021 0 2 4
 CONTENTS
Topics Page No
1. FORCE AND MOMENT SYSTEMS 1-13

2. EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCE SYSTEMS 14-20

3. STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 21-28

4. KINEMATICS & DYNAMICS OF PARTICLES & 29-43

RIGID BODIES IN PLANE MOTION

5. FRICTION 44-55

6. WORK AND ENERGY PRINCIPLE 56-62

7. IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM 63-67

8. GATE QUESTIONS AND SOLUTIONS 68-114

9. PRACTICE QUESTIONS AND SOLUTIONS 115-139

 1
ENGINEERING MECHANICS

1 Force and Moment Systems

1. INTRODUCTION acting over it. It differs from an elastic

body in the sense that the later undergoes
Mechanics is the physical science which
deformation under the effect of forces
deals withthe effects of forces on objects.
No other subject plays a greater role in acting on it and return to its original shape
engineering analysis than mechanics. and size on removal of the forces acting
Although the principles of mechanics are on the body. The rigidity of a body
few, they have wide application in depends upon the fact that how far it
engineering. The principles of undergoes deformation under the effect
mechanicsare central to research and of forces acting on it.
development in the fields of vibrations, In real sense no solid body is perfectly
stability and strength of structures and rigid because everybody changes its size
machines, robotics, rocket and spacecraft and shape under the effect of forces acting
design, automatic, engine performance, on it. Actually the deformation in rigid
fluid flow, electrical machines and body is very small and is generally
apparatus, and molecular, atomic, and neglected.
subatomic behavior. A thorough
understanding of this subject is an 3. Newton’s Three Laws of Motion
essential prerequisite for work in these I. First Law : A particle originally at rest or
and many other fields. moving in a straight line with constant
The subject of mechanics is logically velocity, tends to remain in this state
divided into two parts: statics, which provided the particle is not subjected to
concerns the equilibrium of bodies under an unbalanced force.
action of forces, and dynamics, which
concerns the motion of bodiesunder
action of forces.
1.1 BASIC CONCEPTS
1. Particle :
A particle is a body of negligible
dimensions. In the mathematical sense, a
particle is a body whose dimensions are NOTE :
considered to be near zero so that we may
analyze it is as a mass concentrated at a I First law : contains the principle of the
point. We often choose a particle as a equilibrium of forces Þ main topic of
differential of a body. We may treat a body concern in Statics.
as a particle when its dimensions are II. Second Law : A particle of mass “m” acted
irrelevant to the description of its position upon by an unbalanced force “F”
or the action of forces applied to it. experience acceleration “a” that has the
2. Rigid body same direction as the force and a
magnitude that is directly proportional to
A rigid body is one which does not change
the force.
its shape and size under the effect of force
 2

NOTE :
Gravitational Attraction of the Earth:
NOTE : Weight of a Body : If a particle is located at or
Second Law : forms the basis for most of the near the surface of the earth, the only
analysis in Dynamics. significant gravitational force is that
III. Third Law : The mutualforces of action between the earth and the particle.
and reaction between two particles are Weight of particle having mass m1 = m
equal,opposite, and collinear.
Assuming earth to be a non-rotating
sphere of constant density and having
mass m2 = Me

NOTE :
Third law :basic to our understanding of Force
ÞForces always occur in pairs of equal
and opposite force.
4. Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitational
Attraction :
mM e
Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitation W=G
states that any two objects exert a r2
gravitational force of attraction on each W = mg
other. The direction of the force is along
r = distance between the earth’s center
the line joining the objects. The magnitude
and the particle
of the force is proportional to the product
of the gravitational masses of the objects, Let g = G Me/r 2= acceleration due to
and inversely proportional to the square gravity (9.81m/s2)
of the distance between them. Weight of a body (gravitational force
m1m2 acting on a body) is required to be
F G computed in Statics as well as Dynamics
r2
5. Scalars and Vectors
We use two kinds of quantities in
mechanics - scalars and vectors. Scalar
quantities are those with which only a
magnitude is associated Examples of scalar
F = mutual force of attraction between
quantities are time, volume, density, speed,
two particles
energy, and mass. Vector quantities, on
G = universal constant of gravitation the other hand, possess direction as well
as magnitude, and must, obey the
By experiment G=6.673 x 10-11 m3 /kg-s2
parallelogram law of addition as described
m1 , m2 = masses of two particles later in this arcle. Examples of vector
quantities are displacement, velocity,
r = distance between two particles
acceleration. force, moment, & momentum.
 3

Speed is a scalar. It is the magnitude of The negative of V is a vector - V having

velocity, which is a vector. Thus velocity is the same magnitude as V but directed in
specified by a direction as well as a speed. the sense opposite to V, as shown in Fig.
I. Vectors 1/1.

Free vector : whose action is not confined

to or associated with a unique line in
space Ex. Movement of a body without
rotation.

Sliding Vector : has a unique line of action

in space but not a unique point of
application Ex. External force on a rigid Vectors must obey the parallelogram law
body of combination. This law states that two
• Principle of Transmissibility vectors V1 and V2 treated as free vectors,
Fig. 1/2a, may be replaced by their
• Imp in Rigid Body Mechanics
equivalent vector V, which is the diagonal
of the parallelogram formed by V1 and V2
as its two sides, as shown in Fig. 1/2b. This
combination is called the vector sum, and
is represented by the vector equation.
V = V1 + V2
The two vectors V1 and V2 , again treated
as free vectors, may also be added head
Fixed Vector : for which a unique point to-tail by the triangle law, as shown in Fig.
of application is specified 1/2c, to obtain the identical vector sum V.
We see from the diagram that the order
Ex. : Action of a force on deformable body. of addition of the vectors does not affect
their sum, so that V1 + V2 + V2 + V1- The
difference V 1 - V 2 between the two
vectors is easily obtained by adding -V1 to
V 2 between the two vectors is easily
triangle or parallelogram procedure may
be used. The difference V’ between the
two vectors is expressed by the vector
WORKING WITH VECTORS equation
The direction of the vector V may be V’ = V1 + V2
measured by an angle from some known Where the minus sign denotes vector
reference direction as shown in Fig. 1/1. subtraction
 4

Components (sides of parallelogram)

Any two or more vectors whose sum

equals a certain vector V are said to be
the components of the vector. Thus, the
vectors V1 and V2 in Fig. 1/4a are the Cosine law :
components of V in the directions 1 and C= A2  B 2  2 AB cos c
2, respectively. It is usually most
Sine law
convenient to deal with vector
components which are mutually A B C
 
perpendicular; these are called rectangular sin a sin b sin c
components. The
Algebraic Solution
• Using the coordinate system
• Trigonometry (Geometry)
• Resultant Force and Components
• from Law of Cosines and Law of Sines
1.1. Force
vectors Vx and Vy in Fig. 1/4 are the and Force is a vector quantity which tends to
components, respectively of V. Likewise, change the state of a body. It means force
in Fig. 1/4c, Vx and Vy , are the x’ and y’ - is capable to bring a static body into
components of V. When expressed in motion or a moving body into static
rectangular components, the direction of position. The study of mechanics
the vector with respect to say, the x-clearly encounters various types of force
specified by the angle , where systems. The forces meeting at one point
constitute a concurrent force system. The
vy
  tan 1 forces lying in one plane constitute a
vx coplanar force system.
Vector Addition : Procedure for Analysis The SI unit of force is Newton (N), defined
as the force acting on mass of 1 kg which
Parallelogram Law (Graphical)
produces an acceleration of 1 m/s2.
(i) Characteristics of a Force

Let a force F acts on a rigid body placed
on a rough horizontal plane. Depending

upon the magnitude of F , the body can
start moving in a straight line, if the line

of action of F passes through the center
Resultant Force (diagonal) of gravity of the body. This motion is called
 5

translation. If line of action does not pass In this system lines of action of all the
through the center of gravity of the body, forces meet at a point but have different
the force will also result into rotation of in the same plane are shown as in the
the body. Thus, a force is characterized figure.
by its magnitude, line of action, direction 3. Coplanner Non- Concurrent Parallel
and point of application. Force system.
Effects of Force
When a force acts on a body, the effects
produced in that body may be as follows
(i) It may bring a change in the motion of
the body i.e, the motion may be
accekerated or retarded.
(ii) It may balance the forces already acting
on the body thus bringing the body to In this system, lines of action of all the
asiste of rest or of equilibrium, and forces lie in the same plane and are
parallel to each other but may not have
(iii) It may change the size or shape of the same direction as shown in the figure.
body i.e. the body may be twisted, bend,
stretched, compressed or otherwise 4. Coplanner Non-Concurrent Non
distorted by the action of the force. Parallel Force system : -
FORCE SYSTEMS
A force system is a collection forces acting
on a body in one or more planes.
According to the relative expositions of
the lines of action of the forces, the forces
Such a system exists where the line of
may be classified as follows.
action of all forces lie in the same plane
1. Coplanne Concurrent Colinear Force but do not pass through a common point
system. as shown in the point figure.
It is the simplest force system and included 5. Non- Coplanner Concurrent Force
those forces whose vectored lie along the
same straight line : System : -

2. Coplanner Concurrent Non-Parallel

Force System
Forces whose lines of action pass through
a common point are called Concurrent
forces. I
This system is evident where the lines of
action of all forces donor lie in the same
plane but do pass through a common
point. An example of this force system is
the force in the legs of tripod support of a
dumpy level.
 6

6. Non- Coplanner Non-Concurrent Force Thus, the resolved part of a given force
System : - in a given direction is equal to the
Where the lines of action of all forces do magnitude of the force multiplied with the
not lie in the same plane and do not pass cosine of the angle between the line of
through a common point, a Non- action of the force and the direction. Using
Coplanner Non-Concurrent system is the resolved parts, a force can be
present. presented in vector form:

(ii) Resolutions of a Force F  Fx i  Fy j
Force is a vector quantity, therefore, has
its resolved components in given where is i and j are the unit vectors in
directions, which are called resolutions. x and y directions, respectively. Magnitude
RESULTANT OF A FORCE 
of force F can be found as
A resultant force is a single force which
can replace two or more forces and F  Fx2  Fy2
produce the same effect on the body as
that of the forces. The concept of resolved components is
used to add two or more forces by
COMPONENT OF A FORCE summing their x and y components:
Generally a Force is resolved into the
following two types of components. R x   Fx
1. Mutually perpendicular components.
R y   Fy
2. Non- Perpendicular components.
where R x and R y are the resolved
1. Mutually Perpendicular Components components of the resultant force
Engineering problems frequently need expressed as
resolution of a force in orthogonal 

directions. Consider a force F in a x-y R  R x i  R y j
plane at an angle è with the x-axis 2. Non-Perpendicular Component.
Referring figure blow Let oc represents
the given force P in magnitude and
direction to scale.

Figure : Resolution of a force

Magnitudes of the resolved parts of force
F along x and y directions are the given
Draw oa and ob making angle ' ' and '  '
by
with oc.
Fx = F cos 
Through c draw ca parallel to ‘ob’ and ‘cb’
  parallel ‘oa’ to complete the parallelogram
Fy  Fcos      Fsin 
2  ‘o
 7

Now the vectors oa and ob represent in

magnitude and direction as P 1 and P 2
respectively.
Now from the triangle ‘oac’ by applying
sine rule

o oc oc
 
sin  sin 180       sin 
The resolution P1 in the direction OX is
P1 P P P1 Cos1 , and in the direction OY is
or   2
sin  sin     sin  P1 Sin1 ,
The resolution P2 in the direction OX is
sin β sin β
so P1  P. & P2  P. P2 Cos 2 , and in the direction OY is
sin  α  β  sin  α  β 
P2 Sin 2 ,
RESULTANT OF SEVERAL COPLANNER
CONCURRENT FORCES : - Sing Convention of resolution : -
For the resultant of number of concurrent The upward forces (  ) is considered –
forces any of the following two methods Positive (+)
are used.
The downward forces (  ) is considered
1. Graphical Method
–
Negative (-)
The Right Hand Side forces is – Positive
(+)
The left Handed Forces is – Negative(-)
FREE BODY DIAGRAM : -
A body may consist of more than one
element and supports. Each element or
The Figure above shows the P1 P2 and P3
support can be isolated From the rest of
simultaneously acting at a point O.
the system by incorporating the net effect
Draw vector ab equal to force P1 to some of the remaining system through set of
scale and parallel to the line of action P1. forces. A free body diagram is a process
o isolating a body from all of its supports
From b’ draw vector ‘bc’ to represent
and in the place of the support a force of
force P2 In magnitude and direction.
required magnitude is provided so that the
Now from ‘c’ draw vector ’cd’ and equal position of the body will not change.
and parallel to P3. Join ‘ad’ which gives the
required resultant in magnitude and
direction as per fig-(b) the vector diagram
above.
2. Analytical Method
 8


The direction of Mo is determined by the
right hand rule.

1.2. Moment of a Force

(i) Definition DIRECTION OF THE MOMENT

Moment of a force about a point or axis The direction of M0 would be specified by

is the measure of the tendency of the using the right hand rule. Counter
force to cause a body to rotate about the Clockwise (CCW) is o ut of the page,
point or axis. It is quantified by the Clockwise (CW) is into the page
product of the force and the
perpendicular distance of its line of action
from the point. This perpendicular
distance is called arm of the moment.

Consider a force F acting on a rigid point..
Moment of this force can be determined
 Magnitude of the moment is given by
about a point O situated at distance r from
line of action. Mo = r F sin è ————— (2)
 
where  is the angle between r and F .
The curl or sense of rotation can always
be determined by observing in which
direction the force would “orbit” about the
fulcrum point O. The point is referred only
for a two dimensional case, however, the
moment always acts about an axis
Figure : Moment of a force perpendicular to the plane containing &
this axis intersects the plane at the point

The moment Mo of the force about point O.
O is defined as the cross product of force Eq. (2) indicates that a force will not
vector and distance vector : contribute a moment about a specified
   axis if line of action of the force is parallel
Mo  r  F ————— (1) to the axis (  = 0).
 9

(ii) Resultant Moment of a System of Forces as shown in Fig. 2/10a. These two forces
Let a system of forces acts upon a rigid cannot be combined into a single force
body. Resultant moment of the forces because their sum in every direction. The
about a point is determined by the vector combined moment of the two forces about
addition of the moments of individual an axis normal to their plane and passing
forces about that point: through any point such as O in their plane
is the couple. M This couple has magnitude.
(iii) Varignon’s Theorem
M = F (a+d) - Fa
According to Varignon’s theorem’, the
algebraic sum of moments of several Or M = Fd
concurrent forces about any point is
equal to the moments of their resultant
about the same point. Varignon’s theorem
can be stated alternatively as the moment
of a force about any point equal to the
sum of moments of its components about
that point. For the system of coplanar
concurrent forces shown in figure, the
Its direction is counter clock wise when
Varignon’s theorem is written as
viewed from above the case illustrated.
Fr = Fx x + Fy y
Note especially that the magnitude of the
couple is independent of the distance a
which locates the force with respect to the
moment center O. It follows that the
moment of a couple has the same value
for all moment centers
(v) Moment of a Couple
Two equal but opposite parallel forces
having different lines of action form a
Figure: Varignon’s Theorem couple. The resultant force of the two
forces in any direction is zero. However,
(iv) Principle of Moments
the only effect is to produce a tendency to
The principle of moments is a corollary rotate a body upon which the couple act
derived from the Varignon’s theorem, because sum of the moments of the two
which states that if a system of coplanar forces about a given point is not zero.
forces is in equilibrium, then the algebraic  
sum of their moments about any point in Let two forces F and - F be situated at
 
their plane is zero. distances r 1 and r 2 from a point O
2/5 COUPLE
The moment produced by two equal,
opposite and noncollinear forces is called
a Couple. Couples have Important
applications in mechanics.
Consider the action of two equal and
opposite forces F and F a distance d apart,
 10

FIGURE: MOMENT OF COUPLE F at point O form a couple whose moment

 depends upon the distance vector
The moment of the couple M is given byy between point O and P, like a free vector.
     Thus, an equivalent system of a force
 
M  r1  F+r 2   F acting at point A is found at point O.
  
 
 r1  r 2  F
  
M  rF …….. (1)
  
 
where r  r1  r 2 is the distance vector
between the lines of action of the parallel Figure: Equivalent system of a force
forces. This vector is called arm of the
couple. Direction of is a vector 1.4. Single Resultant Force
perpendicular to , and force. Consider a situation when a rigid body is
Equation (1) shows that moment of the subjected to a system of forces and couple
couple is equal to the vector product of moments. The system of forces and
either force of the couple with the arm of moments can be reduced to a resultant
the couple. The moment of a couple is force acting at point O, and resultant
independent of r1 or r2 vectors, therefore, moment by the vector sum of the
point O can be chosen arbitrarily. It means respective quantities :
that moment of a couple is a free vector,  
unlike the moment of a force which FR   F
requires a definite axis.  
MR   M
1.3. Equivalent System of a Force
 
A force tends to cause translation and As a special case, if M R and F R are
rotation of a body. This depends upon the perpendicular to each other, the situation
magnitude, direction, and line of action of can be further simplified by replacing and
the force with respect to the center of at point O by a single force acting at a
gravity of the body. A body can be distance d from point O. The distance d is
subjected to a system of forces. The given by following expression:
problem is generally simplified by
determining an equivalent system of This effect is the reverse of determining
resultant force and moment that can an equivalent force of a system. This
produce the same effect of translation and observation can be applied in the
rotation with respect to any point on the following special cases :
body. 1. Concurrent Force Systems The forces
Consider a body subjected to a force at meeting at one point constitute a
point P. The force is to be moved to concurrent force system. Thus, there is
another point O without changing the no resultant couple moment, and the
effect on the body. resultant force acts at a specific point O
only.
This can be done by applying equal and
opposite forces and — at point O. Thus, 2. Coplanar Force Systems The forces lying
the original force at point A and force — in one plane constitute a coplanar force
system. Such a system can be replaced by
 11

the resultant coplanar force F acting at a Case 3

point O, and the resultant moment MR
along an axis passing through point O and
normal to the plane of forces. This can be
further simplified by a resultant force FR
acting at a distance d = MR/FR from point
O.

ox  plane zoy in which Fz lies

Fz cause the pipe to turn about the x-axis
Fz cause a moment a bout the x-axis
(Mo)x
NOTE: Moment of Force F around Point O Mo
Exa.: 1
Case1
A roller of radius r = 300 mm and weight
2000 N is to be pulled over a curb of
height 150 mm by a horizontal force P
applied to the end of a string wound tightly
around the circumference of the roller.
Find the magnitude of P required to start
the roller move over the curb. What is the
least pull P through the centre of the wheel
Fx causes the pipe to turn about the z-axis to just turn the roller over the curb ?

Fx causes a moment about the

z-axis = (Mo)z
Case 2

Sol. : When the roller is about to turn over the

curb, the contact with the floor is lost and
hence there is no reaction from the floor.
The reaction R from the curb must pass
through the intersection of P and the line
of action of self weight, since the body is
Fy passes through O
in equilibrium under the action of only
Fy does not cause the pipe to turn because three forces all the three forces must be
the line of action of the force passes concurrent.
through O.
From diagram
 12

OC (300  150) 1 d = 4 cos 400 + 2 sin 400 = 4.35 m

cos    
AO 300 2

  60

By M = Fd the moment is clockwise and

Now in  AOB,  OAB   OBA has the magnitude
M0 = 600(4.35) = 2610 N.M
Since, OA = OB
(II) Replace the force by its rectangular
OAB  OBA   components at A,
2OBA  60
OBA  30
i.e.,the reaction makes 30 with the
vertical

Apply Fx 0

P – R sin 30o  0
F1 = 600 cos 400 + = 460 N, F2 = 600
P = 2309.40 sin 30o
sin 400 = 386 m
P = 1154.70N
By Varignon’s theorem, the moment
Exa. : 2
becomes
Calculate the magnitude of the moment
M0 = 460(4) + 383(2) = 2610 N.m
about the base point 0 of the 600-N force
in five DIFFERENT WAYS. (III) By the principle of transmissibility, move
the 6oo-N force along its line of action to
point B, which eliminates the moment of
the component F2. The moment arm F1
becomes d1 = 4 + 2 tan 400 = 5.68 m

Sol. : (1) The moment arm to the 600-N force

is
 13
ENGINEERING MECHANICS
And the moment is
MO = 460(5.68) = 2610 N.m
(IV) Moving the force to point C eliminates the
moment of the component F 1. The
moment arm F2. Becomes
d2 = 2 + 4 cot 460 = 6.77 m
and the moment is
MO = 386(6.77) = 2610 N.m
(V) By the vector expression for a moment,
and by using the coordinates system [M = Fd]M = 80 (9 sin 600) = 624 Ib-in.
indicated on the figure together with the Thus, the original force is equivalent to
procedures for evaluating cross products, the 80-Ib force at 0 and the 624 Ib-in. couple as
we have shown in the third of the three equivalent figures.
MO = r x F = (2i + 4j) x 600
(i cos 400 – j sin 400)
= - 2610k N.m
The minus sing indicates that the vector
is in the negative z direction. The
magnitude of the vector expression is
Exam. : 3
Replace the horizontal 80-Ib force acting
on the lever by an equivalent system
consisting of a force at 0 and a couple.

Sol. : We apply two equal and opposite 80-Ib

forces at. 0 and identify the
counterclockwise couple.
 14

2 Equilibrium of Force Systems

The concept of equilibrium of rigid bodies (ii) Free Body Diagrams

is derived from the Newton’s first law of Two bodies in contact exert forces on the
motion, which states that if the resultant other. One of these force is called action,
force acting on a particle is zero, the and the other is called reaction. The
particle will remain at rest (if originally at concept of free body is derived from the
rest) or will move with constant speed in Newton’s third law of motion which states
a straight line (if originally in motion). that action and reaction are always equal
Thus, a body is considered in equilibrium and opposite, and when bodies are
when its condition (motion or rest) is smooth, they are normal to the surfaces
unaffected by the forces acting on it. For in contact.
example, a body moving with a constant
acceleration caused by applied force is Equilibrium of a body can be examined
said to be in equilibrium. using Eqs.(1) & (2). This requires
knowledge of all the forces acting on a
(i) General Condition
body. This is achieved by drawing the
The necessary and sufficient conditions body’s free body diagram. diagram
for complete equilibrium of a rigid body showing the forces acting on a body,
under a force system are as follows: together with reactions at the supports
1. For any system of forces keeping a body but not showing the supports is called a
in equilibrium, the algebraic sum of forces, free body diagram. A body so isolated
in any direction is zero: from its supports or surrounding is called
 a free body. Thus, a free body diagram
F  0 … (1)
shows all active and reactive forces acting
on the body.
2. For any system of forces keeping a body
in equilibrium, the algebraic sum of the
moments of all the forces about any point
in their plane is zero:

M  0 … (2)
These are the fundamental equations of
statics, which are essentially used in
determining the unknown forces and
reactions acting on a body under
equilibrium. In this reference, a problem Figure: Free body diagram
is called statically determinate if the For example, consider a body resting on
number of unknown reactions is equal to a surface.
the number of equations of equilibrium. Its weight W acts downward which
The problem is statically indeterminate if 
creates a normal reaction R n at the
the number of unknown reactions is less 
than the number of equations of surface. If a force F is applied to move
equilibrium. the body in the horizontal direction, the
 15

 can prevent translation of a body in the

surface exerts a friction force F ' that actss
opposite to it. The resultant of and is R. given direction by exerting a reaction
In the free body diagram, the weight W force on the body in the opposite
and force are to be included along with direction. Likewise, a support can prevent
the resultant reaction . the rotation of a body in a given direction
Internal forces of a body always occur in by exerting a couple moment on the body
equal but opposite collinear pairs, in the opposite reaction. The force and
therefore, their net effect on the body is couple moment are the reactions exerted
zero. Thus, internal forces are not drawn by a support on a supported body.
in free body diagrams. The following are the three kinds of
Weight of a body is the resultant of the supports that offer different types of
gravity forces acting on the particles that reactions
constitute the body. The point of 1. Roller Support A roller support prevents
application of this resultant force is known the body from translation in the vertical
as the center of gravity. Weight is an direction because the roller can exert a
external force, thus, it is included in free reaction force along the common normal
body diagrams. at tangent point.

(iii) Support Reactions 2. Hi n ged Su p p or t A hinged or pin support

Knowledge of support reactions is does not offer resistance against rotation.
necessary for drawing free body diagram Thus, it offers both horizontal and vertical
of a body to examine its equilibrium using reactions, but does not exert a couple
Eqs. (1) & (2). As a general rule, a support moment on the supported body.
 16

3. Fixed Support The most restrictive way Figure: Support reactions.

to support a body is using a fixed support Categories of Equilibrium
because it prevents both translation and
rotation of a supported body. Thus, a fixed Category 1, equilibrium of collinear forces,
support offers all the three elements of clearly requires only the one force
reactions: horizontal and vertical equation in the direction of the forces (x-
reactions and moment. direction), since all other equations are
automatically satisfied.
a) Roller support
Category 2, equilibrium of forces which lie in a
plane (x-y plane) and are concurrent at a
point 0, requires the two force equations
only, since the moment sum about 0, that
Is. about a z-axis through 0, is necessarily
zero. Included in this category is the case
b) Hinged support
of the equilibrium of a particle.
Category 3, equilibrium of parallel forces In a
plane, requires the one force equation In
the direction of the forces (x-direction)
and one moment equation about an axis
c) Fixed support (z-axis) normal to the plane of the forces.
Category 4, equilibrium of a general system of
forces In a plane (x-y), requires the two
force equations In the plane and one
moment equation about an axis (z-axis)
normal to the plane.
 17

2.2 Equilibrium of Three Coplanar Forces that relates the magnitudes of three
coplanar, concurrent and non-collinear
Using the general condition of equilibrium,
forces, that keep a body in static
the condition of equilibrium of three
equilibrium. The theorem states that if
coplanar forces can be stated as follows:
three forces acting at a point are in
1. If three coplanar forces acting upon a rigid equilibrium, each force is proportional to
body under equilibrium, they must either the sine of the angle between the other
meet in a point or be all parallel. two forces. Consider three forces F1, F2,
2. If three forces are in equilibrium, they F3 acting on a particle or rigid body
must be coplanar. making angles , ,  with each other
(i) Triangle Law of Forces
The problem of equilibrium of three
coplanar forces can be represented in
triangular fashion. This is known as the
law of triangle of forces which states that
if three forces acting upon a particle can
be presented in the magnitude and
direction by the sides of a triangle taken
in order, the forces will be in equilibrium.
According to Lami’s theorem, the particle
In converse way, if three forces acting
shall be in equilibrium if
upon a particle in equilibrium, they can
be represented in magnitude and F1 F F
direction by the sides of any triangle which  2  3
sin  sin  sin 
is drawn so as to have its sides
respectively parallel to the directions of The angle between the force vectors is
the forces. taken when all the three vectors are
   emerging from the particle.
Consider three forces F1 , F2 , F3 acting on
a particle or rigid body in equilibrium. The Example 1:
law of triangle of force is represented in Determine the horizontal force P to be
figure where these forces form a triangle. applied to a block of weight 1500 N to
hold it in position on smooth inclined
plane AB which makes an angle of 30° with
the horizontal.

The law of triangle of forces is equivalent Solution:

to the vector sum of the forces; the net The body is in equilibrium under the
force and moments acting on a particle is action of applied force P,self-weight 1500
zero, therefore, particle is in equilibrium. N and normal reaction R from the plane.
(ii) Lami’s Theorem Since R, which is normal to the plane,
In statics, Lami’s theorem is an equation makes 30° with the vertical.
 18

Writing equations of equilibrium for the

Apply  Fy  0 system of forces at joints B and C we have:
R cos 300 1500  0 T2sin  T1 sin 30 ………(1)
 R = 1732.06 N
Apply  Fx  0 T2 cos  T1 cos 30  20 …..(2)

P  R sin 300  0
P = R sin 300  0
P = R sin 300
P = 866.03 N

T2 sin   T1 sin 60 0....(3)

T2 cos      cos 600 ....(4)

From 1 and  3

Note : Since the body is in equilibrium under the
action of only three forces the above
problem can be solved using limes T1 sin 300  T3 sin 600
theorem.
 T1  3T3 ......(5)
R P 1500
 
sin 90 sin(180  30) sin(90  30) From  2  and  4 
R = 1732.06N
T1 sin 30 0  20  25  T3 cos 60 0
P = 866.03N
Example 2 : 3 1
3T3  T3  45
A wire is fixed at two points A and D as 2 2
shown in Fig. Two weights 20 kN and 25
 T3  22.5 kN
kN are supported at B and C, respectively.
When equilibrium is reached it is found From  5  ,  38.97 kN
that inclination of AB is 30° and that of
CD is 60° to the vertical. Determine the From 1 , T2sin θ  19.48
tension in the segments AB, BC and CD of From  2  , T2cosθ  13.75
the rope and also the inclination of BC to tan θ  1.4167
the vertical,
  54.780

T2  23.488kN
Example 3 : Two cylinders, A of weight 4000 N
and B of weight 2000 N rest on smooth
inclines as shown in fig. They are
Solution:
 19
ENGINEERING MECHANICS
connected by a bar of egligible weight
hinged to each cylinder at its geometric
centre by smooth pins. Find the force P
to be applied as shown in the figure such
that it will hold the system in the given
position.

Solution : Free body diagram of the two cylinders Solution : The free-body diagram of each pulley
is drawn in its relative position to the
others. We begin with pulley A. which
include. the only known force. With the
unspecified pulley radius designated by r,
the equilibrium of moments about its
center 0 and the the equilibrium of forces
in the vertical direction require
Applying Lami’s theorem to the system of
forces on cylinder A.

C 4000

sin 60 sin(60  90  15)

C = 4898.98N
Consider cylinder B:
Summation of the forces parallel to the
inclined plane = 0
P cos15 +2000 cos45 C cos60

4898.98cos 60  2000 cos 45

P=
cos cos15
P = 1071.8 N
  M o  0 
Example:4 Calculate the tension T in the cable
which supports the 1000-lb load with the T1 r  T2 r  0
pulley arrangement shown, Each pulley  T1  T2
free to rotate to about is bearing, and the   FY  0 
weights of all parts are small compared
with the load. Find the magnitude of the T1  T2  1000  0
total force on the bearing of pulley C.  2T1  1000  T1  T2  500 Ib
 20

From the example of pulley A we may

write the equilibrium of forces on pulley
B by inspection as
Ta  T4  Tr / 2  250 Ib

For pulley C the angle   300 in no wayy

affects the moment of T about the center
of the pulley, so that moment equilibrium
requires
T = Ta or T = 250 Ib Ans. Moment equilibrium about A eliminates
force R and gives
Equilibrium of the pulley in the x-and y
  M A  0  P  6 cos    981 4 cos    0 P  654 N
direction requires
Equilibrium of vertical forces requires
  Fx  0  250 cos 300  Fx  0 F
  Fy  0  654  R  981  0 R  327 N
  Fy  0  Fy  250 sin 300  250  0 F
The angle  depends only on these
F  F F  F 
2 2
 217   125 
2 2
 250 Ib pecified geometry and is
 x
 y

sin   3 / 8   22.0o
Example:5
The uniform 100-kg I-beam is supported
by its and rollers on the horizontal surface
at A and B. By means of the cable at C it is
desired to elevate end B to a position 3 m
above end A. Determine the required
tension P, the reaction at P, and the angle
 made by the beam with the horizontal
in the elevated position.

Solution.
In constructing the free-body diagram,
we note that the reaction on other
horizontal forces, P must also be vertical.
From Sample Problem 3/2 we see
immediately that the tension P in the cable
equals the tension P applied to the beam
at C.
 21

3 Structural Analysis

INTRODUCTION together by means or welded

An engineering structure is any connections. it is assumed that they
connected system of members built to pinned together. So the forces acting al
support transfer forces and to safely each end of a member are only axial
withstand the loads applied to it. To without the existence of bending
determine the forces internal to an moments or shear forces.
engineering structure, we must Each member can be treated as a two -
dismember the structure and analyze force member, in which the two forces
separate free-body diagrams of individual are applied at the ends of it. These forces
members or combinations of member. are necessarily equal, equal, opposite and
This analysis requires careful application collinear for equilibrium.
of Newton’s third law, which states that The entire truss can therefore be
each action is accompanied by an an considered as a group of pins and two-
equal and opposite reaction. force members, which obviously are
3.1 Trusses and Frames either in tension or in compression.
A structure can Consist two types of The basic element of a plane truss is the
members: triangle. Three bars jointed by pins at their
1. PLANE TRUSSES ends constitute a rigid frame. The
structure may be extended by adding each
A truss is one of the major types of
time two additional bars through a joint
engineering structures which proides a
to form a rigid. i.e. noncollapsible
practical and economical solution for
structure.
many engineering constructions.
especially in the design of bridge and
building that demand large pans.
They consist of straight members i.e. bars.
connected at their extremities through
joints. Therefore no member is Structures that are built from a basic
continuous through a joint triangle in this manner are known as
simple trusses.
All the members lie on a plane, while the
loads carried by the truss, are only Trusses that are geometrically similar and
concentrated forces that act on the joints have the same loads at corresponding
and lie on the same plane. joints, will present equal forces to the
respective members. This means that the
When a concentrated load is to be applied force of a member is not dependant on
between two joints, or a distributed load the size of the truss itself but on the
is to be supported by the truss — as in magnitude of the external loads and the
the case of a bridge truss - a floor system geometry of the truss.
must be provided, in order to transmit the
load to the joints. When more members are present than
Although the members are actually joined those needed to prevent collapse, the truss
 22

is statically indeterminate. On the other iii) All the loads are applied at the joints.
hand, when fever members are present, iv) Weight of the members are neglected
the truss is not rigid, forming a mechanism. because they are small in comparison
A truss is said to be rigid and statically with the loads.
determinate, when the number of The effect of axial forces acting at the joints
member of members, m along with the of a member is shown by marking arrows
number of joints. j, satisfy the equation. over the member, according to the
m = 2j – 3 direction of the forces.
The concept of rigid expresses the stability A member can be subjected to two types
of the truss, without being a ‘mechanism, of axial forces: tension (arrow directed
while the term statically determinate away from joint) or compression (arrow
defines the possibility for the truss to be directed toward joint).
analyzed and solved through one of the The method of joints
three methods that will be presented This method demands satisfaction of the
hereafter. conditions of equilibrium for the forces
The term analysis and solution of a truss, acting on the connected pin of each joint.
denotes the necessary procedure. to find The method therefore deals with the
for all or some of the members: equilibrium of concurrent forces acted on
the joint, where only two independent
• The magnitude of the axial force and
equations are involved :
• The situation of act for each member, i.e.

if it is under tension or compressor  x   and y 
 0
(ii) Frame : A frame consists of members which
 M 

can be subjected to a transverse load in The equation  0 cannot be
addition to the axial load. Thus, members used, once the forces arc concurrent.
carry loads at points other than nodes. If
load is applied at a point other than a We start the analysis with any joint, where
joint, the member is subjected to bending at least one known load exists and not
also ; and in such a case, the force in the more than two unknown forces are
member is not purely axial. To find the present.
forces in the members subjected to The external reactions are usually
bending, the equilibrium of each member determined by applying the three
is considered separately by constructing equilibrium equations to the truss as a
its free body diagram. whole. before the force analysis of the
3.2. Assumptions truss is begun.
During the equilibrium analysis of a joint,
To determine the axial forces developed
when we introduce the unknown force of
in the truss members, following
a member, the arrow which expresses the
assumptions are made:
sense of its vector is arbitrary. In this way.
i) Each truss is composed of rigid members, if the sense of the arrow is away from the
all lying in one plane. pin, this means that the member pulls the
ii) Forces are transmitted from one member joint. i.e. the bar is under tension:
to an-other through smooth pins fitted in otherwise it pushes the joint. i.e. it is under
the members. compression.
 23

The positive or negative sign that yields Equilibrium of joint B

from the equation of equilibrium, denotes We design the joint B as the zero point of
respectively the correct or wrong sense a virtual Cartesian coordination system.
of pur arbitrary choice. by drawing all the forces that act on it
If three forces act on a joint and the two (here, completely known is the reaction B
of them are on the same line. while the = 1 kN, while the other two are known in
third one is vertical or forms any angle direction only). introducing, for instance.
with that line, then the third force is S1, in tension and S2 in compression.
always Zero, while the other two are equal
and opposite
The procedure of the method is presented
in the example that follows.
Example
Compute the force in each of the nine
members of the following truss by the
method of joints.

Starting from equation y 

 0, (in
order to avoid S2), we get :

y 
 0,  1  S1  sin 450
1
 S1    1.41 kN ,
0.707

SOLUTION


 x  0   S2  1 41 cos 450

Reaction :
 S2  1 41  0  707   1 kN .

 M 

 0  4  a  1 a  B  3a The fact that the sign yielded for the forces
A
S1 and S2 is positive, means that the senses
 0  B  1 kN
we selected for these forces are correct.
 These correct senses are now transferred
 x  0   Ax  1  0  Ax  1 kN . on the corresponding members of the
free body diagram, beside the joint, whose
Having calculated the reactions. We draw
equilibrium has already been analyzed.
the free body diagram of the truss and
start analyzing the joint equilibrium. According to the principle of action
Where concurrent are only two unknown  reaction (Newton’s third law), we then
forces. draw at the other ends of the same
members (1 and 2) the opposite senses,
which are the real actions on the adjacent
joints.
Now we notice that member 1 pulls joint
B. Therefore it is under tension of 1.41
kN and also pulls the adjacent joint  . by y
the same force.
 24

At this time, on the table that follows at the equilibrium equation directly
the end of this solution, we record the expresses the real situation of the
result for member 1 as + 1.41 kN. corresponding member. The opposite
Member 2 on the contrary pushes joint occurs if we indtroduce the force as
B. Therefore it is under compression of I compressional.
kN and also pushes the adjacent joint Z, Equilibrium of joint Z
by the same force. Similarly, from the following figure, we get:
This new result is recorded on the table -
1 kN.
Since on the joint Z concurrent are three
unknown forces, we have to move to the
joint following the same procedure.
Equilibrium of joint
Here, introducing both the unknown
y 
 0  1  S5  sin 450  0  S5  1.41 kN
forces as tensile, we get :

Equilibrium of joint E
x 
 0   S 6  1  41 cos 45  1
0
Similarly, from the following figure, we get:
 0  S6   2 kN .

y 
 0  S3  1 41 cos 450  1
 0  S6  2 kN ,

x 
 0   S8  2  0  S8   2 kN

y 
 0   S7  4  0  S7   4 kN

Equilibrium of joint D
While the positive sign of S6 means the
correct sense of its vector, the negative Since we have here only one unknown
sign of S3 means that the correct sense of force, the other equation will be used for
this vector is the opposite from what has checking.
been selected. in other words the member
is under compression.
Transferring the correct senses on the
corresponding members of the free body
diagram beside the joint and following the
same procedure as before, we record on
the table the results for members 6 and 3 

as + 2 and – 1 respectively. x 
 0   S9  sin 450  1.41sin 450  2  0

Note : - From the above sequence it is clear that  S9  1  2  / 0.707   4.24kN

if we initially introduce an unkown force
as tensional, then the sign that yields from Ckecking ,
 25

These points are useful in predicting the

y 
 4.24  cos 450  4  1.41 cos 450
forces in truss members without the
 3  4  1  0! actual calculations.
3.5. Method of Sections
Equilibrium of joint A (Checking)
Method of joints is used in determining
the unknown forces on each member of
a truss while method of sections is
preferred in determining axial forces in
only few members. In this method, the
truss is cut at a section such that most of
 the members of unknown forces are
x 
 0  1  4  24  sin 450  2   1  3  2  0!
covered. The equations of equilibrium are
y 
 3  4  24  cos 450  3  3  0! then applied to determine the unknown
3.4. Zero-Force Members forces.
For example,
Truss analysis using the method of joints
is greatly simplified with the knowledge
of zero-force members in the truss.
Special situations of forces in truss
members are explained as follows.
a) If two members not in the same straight
line meet at a point which does not carry
any load, the force in each member is
zero. if one needs only to find the force in BC, it
b) If two members in the same straight line is possible to do this by only writing two
meet at a point, they carry equal and equations. First, draw the free body
opposite forces. diagram of the full truss and solve for the
c) If three members meet at a joint which reaction at A by taking moments about D.
does not carry any load, and two members Next draw the free body diagram of the
are in same line, then the force in third section shown and take moments about
member will be zero. E to find the force in BC.
d) If four members meet at a point at which
there is no load with two of the members
in straight lines, then forces in members
aligned in the same lines will be equal.

In the method of sections one can write

three equations for each free body
diagram (two components of force and
one moment equation).
Example 1 :
Find the resultant of the force system
Figure: Forces in truss members.
 26

acting on a lamina of equilateral triangular Example 2 : Find forces in all members of the
shape shown below. following truss

Solution : F x  80  100 cos 60  120cos30

Solution :
  73.92 N
(Negative sign shows that R, acts from
right to left)
Rx = 73.92 N

F y  80  120sin 30°  100sin 60°

Ry = 53.40N

R = 73.922  53.40 2

R = 91.19 N

Length of an inclined member FAF  15kN

4 3
And sin   , cos  
5 5
At Joint E:

tan  
F y

53.40
F x 73.92

  35.84
Let x be the distance from A at which the
resultant cuts AC.
Taking moment about A
53.40x = 80 100 sin 60° + 80 50  Fy  0

+ 120 sin 30° 100 4

FED   20  0
x= 317.008 m 5
 27

 FED  25kN (Tension) At Joint C :

H  0

FEF  FED cos   0

3
 FEF  25   15kN (Comp)
5
At this stage as no other joint is having
H  0
only two unknowns, no further progress
is possible. 3
FCB   R c  0
Let us find the reactions at the supports 5
considering, the whole structure.
5
 MA  0 FCB  15   25kN
3
R c  8  20  6  0 V  0

R c  15kN FCD  FCB sin 

V  0 4
 25   20kN  Tension 
5
VA  20kN
At Joint B :
H  0

H A  R c  15kN
At Joint A :

4 4
FBF   FBC   FAB  0
5 5

V  0 4 4
FBF   25   20  0
5 5
FAB  VA  0
 FBF  0
FAB  20kN (Comp)
H  0
H  0
3
FBD  25   0
FAF  H A  0 5
FAF  15kN (Comp) FBD  15kN  Tension 
 28

At Joint F. V  0
V  0 R1  200  200  150  100  100  325
FFD  0(since FBF  0)  425kN
Take the section (1) - (1) and consider the
right hand side part.

Example 2:
Find the magnitude and nature of the
for ces in t he member s U3U4, L3L4 and U4L3
of the loaded truss shown in

U 3 U 4  12  62  6.0828

1
sin 1   0.1644
6.0828
6
cos 1   0.9864
6.0828
Solution:
L3 L 4  6 2  82  10
To determine reactions, consider
equilibrium equations sin 2  0.6

cos 2  0.8

 M U4  0

FL3 L4  8  325 12  100  6  0

FL3 L4  412.5kN

FM L3  0
FU 4 U3  cos 1  9  100  6  100 12  325 18  0

FU4 U3 sin 2  FU4 U3 cos 1FL3 L4  0

Now,  M L0  0
456.2072  0.9864  412.5
R 2  36  200  6  200  12  150  18  100  24  100  30  0
FU 4 U3 
0.6
R 2  325kN  62.5kN  Tension 
 29

4 Kinematics & Dynamics of Particles & Rigid Bodies in Plane Motion

4.1 Basic Concepts The average velocity during the time

Kinematics describes the motion of interval  t is defined as
mechanical systems. without considerin2
the forces that produce that motion. r
Vav  (2.2)
Kinematics deals with velocities and t
accelerations. which are defined for points
The instantaneous velocity is given by
of interest on the mechanical systems. The
description of motion is relative in nature. r dr .
Velocities and accelerations are therefore v  lim  r (2.3)
t 0 t dt
defined with respect to a reference frame.
4.2 Kinematics of a particle. Rectilinear 4.2.3 Average and instantaneous
and curvilinear motion acceleration
The particle is classically represented as a We need to learn how the velocity varies
point placed somewhere in space. A with tune we define average acceleration
rectilinear motion is a straight—line by
motion. A curvilinear motion is a motion
along a curved path. v
a av  (2.4)
4.2.1 Position vector. Velocity vector. t
Acceleration vector and the instantaneous acceleration is
The position vector r (t) (see Fig. 2.1) of defined by letting the time interval
the particle P at a given instant of time approach zero in the limit :
refers to its location relative to some
reference point usually taken as the origin 4.2.4 Absolute frame
of a coordinate system. Note that every Let us express the position vector r1, to
vector considered in section 2.2 may be point P on the path of the particle in terms
projected onto the coordinate frame oxyz. of x, y, z components (see Fig. 2.2)
As the particle moves along its straight-line
path, its position changes with time. By
definition the displacement  r of the
particle during a time interval  t is given
by the change of its position during this
time interval.
r  r  t  t   r  t   2.1

rp  t   x  t  i  y  t  j  z  t  k (2.6)
 30

drp . . . Thus we can write ;

Vp   x t  i  y t  j  z  t  k (2.7)
dt  r  s
v  lim  
drp .. .. .. t  0
  s  t
ap   x t  i  y t  j  z  t  k (2.8)
dt
and
thus we have the magnitudes
s ds
lim 
.. 2 .. 2 .. 2 t  0 t dt
x2  y 2  z 2 & a p  x y z .
. . .
vp 
The velocity and acceleration vectors are As  t goes to zero, the direction of  r
obtained by successive time approaches the tangent to the trajectory
differentiation of position vector. Let us at posit ion rp(t) and and approaches  s
state now some notations which will be in magnitude. Consequently, in the limit,
used. r p. and rQ being the position vectors r/s becomes the unit vector t
of two points P and Q, we have : r
lim t
rp /Q = rp  rQ (2.9)
t  0 s
rp /Q = rp  v Q (2.10) thus

4.2.5 Tangential and normal coordinates  r   s  ds

v  lim      t
In many plane problems dealing with the
t  0
 s   t  dt
motion of a particle along a curve, it is Note the ds/dt is the magnitude of the
convenient to express the acceleration in velocity
term of two components ; one along the
ds
tangent to the trajectory and the second v
along the inward normal to the path. For dt
this purpose we define two unit vectors n
d 2s ds dt d 2 s ds dt ds
and t respectively along the inward nor. a  2 t  2t
mat and along the tangent to the path (see dt dt dt dt dt ds dt
Fig. 2.3). Let evaluate the derivation oft with
Consider a particle moving along a curved respect to s.
path in a plane shown in Fig. 2.3 Consider now the unit vector t at two
positions s and .s +s (see Fig. 2.4 (a))

As we have seen above ;

r dr
v = lim 
t  0  t dt
 31

Graphical Interpretations
dt  t  s  s   t  s   t
 lim    lim Interpretation of the differential
ds s  0
 s  s  0 s
equations governing rectilinear motion is
In the limit ass goes to zero. the vector considerably clarified by representing the
r elat i on sh i p s am on g s, v, a, and t
tends up in the plane normal to the path graphically. Figure 2/3a is a schematic
at s and directed toward the center of plot of the variation of a with t from time
curvature, it is the direction of the unit t1 to time t2 for some given rectilinear
vector n (see Fig. 2.4 (b)). motion. By constructing the tangent to the
Knowing the limiting direction of  t, we curve at any time t, we obtain the slope,
next evaluate its limiting magnitude. which is the velocity v = ds/dt. Thus, the
According to Fig. 2.4 (b) we can say that, velocity can be determined at all points on
when s  0 : the curve and plotted against the
corresponding time as shown in Fig. 2/
s 3b. Similarly, the slope dv/dt of the v-t
| t |  | t |   curve at any instant give, the acceleration
R
thus the magnitude and the direction are at that instant, and the a-t curve can there
established in an approximate manner. fore ore be plotted as in Fig. Fig. 2/33c.
s
t  n and so
R

dt  t   s /  R  n  n
 lim    lim  
ds s 0  s  s 0  s  R

We now see from Fig. 2/3b that the area

under the v-t curve during time dt is v dt,
which from Eq. 2/1 is the displacement
ds. Consequently, the net displacement of
the particle during the interval from t1 to
t2 is the corresponding area under the
curve, which is
s2 t2
s1
ds  
t1
v dt or s2  s1
then the acceleration can be evaluated by  (area under v - t curve)
 ds / dt  n
2 2
d s
a= 2
t  2.11 Similarly, from Fig. 2/3c we see that the
dt R area under the a-t curve during time : dt
or is dt, which from the first of Eqs. 2/2, is
a = a t  a n  at t  an n  2.12  dv. Thus, the net change in velocity
where betw een t1 and t2 is the corresponding
d 2 s dv area under the curve, which is
at    2.13
dt 2 dt v2 t2

 ds / dt 
2 2
v  dv   dt or v2  v1
 2.14 
v1 t1
an  
R R  (area under a - s curve)
 32

differentiated. Experimental data and

motions which involve discontinuous
relationships between the variables are
frequently analyzed graphically.
KEY CONCEPTS
Analytical Integration
Note two additional graphical relation. If the position coordinate s is known for
all values of the time t, then successive
When the acceleration a is plotted as a
mathematical or graphical differentiation
function of the position coordinate s, Fig.
with respect to t gives the velocity v and
2/4a, the area under the curve during a
acceleration a. In many problems,
displacement ds is a ds, which, from Eq.
however, the functional relationship
2/3, is v dv = d(v2/2). Thus, the net area
between position coordinate and time is
under the curve between position
unknown and we must determine it by
coor dinat es s1 and s2 is
successive integration from the
1 2 2 acceleration. Acceleration is determined by
 v2  v1 
v2 s2
v1
dv 
s1  a ds
2
or the forces which act on moving bodies
and is computed from the equations of
 (area under a - s curve)
kinetics diicussed in subsq uent chaptera.
When the velocity u is plotted as a function Depending on the nature of the forces, the
of the position coordinate s, Fig. 2/4b, the acceleration may be specified as a
slope of the curve at any point A is dv/ds. function of time, velocity, or position
By constructing the normal AB to the coordinate, or as a combined function of
curve at this point, we see from the similar these quantities. The procedure for
___
integrating the differential equation in
triangles that CB / v  dv / ds. each case is indicated as follows.
___ (a) Constant Acceleration. When a is constant,
Thus, from Eq. 2/3, CB /  v  dv / ds   a, the first of Eqs. 2/2 and 2/3 can be
the acceleration. It is necessary that the integrated directly. For simplicity with
velocity and position coordinate axes s  s0 , v  v0 , and t = 0 designated at the
have the same numerical scales so that the
beginning of the interval, then for a time
acceleration read on the position
interval t the integrated equations
coordinate scale in meters (or feet), say,
become
will represent the actual acceleration in
meters (or feet) per second squared. v z

The graphical representations described 

v0
dv  a  0
dt or v  v0  at

are useful not only in visualizing the or v 2  v0 2  2a  s  s0 

v s

v0
dv  a  s0
ds
relationships among the several motion
quantities but also in obtaining Substitution of the integrated expression
approximate results by graphical for v into Eq. 2/1 and integration with
integration or differentiation. The latter respect to t give
case occurs when a lack of knowledge of
the mathematical relationship prevents its 1
 v  at  dt or s  s0  v0 t  at 2
s z

expression as an explicit mathematical 

s0
ds 
0 0
2
function which can be integrated or
 33

These relations are necessarily restricted separating the variables and integrating.
to the special case where the acceleration Thus,
is constant. The integration limits depend
z z dv
on the initial and final conditions, which
for a given problem may be different from
t 
0
dt   v0 f v 
those used here. It may be more This result gives t as a function of v. Then
convenient, for instance, to begin the it would be necessary to solve for v as a
integration at some specified time t 1 function of t so that Eq. 2/1 can be
rather than at time t =0. integrated to obtain the position
Caution : The foregoing equations have been coordinate s as a function of t.
integrated for constant acceleration only. Another approach is to substitute the
A common mistake is to use these function a = f(v) into the first of Eqs. 2/3,
equations for problems involving variable giving v dv = f (v) ds. The variables can now
acccleration, where they do not apply. be separated and the equation integrated
(b) Acceleration Given as a Function of in the form
time, a f(t). v v dv s v v dv
Substitution of the function into the first
 f  v  
v0 s0
ds or s = s 0   f  v
v0

of Eqs. 22 gives f(t) = dv/dt. Multiplying

Note that this equation gives a in terms
by dt separates the variables and permits
of v without explicit reference to t.
integration. Thus,
(d) Acceleration Given as a Function of

v
dv  
z
f  t  dt or v  v0  
z
f  t  dt Displacement, a = f(s).
v0 0 0
Substituting the function into Eq. 2/3 and
From this integrated expression for v as integrating give the form
a function of t, the position coordinate a
v s s
is obtained by integrating Eq. 2/1, which,
 v dv   ds or v 2  v02  2  f  s  ds
v0 s0 s0
in form, would be
Next we solve for o to give v = g(a), a
s z z
 s0
ds   0
v dt or s  s0   v dt
0
function of s. Now we can substitute ds/
dt for v, separate variables, and integrate
If the indefinite integral is employed, the in the form
end conditions are used to establish the
s ds z s ds
constants of integration. The results are
identical with those obtained by using the
s0 g s
  0
dt or t =  g s
s0

definite integral. which gives t as a function o(a. Finally, we

If desired, the s displacement s can be can rearrange to obtain a as a function of
obtained by a direct solution of the t. In each of the foregoing cas when the
second-order differential equation acceleration varies according to some
functional relationship. the possibility of
s  f  t  obtained by substitution of f(t)

solving the equations by direct
into the second of Eqs. 2/2. mathematical integration will depend on
the form of the function. In cases where
(C) Acceleration Given as a Function of
the integration is excessively awkward or
Velocity, a = f(v).
difficult, integrat ion by graphical,
Substitution of the function into the first numerical, or computer methods can be
of Eqs. 2/2 gives f(v) dv/dt, which permits utilized.
 34

Projectile Motion 2/6). If we re to introduce a drag force

An important application of two- which dep ends on the speed squared (for
dimensional kinematic theory is the example), then the x- and y-motions would
problem of projectile motion. For a first be coupled (interdependent), and the
treatment of the subject, we neglect trajectory would be nonparabolic.
aerodynamic drag and the curvature and Example : 1
rotation of the earth, and we assume that A team of engineering students designs a
the altitude change is small enough so that medium-size cut a pult which launches 8-
the acceleration due to gravity can be lb steel spheres. The launch speed is V0 =
considered constant. With these 80 ft / sec, t he launch angle is 0 -35 0 above
assumptions, rectangular coordinates are the horizontal and the launch position is
useful for the trajectory analysis. 6 ft above ground level. The students use
For the axes shown in Fig. 2/8, the an athletic field with an adjoining slope
acceleration components are topped by an 8-ft fence as shown
Determine :
ax  0 ay   g
(a) the x-y coordinates of the point of first
Integration of these accelerations follows impact
the results obtained previously in Art 2/ (b) the time duration tf of the flight
2a for constant acceleration and yields
(c) the maximum height h above the
horizontal field attained by the ball
vx   v x  0 v y   vy   gt
0 (d) the velocity expressed as a vector) with
1
x  x0   vx  t y  y0   v y   gt 2 which the projectile strikes the ground
0 0 2
v y2   v y   2 g  y  y0 
2

In all these expressions, the subscript

zero denotes initial conditions, frequently
taken as those at launch where, for the
case illustrated, Sol. : We make the assumptions of constant
gravitational acceleration and no
aerodynamic drag. With the latter
assumption, the 8-lb weight of the
projectile is irrelevant. Using the given x-y
coordinate system, we begin by checking
the y-displacement at the horizontal
position of the fence.
x0 = y0 = 0. Note that the quantity g is taken
to be positive throughout this text.  x  x   v  t  100  30  0   80 cos 350  t t  1.984sec
 0 x 0 

 1 2 1
We can ee that the x- and y-motions are 

y  y0   v 
y 0 
t
2
gt  y  6  80sin 350 1.984    32.2 1.984   33.7 ft
 2
2

independent for the simple projectile

conditions under consideration (a) Because the y-coordinate of the top of the
Elimination of the time t between the x- fence is 20 + 8 -28 feet, the projectile clears
and y-displacement equations shows the the fence. We now find the flight time by
path to be parabolic (see Sample Problem setting y - 20 ft :
 35

 1  1
y  y 0   v y 0 t  gt 2  20  6  80 sin 350  t f    32.2  t f2 t f  2.50 s
Right hand thumb rule :
 2  2
 x  x   v  t  x  0  80 cos 35 0  2.50   164.0 ft.
Imagine the axis of rotation to be held in
 0 x 0 
 right hand with the fingers curled around
(b) Thus the point of first impact it and thumb out-stretched. If the curled
fingers give the direction of motion of a
(x,y) - (164.0, 20) ft.
particle performing circular motion then
(C) For the maximum height : the direction of out-stretched thumb gives
 v 2   v  2  2g  y  y   0 2   80sin 350 2  2  32.2  h  6  h  38.7ft the direction of angular displacement
 y y 0 0 

vector.
(d) For the impact velocity :
v   v   v x  80 cos 350  65.5 ft/sec
 x x 0

 v   v   gt  v y  80 sin 350  32.2  2.50   34.7 ft/sec
 y y 0 

So the impact velocity is v-65.5J–34.7J ft/

sec. Circular Motion Motion of a particle
along the circum ference of a circle is
called circular motion.
If motion is uniform and object takes time
Examples : t to execute motion, then it has tangential
i. The motion of a cyclist along a circular velocity of magnitude v given by
path.
s
ii. Motion of the moon around the earth. v
t
iii. Motion of the earth around the sun.
iv. Motion of the tip of hands of a clock.
Motion of
v. Motion of electrons around the nucleus in
an atom.
Angular position

Period of motion T = time to complete one

revolution (units : s)
Frequency f = number of revolutions per
second (units : s-1 or Hz’
If an object moves in a circle of radius r,
1
then after travelling a distance s it has f
moved an angular displacement T
Angular velocity
s
 Define an angular velocity 
r
 : is measured in radians angular displacement 
 
(2r radians = 360°) time interval t
 36

Uniform circular motion is velocity, It is termed as negative angular

when  is constant. acceleration.
eg : When an electric fan is switched off the
angular velocity of the blades of fan
decreases with time.
Units  Rad/s 2
It is a vector quantity. If  is constant then
similarly equation of motion (i.e.)
,   t are related  = 0   t
1
  0t   t 2
2
Combining last 3 equations : f  0  2  
2 2

v  r In uniform circular motion. angular

velocity is constant, so angular angular
2
period T = acceleration is zero.

1.2 Various types of motion
angular acceleration
The rate of change of angular velocity with a) Translational of motion
respect to time is called angular System is said to be in translational
acceleration. motion, if all the particles lying in the
 system have same linear velocity.
It is denoted by 
 
If  and  are the angular velocities of
a particle performing circular motion at
instant t0 and t. then angular acceleration
is given by.
  
    
 
t  t0 t
Direction: The direction of is given by
right hand thumb rule
Positive angular acceleration :
When an angular acceleration will have the
same direction as angular velocity, it is In both the above examples, velocity of all
termed as positive angular acceleration. the particles is same as they all have equal
displacements in equal intervals of time
eg : When an electric fan is switched on. the
angular velocity of the blades of the fan (b) Rotational Motion
increases with time. A system is said to be in pure rotational
Negative angular acceleration : motion. When all the points lying on the
When an angular acceleration will have a system are in circular motion about one
direction opposite to that of angular common fixed axis.
 37

  
vp    r
   
a    r  2 r

Example

In pure rotational motion. Angular velocity

of all the points is same about the fixed
axis
(C) Rotational + Translational
system is said to be in rotational
translational motion when the particle is
rotating with some angular velocity about ωL
VB  ωL and VA  , with directions as
a movable axis. 2
shown in figure.
For example :
Now in rotational + translational motion
We just superimpose velocity and
acceleration of axis on the velocity and
acceleration of any point about the axis.
(i.e.)

v = velocity of axis.
 = Angular velocity of system about O..
Inter Relationship between kinematics
variable
Iii general if a body is rotating about any
axis (fixed or movable), with angular  

velocity ‘ and angular acceleration  then V PO  R i

velocity of any point p with respect to axis  

is V0  V i
  
        V P  V 0  V PO
v    r and a    r  2 r

i. e.,   
 V P  V PO  VO

R + V i

 
Similarly V QO = R j

 
V0  V i
 38

   Accordingly the constrains can change

 V Q  V i  R j depending upon the assumptions.
Inter-relation between v of axis and  or
a of axis and  depends on certain
constraints.
General we deal with the case of no
slipping or pure rolling.

Fig. 14 Instantaneous Centre

for a rigid body
Instantaneous centre is useful in analyzing
The constraint in the above case is that the motion of a rigid body. If the directions
velocity of points of contact should be of velocity of two points on a rigid body
equal for both rolling body and play from. are known, the instantaneous centre can
be located. The instantaneous centre is a
point about which the body can be
considered to have pure rotation at that
instant. If the direction of velocity VA of
point A is known and also the direction of
velocity VB is known in Fig. 14, the
(i.e.) v  r  Vp intersection of lines drawn perpendicular
to VA and VB fixes the instantaneous
If platform is fixed then centre I. At that instant the body can be
taken as rotating about that point. Analysis
VP  0  v  r  using instantaneous centre reduces the
plane motion of a body to a problem of
An differentiating the above term we get rotation about a fixed point I.
Instantaneous centre is useful in finding
dv rd 
 . the velocities of different points on the
dt dt rigid body if one velocity is known
magnitude in addition to its direction. In
dv dv
Now if  a,   , then a = rα Fig. 15, some examples are shown.
dt dt
Remember if acceleration is assumed
opposite to velocity then

dv dv
a= in stead of a = .
dt dt

dv dv
a= in stead of a = .
dt dt
Similary : If  and  are in opposite
d
direction the    .
dt
 39

Direction :
Direction of torque is given by right hand
thumb rule. If we curl the fingers of right
hand from first vector ( 
r ) to second

vector ( f ) then ri2ht hand thumb gives
Fig. 15 Instantaneous centers on different us direction of their cross product.
Mechanisms
 Torque is always defined about a point or
4.3. ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS about an axis.
4.3.1 Torque When there are multiple forces. the net

Similar to force. the cause of rotational torque needs to be calculated. (i.e.)
motion is a physical quantity called a
  
torque.  not   F   F  ......... F
1 2 a
Torque incorporates the following factors.
All torque about same point/axis.
 Amount of force.
 Point of application of force. If   0, then the body is in rotational

 Direction of application of force. equilibrium

Combining all of the above.  If  F = 0 along with   = 0 . then body

dy
Torque  = rf sin  about a point O.. is in mechanical equilibrium.
Where r = distance from the point O to  If equal and opp. force act to produce
point of application of force same torque then they constitutes a
couple.
f = force
 
 For calculating torque. it is very important
= angle between r and f to find the eff. point of application of
force.
 Mg  Acts at corn centre of gravity..

 N  Point of application depends upon

situation to situation.
 Torque about O
4.3.2 Newtown’s Laws
 A is point of application of force
Magnitude of torque can also be rewritten   I .
as  I = moment of Inertia
 = rf  or  = r f where    Angular Acceleration.

f1  component of force in the direction  to r . 4.3.3 Moment of Inertia
  Gives the measure of mass distribution
r  component of force in the direction  to f . about on axis
 40

 I= m r i i
2

ri   distance of the ith mass from axis.

Always defined about an axis.

Keep in mind that here the quantity is the

perpendicular distance to an axis. not the
distance to an origin. To evaluate this
integral we must express m in terms of r
3.2 Moment of Inertia of some important
bodies
1. Circular Ring
I = m i ri2  m 2 r22  m3 r32  m 4 r42 Axis passing through the centre and
perpendicular to the plane of ring.
 SI units kgm2
I = MR2
Gives the measure of rotational inertia
and is equivalent to mass
(a) Moment of Inertia of a discreet particle
system :

2. Hollow Cylinder
I = MR2

I = m i ri2  m 2 r22  m 3 r32

(b) Continuous Mass Distribution
For continuous mass distribution, we need 3. Solid Cylinder and a Disc
a take help of integration : About its geometrical axis :
When the distribution of a system of
particle is continuous, the discrete sum 1
I = MR 2
2
m r i i
2
is replaced by an integral. The
moment of inertia of the whole body takes
the form

I =  r 2 dm
 41

4. (a) Solid Sphere

Axis passing through the centre :
I = 2/5 MR2

Ip = Icm + Md2
2. Perpendicular Axis Theorem :
Consider a plane body (i.e., a plate of zero
(b) Hollow Sphere thickness) of mass M. Let X and Y axes
Axis passing through the centre : be two mutually perpendicular lines in the
plane of the body. The axes intersect at
I = 2/3 MR2
origin O.
5. Thin Rod of length / :
(a) Axis passing through mid point and
perpendicular to the length :

Let Ix = moment of inertia of the body

about Y—axis.
Ml 2
I= Let Iy = moment of inertia of the body
12
about Y—axis.
(b) Axis passing through an end The moment of inertia of the body about
perpendicular to the rod : Z—axis (passing through O and
perpendicular to the plane of the body) is
Ml 2
I= given by :
3
Iz = Ix + Iy
The above result is 1iown as the
perpendicular axis theorem.
4.3.5 Radius of Gyration

4.3.4 Theorems on Moment of Inertia If M is the mass and I is the moment of

inertia of a rigid body. then the radius of
1. Parallel Axis Theorem : Let Icm be the moment gyration (k) of a body is given by :
of inertia of a body about an axis through
its centre of mass and Let Ip be the moment
I
of inertia of the same body about another k=
axis which is parallel to the original one. M

If d is the distance between these two 4.3.6 D’ALEMEBERT’S PRINCIPLE

parallel axes and M is the mass of the body
D’ Alembert’s principle is just a
then according to the parallel axis
restatement of Newton’s second law of
theorem :
 42

motion. For the linear motion of mass, Let t be the time to fall from A to B.
Newton’s second law of motion. Eq. (3.1), Then for motion from A to B,
can be rewritten as
u = 0, s = h and a = +g = 9.81m/ sec2
  
F  ma 
i
0  3.3 1
 h = 0 × t + gt 2
2
Equation (3,3) can be considered as an
equilibrium equation in which the sum of 1
h  gt 2 ..... (1)
 2
all for ce, including t he for ce  m a is in
For motion from A to C :

equilibrium. The term  m a representss u = 0, s = h + 2.45, a = g = 9.81 m/sec2
a fictitious force called the inertia force Time = t + 0.5
or D’ Alembert force. Equation (3.3)
denotes D’ Alembert’s principle, which can 1
h  2.45  0  t  g  t  0.5
2

be stated in words as follows : The sum of 2

all external forces, including the inertia
force, keeps the body in state of dynamic 1
 g  t 2  t  0.25 ….(2)
equilibrium. Note the the minus sign 2
associated with the inertia force in Eq.
(3.3) denotes that when Subtracting (1) from (2) we get
 
1
a  d v / dt  0, the force in the negative 2.45  g  t  0.25
direction. 2

Example 1 : 1
  9.81 t + 0.25
If a stone falls past a window of 2.45 m 2
height in half a second, find the height t = 0.2495 sec
from which the stone fell.
1 1
Sol. : h  gt 2   9.81  0.2495
2

2 2
Let the stone be dropped from A at a
height h above the window and BC h = 0.305 m
represent the height of window. Example 2 :
The velocity of a particle moving in a
straight line is given by the expression, v
= t3 - t2 2t + 2. The particle is found to be
at a distance 4m from station A after 2
seconds. Determine:
1) acceleration & displacement after 4
seconds, and
2) maximum minimum acceleration.
Sol. :
Given V = t3 t2 -2t + 2
 43
ENGINEERING MECHANICS
dv Example 3 :
 a  3t 2  2t  2
dt. The rotation of fly wheel is governed by
the equation co= 3t2-2t+2 where co is in
Hence, acceleration after 4 seconds
radians per second and t is in seconds.
= 3 × 42 -2 × 4 -2 After one second from the start the
= 38 m/sec2 angular displacement was 4 radians.
Determine the angular displacement.
ds angular velocity and angular acceleration
Now,  v  t 3  t 2  2t  2
dt of the fly wheel when t = 3 seconds.

t4 t3 2 Sol. :
 s  t  2t  C
4 3 Given
Where, C is constant of integration.   3t 2  2t  2
From the given condition, s = 4m
d
When t = 2 sec, we get  3t 2  2t  2
dt
2 2 23
4   22  2  2  C   t 3  t 2  2t  C
4 3
where, C is constant of integration
4
i.e., C  When t  1,   4
3
4  11 2  C
t4 t3 4
 S    t 2  2t  C2
4 3 3
Where, t = 4 sec   t 3  t 2  2t  C
43 43 4 When t  3
S   42  2  4   36 m
4 3 3
  33  32  2  3  2  26radian
Acceleration a is maximum or minimum,
  3  32  2  3  2  23rad/sec
da
When, 0 Angular acceleration  is given byy
dt
d
1   6t  2
i.e., 6t  2  0 or t  sec dt
3
When t = 3
2
da
Since, is a positive quantity, the abovee   6  3  2  16rad / sec2
dt 2
condition is for the minimum value.
 Minimum value of acceleration
2
1 1
 3    2     2
3 3
= -2.333 m/sec2
 44

5 Friction

INTRODUCTION - If the block does not move,

Whenever the surfaces of two bodies are fs = F
in contact, there is some resistance to fs increases when F increases until….
sliding between them. The opposing force
to the movement is called friction or force - fs has a maximum value: fs, max
of friction. It is due to interlocking of
surfaces as a result of the presence of f s , max  s N
some roughness & irregularities at the
contact surfaces. The resisting force acts  s : coefficient of static friction
in the direction opposite to the N : normal force
movement. A force of friction comes into
play whenever there is a relative motion Kinetic Friction Force
between two parts. Some energy is wasted When the body begins to slide, the friction
in order to overcome the resistance due force rapidly decrease to fk
to force friction.
fk  k N
 k : coefficient of kinetic friction
N : normal force

-  s and  k depend on the nature of the

Force of friction or frictional force is the contacting surfaces, can be determined
opposing force to the movement of one experimentally
body over the surface of another body.
In Fig. 2.1,

W  Weight of the body  mg 

N  Normal reaction
f  Friction force
P  Force applied to the body
R  Total reaction
  Angle of friction 5.1 Important Definitions
(a) Angle of Friction
Two kinds of friction forces
it is the angle made by the resultant (R) of
- Static friction force : fs the normal reaction (N) and limiting force
- Kinetic friction force : fk of friction (f) and made with the direction
of normal react ion.
Static Friction Force
R is the resultant of normal reaction N and
• An applied force F attempts to slide a block
force of friction f.
along a surface
 45

R N2  f 2
 is the angle of friction
f
tan  
N
f
or   tan 1
N When the body tends to slide down the
plane, the frictional force must act up the
plane and when the body is being pulled
up, the force of friction acts downwards
to oppose the motion.
Selecting the reference coordinate system
with X-axis in the direction of inclined
plane and Y-axis perpendicular to inclined
plane,
Applying equilibrium conditions,

F x 0
(b) Coefficient of friction f  W sin a
It is ratio of limiting frictional force and
the normal reaction. The coefficient of F y 0
friction,
N  W cos a
f
 N  tan 
f W sin a
  tan a
f  N N W cos a

 depends upon the nature of contacting f

surface. its value is very low for lubricated But ,    tan 
N
surfaces and high for dry friction.
(C) Angle of Repose Where  is called the angle of friction

A body of weight U’ is lying on a rough 5.2 Rough Horizontal Plane

plane inclined at an a with the horizontal.
There can be following cases of motion
The body is in equilibrium under the
of body on rough horizontal plane. The
action of following forces :
equilibrium conditions for each case are
(i) Weight : of the body W It has two discussed.
components: W sin a parallel to inclined
(a) No moving force
plane and W cos a normal to the plane.
(ii) Normal reaction, N acting in a direction P=0
normal to inclined plane.  Friction force f=0
(iii) Friction force acting in a direction
W=N
opposite to the motion.
 46

should be maximum,

 cos       1



(b) body moving under pull or push The angle of inclination of force P should

A force P is applied to the body. The force be equal to the angle of friction, 
body diagram is shown. Considering the 5.3. Laws of friction.
equilibrium of the body.
The principles discussed above are mainly
 Fx  0 due to the experimental studies by
Coulomb (1781) and by Morin (1831).
P cos   f i) The force of friction always acts in a
But by definition, f =  direction opposite to that in which the
body tends to move.
 P cos    ...... ii) Till the limiting value is reached, the
magnitude of friction is exactly equal to
 Fy  0 the force which tends to move the body.
 N  W  P sin  iii) The magnitude of the limiting friction bears
a constant ratio to the normal reaction
 W  N  P sin  between the two surfaces.

or N = W  P sin   iv) The force of friction depends upon the

roughness/ smoothness of the surfaces.
From equations (1) and (2) v) The force of friction is independent of the
area of contact between the two surfaces.
P cos  =  W  P sin  
Example 1 :
P cos    P sin   W The force required to pull the body of
weight 50 N on a rough horizontal surface
 sin   is 20 N where it is applied at an angle of
P  cos   sin W  25° with the horizontal as shown.
 cos  
Determine the coefficient of friction and
magnitude of reaction N between the body
sin   sin   and the horizontal surface. Does the
 W    tan  
cos   cos   reaction pass through the centre of gravity
of the body?
P  cos  cos   sin  sin    W sin 

P cos       W sin 

W sin 
P
cos     
For P to be minimum, cos     
Solution : The body is in equilibrium
 47

 Fy  0 W = N  P sin 
(iii) The angle inclination of force P will be
 N  W  P sin  equal to the angle of friction for minimum
value of P.
 50  20  0.42
     tan 1   tan 1 0.35
 41.55 N

 Fx  0  20.48 0

W sin 
 f  20 cos 200  18.13 N P
cos     
f 18.13
Now,  =   0.436 Ans.
N 41.55 For P to be minimum, cos       1
The reaction passes through the centre
 P  W sin  = 5 sin 20.480
of gravity of the body as it is equal and
opposite to weight of body W.  1.75 kN Ans.
Example 2 : Example 3 :
A block of weight 5 kN is pulled by a Obtain the expression for minimum force
force P as shown. The coefficient of required to drag a body on a rough
friction friction the contact surface is 0.35. horizontal plane.
Find the direction  for which P is
Solution :
minimum and find the corresponding
value of P. (I) Draw free body diagram.
(ii) Apply equilibrium conditions.

Solution :
(i) Draw free body diagram of the block.
(ii) Apply equilibrium conditions  Fx  0

 f  P cos   N

 Fy  0
.
N = W  P cos 

From equation (1) and (2)

 Fx  0
P cos   
 f  P cos
  W  P sin  
 Fy  0
 48

P cos    P sin   W The body is in equilibrium.

(i) Angle of inclination more than angle of
sin 
Now,   tan   friction.
cos 
The body will slide down and an upward
 sin   sin  force P is required to restrict the body
P  cos   sin    .W from moving down. The restricting force
 cos   cos  can be applied in different ways.
P  cos  cos   sin  sin    W sin  1. Along the inclined plane
Draw free body diagram.
P cos       W sin 

W sin 
P
cos     
For P to be minimum, cos     

should be maximum,
Equilibrium conditions.
 cos       1
 Fx  0

f  P  W sin 
Minimum value of P = W sin 
5.4 Rough Inclined Plane  Fy  0
(a) Equilibrium Condition for Different
Angle of Inclination N = W cos 

(i) Angle of inclination less than angle of 2. The restricting force applied horizontally
Draw free body diagram.
friction
Apply equilibrium condition.
1. Draw free body diagram.
2. Apply equilibrium conditions.

 Fx  0
f  P cos   W sin 
 Fx  0
 Fy  0
f  N  N sin  N = W cos   P sin 

 Fy  0 3. Force applied at an angle 6 with the

inclined plane Draw free body diagram.
W = N cos  Apply equilibrium conditions.
 49

sin 
   tan  
cos 
P cos   W  sin  cos   cos  cos  
W sin    
P=
cos 

(c) Body upwards an inclined plane

 Fx  0
Minimum force required to keep the body
f  P cos   W sin  in equilibrium.
 Fy  0
(i) Draw free body diagram.
N = W cos   P sin 
(ii) Apply equilibrium conditions.
(b) Body sliding downwards
 Fx  0
A body of weight W is on the verge of f  P  W sin 
sliding downwards. A minimum force P is  P  W sin   f  W sin   N ....(1)
required to restrict the motion.
 Fy  0
(I) Draw free body diagram. N = W cos  ....(2)
(ii) Apply equilibrium conditions.

From equation (1) and (2)

P  W sin    W cos 
 Fx  0
sin   sin  
f  N  W sin   P  W sin   sin    tan  
cos   cos  
 P  W sin   N ....(1)
P cos   W sin  cos   W sin cos 
 Fy  0
 W sin     ,
N = W cos  ....(2)
From equation (1) and (2) W sin    
P=
cos 
P  W sin    W cos  
Example 4 :
 W  sin    cos   A body of weight 500 N is pulled up along
an inclined plane having an inclination of
 sin   300 with the horizontal. If the coefficient
 W  sin   sin  
 cos   of friction between the body and the plane
 50

LS 0.3 and the force is applied parallel to Solution :

inclined plane, determine the force Draw free body diagram as shown. The
required. wheels are rotating clock wise to climb the
Solution : roadway, the forces of friction on the
front wheel and rear wheel f F and f R will
be acting upwards to oppose the
direction of motion of the wheel.

W  500 N
  300
  0.3
Angle of friction,
  tan 1   tan 1 0.3  16.7 0
Solution :
The force of friction will be acting Draw free body diagram as shown. The
downwards as the body is tending to wheels are rotating clockwise climb the
move upwards. roadway, the forces of friction on the
Draw free body diagram and apply front wheel and rear wheel f F and f R will
equilibrium conditions. be acting upwards to oppose the
 Fx  0 direction of motion of the wheel.

P  sin   f  N
 P  W sin   N ....(1)

 Fy  0

N = W co s  ....( 2 )
From equations (1) and (2)
P  W sin   W cos 
 Fx  0
 500 sin 300  0.3  500 cos 300
 250  129.9  379.9 N Ans.  f R  f F  mg sin 
Example 5 :     sin   N 
A four wheel drive as shown has a mass
of 2000 kg with passengers. The roadway  Fy  0
is inclined at an angle  with the
horizontal. If the coefficient of friction RR  RF  mg sin 
between tyers and road is 0.3, what is the
    cos   N 
maximum inclination  that can be
climbed ? But f R  RR
 51

and f R  RF  M0 0
Example 7 :
 f R  f F    RR  RF 
A uniform ladder of length 10 m and
weighing 20 N is placed against a smooth
19620 sin     RR  RF 
vertical wall with its lower end 8 m from
the wall In this position the ladder is just
19620 sin 
 RF  RR   65400 sin  to slip Determine :
0.3
(i) Coefficient of friction between ladder and
 19620 cos  floor.
(ii) Frictional force acting on the ladder at the
sin  19620
   0.3 point of contact between the ladder and
cos  65400 floor.

  16.7 0 Solution :
Draw free body diagram of ladder.
5.5 Ladder Friction
A Ladder is pLaced against a rough wall
and a rough floor with coefikient of frict
ion rejectively.
Example 6 :
A ladder, AB of length L and of weight W
is placed agaIft a rough wall and rough
floor. The reactions will be acting
Angle of inclination,
perpendicular to the point of suppon s at
floor and wall. The ladder has tendency to 8
cos  =  0.8
slide doxxi. There - fore, the forces of 10
f nction will be acting to oppose the    
motion. sin   0.6
Draw free body diagram of ladder and
apply condtions of equilibrium.
Applying equilibrium conditions,
F x 0
 f A  RB
F y 0
 RA  W  20 N  f B  0 

F 0 0
 Fx  0  f A  RB
R A  8  20  4 20  8  20  4
 Fy  0 W  RA  f B 
6 8
The number of unknows are four.
Therefore, take moments about point
 10 N i 
 52

Force of friction, f A  RB N  ii   iii  M A 0

RB 10 1
   0.5 Ans. W cos 450  1.5W x cos 450
N 20 2
Example 8 :
 RB  l sin 450  f B l cos 450
A ladder of length ‘I’ rests against a wall,
the angle of inclination being 450. If the
 0.8 W l sin 450  0.4W l cos 450
coefficient of the friction between the
0.353W l  1.06 Wx  0.5656 WI  0.2828 WI
ladder and the ground and that between
the ladder and the wall ts 0.5 each, what 1.06 x   0.5656  0.2828  0.353  l  0.49544l
will be the maximum distance on ladder
to which a man whose weight is 1.5 times x 0.49544
  0.467
the weight of the ladder may ascend before l 1.06
the ladder begins to slide ? The man can ascend 46.7 % of ladder
Solution : length
Draw free body diagram as shown and Example 9 :
apply equilibrium conditions.
A uniform ladder of weight 8OO N and
length 7 m rests on a horizontal ground
and leans again a smooth vertical wall. The
angle made by the ladder with the
horizontal is 60°. When a man of weight
600 N stands on the ladder 4 m from the
top of the ladder, the ladder is at the ladder
is at the point of slipping. Determine the
coefficient of friction between the ladder
(i)  Fx  0
and the floor.
f A  RB  N  RA Sol. :
 0.5 RA Draw free body diagram of the ladder and
apply equilibrium conditions
 RA  2 RB

(ii)  Fy  0

RA  f B  W  1.5W  2W

RA  2 RB

f B  RB  0.5 RB

 2 RB  0.5 RB  2W (i)  Fx  0
2
RB  W  0.8W f A  RB
2.5
 f B  0.5 RB  0.4 W (ii) F y 0
 53

RA  800  600  1400 N

f A  RB  N   RA

 1400 

(iii) M B  0

RA  7 cos 600
 Forces normal to the plane = 0,
 f A  7 sin 60  800  3.5 cos 60  600  3 cos 60
0 0 0
N1= 100 cos 60° = 50 N …(1)
From the law of friction,
1400  7 cos 600
1
 1400   7 sin 600  800  3.5  600  3 cos 600 F1  N   50  16.67N …(2)
3
1400  7 cos 600  4600 cos 60 0  Forces parallel to the plane = 0
1400  7 cos 600 100
T a  100sin 60  F1  0
9.81
4900  2300
  0.3 Ans.
8487 100
T a  69.93 …(3)
Example 10 : 9.81

The rough planes inclined at 30° and 60°  F1  16.67

to horizontal are placed back to back as Now consider 50 N block : E
shown in figure. The blocks of weights 50
N and 100 N are placed on the faces and  Forces normal to plane = 0,
are connected by a string running parallel N2 = 50 cos 30° = 43.30 N …(4)
to planes and passing over a frictionless From the law of friction,
pulley. If the coefficient of friction between
planes and blocks is 1/3, find the resulting 1
F2  N 2   43.3  14.43N …(5)
acceleration and tension in the string. 3
 Forces parallel to 30°.Plane = 0,
50
a  F2  50 sin 30  T  0
9.81
50
a  F2  50 sin 30  T  0 …(6)
9.81
Solution :
 F2  14.43
Let the assembly move down the 60° plane
by an acceleration ‘a’ m/sec2, Free body Adding equations (3) and (6)
diagrams of 100 N and 50 N blocks along  100 50 
with inertia forces are shown below.    a  69.93  39.43
 9.81 9.81 
Consider the block weighing 100 N
 a  1.9947m / sec 2
 54

From equation (3) Forces normal to road = 0

N=W
100
T  69.93  1.9947  49.6N
9.81 From the law of friction, F =   W
Example 11 :  Forces in the direction in motion =0
A motorist traveling at a speed of 70 W
kmph, suddenly applies brakes and halts F  3.78
9.81
after skidding 50m. Determine (1) The
time required to stop the car, (2) The W  3.78
coefficient of friction between the tyres W     0.385
9.81
and the road
Example 12 :
Sol. :
A body weighing 1200 N rests on a rough
Initial velocity, u =70 kmph plane inclined at 12° to the horizontal. It
is pulled up the plane by means of a light
70  1000
  19.44m / sec flexible rope running parallel to the plane
60  60
and passing over a light frictionless pulley
Final velocity, v = 0 at the top of the plane as shown in figure.
The portion of the rope beyond the pulley
Displacement, s = 50 m
hangs vertically down and carries a weight
Using the equation of linear motion, of 800 N at its end. If the coefficient of
v 2 = u2 + 2as friction for the plane and the body is 0.2,
find :
0= 19.442 + 2a × 50
a) Tension of the rope
 a   3.78 m / sec2
b) Acceleration with which the body moves
i.e., the retardation is 3.78 m/sec .2 up the plane and
Using the relation, v = u + at, c) The distance moved by the body in 3
seconds after starting form rest.
We get, 0 = 19.44 - 3.78 t
 t  5.14 Sec .
Inertia force must be applied in the
opposite direction of acceleration, which
means, it should be applied in the
direction of motion while retarding.
Free body diagram of the motor along
with inertia force :
Sol. :
Let a be the acceleration of the system
Free body diagrams of 120() N block and
800 N block are shown below along with
inertia forces.
According to D’Alembert, we can treat
these bodies as in static equilibrium.
 55

Initial velocity = 0
a = 1.549m/sec2
t = 3sec
Using the equation. S = ut +1/2 at2,
We get distance moved in 3 seconds as

1
S  0  3   1.549  32
Consider 1200 N block 2
S = 6.971 m
 Forces normal to the plane = 0
N - 1200 cos 12°= 0
N = 1173.77 N
From the law of friction
F =  N = 0.2×1173.77 = 234.76 N
 Forces parallel to the inclined
plane = 0

1200
a  1200sin12  F  T  0
9.81
i.e., 122.32a – T= -484.25............... (1)
Consider the free body diagram of 800 N
blocks

800
T a  800 ............. (2)
9.81
Adding equations (1) and (2)

 800 
 122.32   a  800  484.25
 9.81 

 a  1.549m / sec 2
Substituting it in (2)
800
T  800  1.549
9.81
T=673.68N
 56

6 Work and Energy Principle

BASICS In terms of rectangular component


F
In Physics, work stands for “mechanical 
and F ,
work” Work is said to be done by a force
when the body is displaced actually may written as
through some distance in the direction of        

the applied force. F  Fx i  Fy j  Fz k & s  x i  y j  z k

However, when there is no displacement From (2),

in the direction of the applied force, no  
W = F. s
work is said to be done, i.e, work done is
zero, when displacement of the body in    
    

W =  Fx i  Fy j  Fz k  .  x i  y j  z k 
the direction of the force is zero.    
W = Fx x  Fy y  Fz z
Suppose a constant force acting on a
body produces a displacement F acting on Obviously work is a scalar quantity, i.e. it
it has magnitude only and no direction
a body produces a displacement S in the However, work Done by a force can be
body along the positive x-directions, positive or negative or zero.
figure.
Nature of Work Done
Positive work
Positive work means that force (or its
component) is parallel to displacement

If the angle which F makes with the

posit ive x - direction of the displacement,
is (F cos ). As work done by the force is
the product of component of force in the
direction of the displacement and the The positive work signifies that the
magnitude of the displacement, external force favors the motion of the
body.
 W =  Fcos   s ....(1)
Maximum work : Wmax = Fs
If displacement is in the direction of force
applied, When cos   maximum = 1 i.e.  = 00

From 1 , W =  F cos 00  s  Fs It means force does maximum work when

angle between force and displacement is
Equation (1) can be rewritten as zero.
 
Negative work
W = F. s ....(2)
Negative work means that force (or its
Thus, work done by a force is the dot component) is opposite to displacement
product of force and displacement i.e.
 57

B    
   

 W   A
 Fx i  Fy j  Fz k  d x i  d y j  d z k 
  
xB yB zB
or W  xA
Fx dx   yA
Fy dy  
zA
Fz dz
The negative work signifies that the
6.1. Energy
external force opposes the motion of the
body. The energy of a body is its capacity of
doing work. Energy is possessed by a
Minimum work : Wmin = - Fs
body, while the work is done by force on
When cos  = minimum = -1 i.e. = 1800 a body when it has a displacement in the
direction of the force.
It means force does minimum [maximum
negative] work when angle between force 6.2. Modes of Mechanical Energy
and displacement is 1800 Energy can be in several forms like
Under three condition, work done mechanical energy, electrical energy, heat,
light, sound, pressure. The present context
becomes zero W = Fs cos   1
is of mechanical energy, the energy
(1) If the force is perpendicular to the possessed by a body due to its position
  or motion. Hence; mechanical energy can
displacement F  s be of two types: potential energy and
(2) If there is no displacement [s=0] kinetic energy, described as follows :
(3) If there is no force acting on the body 1. Kinetic Energy
[F=0] The energy possessed by a body by virtue
Work Done by a Variable Force of its moden is called kinetic energy.

When the magnitude and direction of a Examplex :

force varies with position, the work done (i) Flowing water possesses kinetic energy
by such a force for an infinitesimal which is used to run the water mills.
 
displacement is given by dw  F d s (i) Moving vehicle possesses kinetic energy.
(ii) Moving vehicle possesses kinetic energy.
The total done in going from A to B as
shown in the figure is (iii) Moving air (i.e.wind) possesses kinetic
energy which is used to run wind mils.
(iv) The hammer possesses kinetic energy
which is used to drive the nails in wood.
(v) A bullet fired from the gun has kinetic
energy and due to this energy the bullet
penetrates into a target.
B   B
W  
A
F .d s    F cos  ds
A
Linear kinetic energy :
In terms of rectangular component (i) Expression for kinetic energy : Let
    m = mass of the body,
F  Fx i  Fy j  Fz k
u = Initial velocity of the body (=0)
   
d s  dx i  dy j  dz k F = Force acting on the body,
 58

a = Acceleration of the body v

v v  v2  1 2
s = Distance travelled by the body, W   0
mv dv  m 0 vdv  m  2   2 mv
 0
v = Final velocity of the body
This work done appears as the kinetic
1 2
energy of the body KE  mv .
2

1  
From v  u  2as
2 2 In vector form = KE  m v .v 
2  
v2
 v  0 2as  s 
2

2a 
As m and v v are always positive, kinetic
Since the displacement of the body is in energy is always positive scalar i.e. kinetic
the direction of the applied force, then energy can never be negative.
work done by the force is Note : Kinetic energy depends on frame of
reference : The kinetic of a person of Mass
v2 m, sitting in a train moving with speed v,
W  F  s  ma 
2a
1 2
1 is zero in the frame of train but mv in
 W  mv 2 2
2
the Frame of the earth.
This work done appears as the
(5) Work-energy theorem : From equation
kineticenergy of the body
(i) dW = mv dv.
1
KE  W  mv 2
2 Work done on the body in order to
increase its velocity from u to v is given
(2) Calculus method : Let a body is intially at
by

rest and force F is applied on the body v
to displace it through along its own v  v2 
v
W   mv dv  m  vdv  m  
direction then samll work done 0 0
 2 m
 
dW  F d s  F ds 1
 W  m v 2  u 2 
2
 dW  m a ds  As F  ma 
Work done = change in kinetic energy
dv  ds  W  E
 dW  m ds  As a  dt 
dt This is work energy theorem, it states that
work done by a force acting on a body is
ds
 dW  mdv. equal to the change produced in the
dt kinetic energy of the body.
 ds  This theorem is valid for a system in
 dW  m v dv ....  i   As  v  presence of all types of forces (external
 dt 
or internal, conservative or non-
Therefore work done on the body in conservative).
order to increase its velocity from zero to
if kinetic energy of the body increases,
v is given by
work is positive i.e. body moves in the
 59

direction of the force (or field) and if of mass is equal to the angular velocity
kinetic energy decreases work will be times the radius.
negative and object will move opposite to
the force (or field).
Rotational Kinetic Energy
The kinetic energy of a rotating object is
analogous to linear kinetic energy and can
be expressed in terms of the moment of
inertia and angular velocity. The total Kinetic Energy of Rolling Object:
kinetic energy of an extended object can If an object is rolling without slipping,
be expressed as the sum of the then its kinetic energy can be expressed
translational kinetic energy of the center as the sum of the translational kinetic
of mass and the rotational kinetic energy energy of its center of mass plus the
about the center of mass. For a given fixed rotational kinetic energy about the center
axis of rotation, the rotational kinetic of mass. The angular velocity is of course
energy can be expressed in the form related to the linear velocity of the center
of mass, so the energy can be expressed
in terms of either of them as the problem
dictates, such as in the rolling of an object
down an incline. Note that the moment of
inertia used must be the moment of
inertia about the center of mass. If it is
known about some other axis, then the
parallel axis theorem may be used to
The expressions for rotational and linear obtain the needed moment of inertia.
kinetic energy can be developed in a
parallel manner from the work-energy
principle. Consider the following parallel
between a constant torque exerted on a
flywheel with moment of inertia I and a
constant force exerted on a mass m, both 2. Potential Energy
starting from rest.
Potential energy is defined only for
conservative forces. In the space occupied
by conservative force every point is
associated with certain energy which is
called the energy of position or potential
energy. Potential energy generally are of
three types : Elastic potential energy,
Rolling Objects Electric potential energy and Gravitational
In describing the motion of rolling objects, potential energy etc.
it must be kept in mind that the kinetic (i) Change in potential energy : Change in
energy is divided between linear kinetic potential energy between any two points
energy and rotational kinetic energy. is defined in the terms of the work done
Another key is that for rolling without by the associated conservative force in
slipping, the linear velocity of the center displacing the particle between these two
 60

points without any change in kinetic dU

energy.  F
dx
r2  
(4) Nature of force :
U 2  U1    F . dr   W ....(i)
r1
Attractive force : On increasing x, if
We can define a unique value of potential increasing x, if U increases
energy only by assigning some arbitrary
dU
value to a fixed point called the reference   F positive
point. Whenever and wherever possible, dx
we take the reference point at infinite and Then F is negative in direction i.e. force is
assume potential energy to be zero there, attractive in nature. in graph this is
i.e. if take r1   and r2  r then from
om represented in region BC.
equation (1) (ii) Repulsive force : On increasing x, if U
decreases if U decreases = negative
r  
then F is positive in direction i.e. force is
U   
F . dr   W
repulsive in nature. In graph this is
In case of conservative force (field) represented in region AB.
potential energy is equal to negative of
(iii) Zero force : On increasing, does not
work done in shifting the body from
changes Then F is zero i.e. no force
reference position to given position.
works on the particle. Point B, C and D
This is why in shifting a particle in a represents the point of zero force or
conservative field (say gravitational or these points can be termed as position of
electric), if the particle moves opposite to equilibrium.
the field, work done by the field 1l be
negative and so change in potential (5) Types of equilibrium : If net force acting
energy will be positive i.e. potential energy on a particle is zero, it is said to be in
will increase. When the particle moves in equilibrium.
the direction of field, work will be positive dU
and change in potential energy will be For equilibrium  0, but the
dx
negative i.e. potential energy will decrease.
equilibrium of particle can be of three
(3) Potential energy curve : A graph plotted types :
between the potential energy of a particle
and its displacement from the centre force
is called potential energy curve.
Figure shows a graph of potential energy
function U(x) for one dimensional motion.

As we know that negative gradient of the

potential energy gives force.
 61

Elastic Potential Energy This work done is stored as the potential

(i) Restoring force and spring constant : energy of the stretched spring.
When a spring is stretched or compressed  Elastic potential energy
from its normal position (x = 0 ) by Small 1 2
distance x, then a restoring force is U= kx
2
produced in the spring to bring it to the
normal position-According to Hooker’s 1  F
U = Fx
2  Ask  x 
law this restoring force is proportional to
the displacement x and its direction is F2  F
always opposite to the displacement U=  As x  
2k  k
  Elastic potential energy
i.e. F
1 2 1 F2
  U = kx  Fx 
or F  k x ....(i) 2 2 2k

Where k is called spring constant. Note : • If spring is stretched from intial position
x1 to final position x2 then work done
= Increment in elastic potential energy

1
 k  x22  x12 
2
Gravitational Potential Energy
It is the usual form of potential energy
associated with the state of separation
between two bodies that interact via
if x = 1 F = k (Numerically) gravitational force.

Or k=F For two particles of masses m1 and m2

separated by a distance r
Hence spring constant is numerically
equal to force required unit displacement Gm1 m2
(compression or extension) in the spring. Gravitational potential energy U =
r
If required force is more, then spring is
said to be more stiff and vice-versa. (1) If a body of mass m at height h relative to
surface of earth then Gravitational
Actually k is measure of the stiffness/
softness of the spring. potential energy U 
mgh
(2) Expression for elastic potential energy : h
1
when a springis stretched or compressed R
from its normal position (x = 0), work
Gravitational potential enet U.
has stretched through the distance dx,
then work done Where R = radius of earth, g =
accleration due to gravity at the surface
x
x x  x2  1 of the earth.
W  
0
dw   0
kx dx  k    kx 2
 2 0 2 (2) If << R then above formula reduces to U.
mgh. () If V is the gravitational potential
 62
ENGINEERING MECHANICS
at a point, the potential enery of a particle 22.5 1
of mass m in at that point will be. S
2  9.81
 2.287 2 
117.5
 0.051 m
U = mV
 S = 51 mm
Example 2 :
A boy is sitting on a swing a maximum
height of 5 cm above the ground. When
the swing passes through the mean
position which is 2m above the ground
(1) Law of conservation of energy its velocity is approximately.
For a body or an isolated system by work- (a) 7.6 m/s (b) 9.8 m/s
energy theorem we have
(b) 6.26 m/s (d) None of these
 
K 2  K1   F. d r ....  i  1
 mgh1  mgh2  mv 2
Example 1 : 2
A pile hammer, weighting 15 kN drops 1
 9.8  5  9.8  2  v 2
from a height of 600 mm on a pile of 7.5 2
kN. How deep does a single blow of  v  58.8  v  7.6 m/s
2

hammer drive the pile if the resistance of

the ground to pile is 140 kN ? Assume that Example 3 :
ground resistance is constant. A stone projected vertically upwards from
Sol. : the ground reaches a maximum height h.
h = 600 mm .= 0.6 m 3h
When it is at a height , the ratio of itss
Velocity of hammer at the time of strike 4
kinetic and potenbal energies is
v  2gh  2  9.81 0.6  3.431m / sec
(a) 3 : 4 (b) 1 : 3
Let V be the velocity of pile and hammer
(c) 4 : 3 (d) 3 : 1
immediately after impact.
Applying principle of conservation of Sol. : (b)
momentum to the system of pile and pile At the maximum height, Total energy s
hammer, we get Potential energ - mgh
15 15  7.5 3h
 3.431  0  V At the height ,
9.81 9.81 4
15  3.431 3h 3
V  2.287 m / sec Potential energy = ms  mgh
22.5 4 4
Now applying work energy equation to and Kinetic energy
the system,
= Total energy  Potential energy
15  7.5
15  7.5  R  s 
2  9.81
 0 V 2  mgh 1
 mgh  3  mgh
4 4
15  7.5
15  7.5  140  s 
2  9.81
 2.287 2  
Kinetic energy 1
 .
Potential energy 3
 63

7 Impulse and Momentum

7.1. Linear Momentum momentum change L In many y

Linear Momentum : We consider the curvilinear application, the focus, the focus is on an
motion of a particle of mass m, under the impulse modeled as a large force acting
influence of a force F. Assuming that the over a small time. Bus in fact, this
mass does not change, we have from restriction is unnecessary. All that is
Newton’s second law. required is to be able to perform the
t2
dv d
F  ma  m   mv  .
dt dt
integral  F dt . If the force is a constnt F,,
t1

The case where the mass of the particle t2

changes with time (e.g. rocket) will than L   F dt   t2  t1  . If the force is
beconsidered later on in this course. The t1
linear momentum vector, L, is defined as given as a function of time, then
L  mv. t2

L   F  t  dt
Thus, an alternative form of Newton’s t1
second law is
THE LAW OF CONSERVATION OF LINEAR
F L
MOMENTUM
Which states that the total force acting on Newton’s second law of motion leads us
a particle is equal to the time rate of to one of the most basic laws of nature,
change of its linear momentum. known as the law of conservation of linear
Principle of Linear Impulse and Momentum momentum. The law states that the total
linear momentum of. group of system of
Imagine now that the force considered
bodies remains conserved if there is no
acts on the particle between time t1 and
net external force acting on the system
time t 2 . Equation (1) can then be
of bodies.
integrated in time to obtain.
Deduction of law of conservation of
t2 t2
Linear momentum from Newton’s second
 F dt   L dt  L 2  L1  L
law of motion; We can deduce this law
t1 t1
from the second law of motion as follows:
Here, L1  L  t1  and L2  L  t2  . Suppose a body is moving with linear

The tern momentum p1 A force F acts on it for a
t2 time 1 and changes its linear momentum
I   F dt  L   mv 2   mv 1 , 
to p 2 . Then according to the second law,,
t1

Force  rate of change of Linear

Is called the linear impulse. Thus, the linear
momentum
impulse on a particle is equal to the linear
 64

  When two bodies collide they exert forces

 p  p1
Or F   2 on each other and their velocities change
t after the collision. Therefore, a collision
  is also a kind cl interact ion. If the collision
 p  p1 takes place in vacuum (to avoid air
Or F   2 resistance) and on a smooth (to avoid
t
friction) horizontal plane (to avoid the
Where k is constant of proportionality, force of gravity), no external force acts
whose value depends on units of on the system of bodies (under these ideal
measurement. conditions).
We choose the the units of measurement Consider two marbles A and B having
such that k =1, then masses m 1 and m 2 and moving with
  velocityes u 1 and u 2, respectively in a
 p  p straight line (Fig. ). Collision takes palce
F 2 1
,
t if u1 > u2.
If no external force acts on the
 
body, F  O
 
 p  p
F 2 1
,
t
  During the collision, the bodies interact
or p2  p1 with each other and therefore after the
It means that the linear momentum of the collision, their velocit ies become v1 and
body remains same if the force acting on v7 respectively as shown in Fig. 2.15c.
it is zero. This law Is generally valid even Suppose the collision takes place over a
for a system of particles though it has time t. The marble B exerts a force on
been deduced here for only one particle. marble A. Let it be FA B Marble A also
Thus, if a system particles has for initial exerts a force on marble B, which can be
 written as F. Due to these interactions, the
linear moment p1 and if no net external velocities of the marbles change, resulting
force acts on the system, its linear in changes in their linear momenta.
 According to Newton’s second law,
momentum p1 will remain constant..
Force = Rate of change of linear
Remember that both linear momentum momentum
and force are vector quantities. The linear
momentum is conserved in magnitude and Or FAB  Rate of change of
direction both. linear momentum of A
Note : While writing a vector equation such as - Final linear momentum - initial linear momentum
   
time
0. we must write p1  0 where 0 is the
zero vector. m1 v1  m1 u1
 (2.4)
Deduction of law of conservation of linear t
momenturn from Newton’s third law of
motion : m1  v1  v2 

t
 65

units of kilograms-metres’ per second or

m1  v1  v2 
Similarly, FBA  (2.5) more commonly joule-seconds. The law of
t conservation of angular momentum can
be stated that the angular momentum of
According to the third law of motion, the
a system of objects is conserved if there
force on marble A by marble B (i.e. FBA ) is no external net torque acting on the
must be equal and opposite to the force system.
on marble B, by marble A (i.e. FBA ) Analogous to Newton’s law (F=d(mv)/dt)
  there is a rotational cournerpart for
Thus F AB   F BA rotational motion: t = L’ t. or torque is the
rate of change of angular momentum.
Substituting the values of and from Eqn.
(2.4) and (2.5) we obtain,

m1  v1  u1  m2  v2  u2 

t t

or m1  v1  u1    m2  v2  u2 
or m1 v1  m1 u1    v2  u2  Characterizing Collisions
or m1 u1  m2 u2  m1 v1  m1 v1 In a collision, the ratio of the magnitudes
or linear momentum of (body A + body of the intial and final relative velocities is
B) before collision - linear momentum called thecoeffient ofrestitution and
of (body A + body B) after collision denoted by the symbole
Relative velocity after collision
or Coeffcient of restitution  e  
Relative velocity before collsion
Total linear momentum before collision
- total linear momentum after collision vB
e (0.4.1)
Thus, we can see that in a collision vA
between two bodies, the total linear
If the magnitude of the relative velocity
momentum of the marbles remains
does not change during a collision, e=1
unchanged or conserved, provided
then the change in kinetic energy is zero.
that no unbalanced external force acts
(Eq. (0.39)). Collision in which there is no
on the system of bodies. This is the law
change in no kinetic energy are called
of consen’alion of linear momentum.
elastic collisions.
7.2 ANGULAR MOMENTUM
K  0, elastic collsion (0.4.2)
Angular momentum is rotational
momentum that is conserved in the same If the magnitude of the final relative
way as linear momentum. For a rigid body. velocity is less than the magnitude of the
the angular momentum (L) is thc product initial relative velocity e <1, then the
of the moment of inertia and the angular change an kinetic energy is negative
sciocity: L  I . For a point of mass. angular Collisions in which the kinetic energy
momentum can he expressed as the decreases are called Inelastic collisions.
product of linear momentum and the
K  0, inelastic collsion (0.4.3)
radius ( r) i.e. L = mvr. L is measured in
 66

If the two objects stick together after the Because the collision is elastic, kinetic
collision, then the relative final velocity is energy is constant, Equating the kinetic
zero. e =0. Such collisions are called totally energy before and after the collision gives
inelastic. The change in kinetic energy can the relation
be found from Eq. (03.9).
1 1 1 1
m1 u12  m 2 u 22  m1 v12  m 2 v 22
1 2 1m1 m2 2 2 2 2
K   vA  
2 2 1m1  m2
or , m1  u12  v12   m2  v22  u 22 
totally inlastic collsion (0.4.4)
or,
If the magnitude of the final relative
velocity is greater than the magnitude of m1  u1  v1  u1  v1 
the initial relative velocity. e >1, then the
change an kinetic energy is positive  m 2  v 2  u 2  v 2  u 2  ......(iii)
Collisions an which the kinetic energy
Dividing equation (iii) by equation (ii),
inereases are called superelastic collisions
then we get
K  0, superleastic collsion (0.4.5)
u1  v1  u 2  v 2
One-Dimensional Elastic Collision Between
Two Objects or, u1  u2  v2  v1 ......(iv)
If the colliding bodies move along the This equation (iv) shows that : “In
same straight path before and after the Perfectly elastic the relative speed of
collision, it is said to be one - dimensional
approach  u1  u2  is equal to the relativee
collision
Consider two bodies of masses m1 and m2 speed of separation  v2  v1  .””
moving with initial velocities u1 and u2
Example 1:
(such that u1 > u2) in a same direction. Let
after the collision velocity of the bodies A 80 N body moving to the right at a speed
change into v1 and v2 in a same direction. of 3 m/sec strikes a 10 N body that is
moving to the left at a speed of 10 m/sec.
Elastic Collision between two bodies
The final velocity of 10 N body is 4 m/sec
to the right. Calculate the coefficient of
restitution and the final velocity of the 80
N body.
Sol. :
Because there are no external forces in u1 = 3m/sec, u2 = 10m/sec
the x-direction, momentum is constant in V1 = ? v2 = 4 m/sec
the x direction. Equating the momentum
Applying the principles of conservation of
components before and after the collision
momentum to the colliding bodies,
gives the relation
80 10 80 10
m1 u1  m2 u2  m1 v1  m2 v2 .........(i )  3   10   v1   4
g g g g
m1  u1  v1   m2  v2  u2  ............(ii ) 80  3  100  40
v1   1.25m / sec
80
 67

From the definition of coefficient of h1  0.894 2  10  7.992 m

restitution, we get
Similarly; after second bounce the height
e  u1  u 2   v 2  v1 to which the ball will rise is given by
h2 = e2h1 = 0.8942 × 7.992 = 6.388 m
e  3  10   4  1.25
After third bounce, the height
 e = 0.212
h3 = e2h2 = 0.8942 ×6.388 = 5.105 m
Example 2 :
A golf ball is dropped from a height of 10
m on a fixed steel plate. The coefficient of
restitution is 0.894. Find the height to
which the ball rebounds on the first,
second and third bounces.
Sol. :
Initial height, h0 = 10 m
Velocity of golf ball before impact,

u1  2gh 0

Velocity of steel plate before impact, u2= 0

Velocity of steel plate after impact, v2 = 0
Let velocity of golf ball after impact be v1
From the definition of coefficient of
restitution,

e  u1  u 2   v 2  v1

e  
2gh 0  0  0  v1

v1  e 2gh 0

 e 2gh 0 in upward direction

From kinematic equation, the height h1 to

which the ball rise is given by

v12  0  2gh1

v12 e 2  2gh 0
h1  
2g 2g

i.e., h1  e 2 h 0 ..........(1)
Now, e = 0.894, h0 = 10 m
 68

1 FBD, Equilirbium, Plane Trusses & Virtual Work

69
70
 71

Q.20 A truss is composed of members AB, BC,

CD, AD and BD, as shown in the figure.
A vertical load of 10 kN is applied at
point D. The magnitude of force (in kN)
in the member BC is .

[Gate2019 (1)]
Q.21 The figure shows an idealized plane
truss. If a horizontal force of 300 N
is applied at point A, then the
magnitude of the force produced in
member CD is ______ N.

[Gate2019 (2)]
 72

Q.22 The members carrying zero force The coefficient of static friction between
(i.e. zero-force members) in the truss the roller and the ground (including the
shown in the figure, for any load P > 0 edge of the step) is ì. Identify the correct
with no appreciable deformation of the free body diagram (FBD) of the roller
truss (i.e. with no appreciable change in when the roller is just about to climb over
angles between the members), are
the step.

(A) BF, DH and GC only (A)

(B) BF, DH, GC, CD and DE only
(C) BF and DH only
(D) BF, DH, GC, FG and GH only
[Gate2020 (1)]

Q.23 A beam of negligible mass is hinged at

support P and has a roller support Q as
shown in the figure
(B)

A point load of 1200 N is applied at point

R. The magnitude of the reaction force at
support Q is __________ N.
Q.24 An attempt is made to pull a roller of (C)
weight W over a curb (step) by applying
a horizontal force F as shown in the
figure.

(D)

[Gate2020 (2)]
Q.25 Two smooth identical spheres each of
 73

radius 125 mm and weight 100 N rest in

ANSWER KEY :
a horizontal channel having vertical walls.
The distance between vertical walls of the
1 2 3 4 5
channel is 400 mm.
a a b a b
6 7 8 9 10
a b 20 a 400
11 12 13 14 15

100 a c c 57.74
16 17 18 19 20

The reaction at the point of contact 5 d a 0 5

between two spheres is _________ N
21 22 23 24 25
(round off to one decimal place).
[Gate2021 (1)]
0 b 1500 b 125

Q.26 A plane truss PQRS (PQ = RS, and <PQR 26

= 90°) is shown in the figure. d

The forces in the members PR and RS,

respectively, are _____________

(A) F  tensile  and F 2  tensile 

(B) F  compressive  & F 2  compressive 

(C) F 2  tensile  and F  tensile 

(D) F 2  tensile  and F  compressive 

[Gate2021 (2)]
 74

SOLUTIONS
75
76
77
78
 79

Q.20 ( 5 ) Q.21 ( 0 )
Considering joint B,

in x  direction  FBC = 0 (for equilibrium)

Now considering joint C,
F x  0 R Ax  0
in y  direction
F y  0  R Ay  R Cy  10  0

R Ay  R Cy  10 ......... 1
Taking Moment about 'A' ACW = + ve
M A 0 CW =  ve
  l 10    2l  RCy   0  RCy  5 kN
FBD of Joint 'C '
For equilibrium, FDC = 0 (As FBC = 0)
Q.22 ( b )
To determine zero force members:

(1) If three members are connected at a

joint and there is no external force applied
to the joint and two of the members are
collinear.
i.e, Joint B, D and G.
in x  direction
FCD
F x 0
2
 FBC  0 ....  2 

in y  direction
FCD
5  0  FCD  5 2 kN
2
From equation (2)
FBC   5kN  Tension 
 80


 MP  0
 1200  5 – R Q  4  0
1200  5
 RQ   1500 N
4

Q.24 ( b )

Here, FGC = 0
So, the members carrying zero force in
the truss are BF,DH and GC Note:
(2) (i) When the cylinder is about to make
out of the curb, it will lose its contact at
point A, only contact will be at it B.
(ii) At) verge of moving out of curb, Roller
will be in equation under W, F and contact
force from B and these three forces has
to be concurrent so contact force from B
will pass through C.
(iii) Even the surfaces are rough but
there will be no friction at B for the said
Force in member CD and DE will be zero
condition.
because there will be no reaction force
in horizontal direction.
Q.23 (1500)

Q.25 (125)
 81

2. FBD of joint R :

i) PQ = QR  QRP = 45
ii) SQP  0

l  AC   400  125  125  150

l  AB   125  125  250
150 3
 cos θ = 
250 5
4
 sin θ 
5
FBD for Upper Cylinder :

F y 0
 R AB  sin θ = 100
 R AB  125 N
Q.26 ( d )
1. FBD of joint Q :

F x  0  SQR  0
F Y  0  SQP  0
 82

2 Translation and Rotation

83
84
 85

SOLUTIONS
86
87
88
 89

3 Friction
90
 91

Q.11 A force of 100 N is applied to the centre W Wh W Wh

of a circular disc, of mass 10 kg and radius (a) R f    a ; Rr     a
2 g l 2 g l
1 m, resting on a floor as shown in the
W Wh
figure. If the disc rolls without slipping on (b) Rr    a
the floor, the linear accleration (in m/s2) 2 g l
of the centre of the disc is _________ (correct W Wh
to two decimal places). (c) R f  Rr    a
2 g l
W Wh W Wh
(d) R f    a ; Rr    a
2 g l 2 g l

[GATE-2019(1)]

Q.14 A block of negligible mass rests on a

[GATE-2018(2)] surface that is inclined at to 30 the
Q.12 A block of mass 10 kg rests on a horizontal horizontal plane as shown in the figure.
floor. The acceleration due to gravity When a vertical force of 900 N and a
is 9.81 m/s2 . The coefficient of static horizontal force of 750 N are applied, the
block is just about to slide.
friction between the floor and the block
is 0.2. A horizontal force of 10 N is applied
on the block as shown in the figure. The
magnitude of force of friction (in N) on
t he block is ________.

The coefficient of static friction between

the block and surface is _______
[GATE-2019(1)]
Q.13 A car having weight W is moving in the (round off to two decimal places).
direction as shown in the figure. The
[GATE-2021(2)]
center of gravity (CG) of the car is located
at height h from the ground, midway
between the front and rear wheels. The
distance between the front and rear ANSWER KEY :
wheels is l. The acceleration of the car is a,
and acceleration due to gravity is g. The 1 2 3 4 5
reactions on the front wheels  R f  and d b a c b
rear wheels R 
r are given byy 6 7 8 9 10
d 4.9 1.948 57.664 a
11 12 13 14

6.67 10 d 0.1728
 92

SOLUTIONS
93
94
 95

Q.12 ( 10 )
 96

y-direction  W Wa 
Rr  W  R f  W    
F y  0  N  mg  0  2 2g 
 N = mg = 98.1N W Wa
Rr   .....  4 
Limiting friction f L  N = 0.2  98.1 =19.62 N 2 2g
F = 10 N < f L 19.62
 Block is at rest Taking moment about C.G. ACW  + ve
 f L  F =10 N M G 0 CW   ve
l
Q.13 (d) 2
 R f   2l  Rr   hf f  hfr  0
l l
F. B. D of Car, R f  R r  hR f  hR r  0
2 2

l  W Wa  l  W Wa   W Wa   W Wa 
       h     h   0
2  2 2g  2  2 2g   2 2g   2 2g 

Wl Wal Wl Wal Wh Wah Wh Wah

       0
4 4g 4 4g 2 2g 2 2g

Wah Wal

g 2g
l
 ......  5 
2h
W Wa 2h W W  h 
by  3  Rf       a
2 2g l 2 gl
W Wa 2h W W  h 
ln x  direction : by  4   Rr       a
2 2g l 2 gl
f r  f f  ma
W Q.14 (0.1728)
R r  R f  a .... 1
g

ln Y  direction :
Rr  Rf  W ....  2 
Rr  W  Rf
Solving 1 and  2 

W
1    W  R f   R f  a
g From FBD,
750 cos 30 > 900 sin 30
W
W  R f  R f  a  Block will try to slide upward
g  Frictional force on block will be downward
W  N = 750 sin 30 + 900 cos 30 = 1154.4 (Newton)
2R f  W  a
g & 750 cos 30  900 sin 30  f = μ  N
= μ  1154.4
W Wa
 Rf   .....  3  μ  0.1728
2 2g
 97

4 Impulse, Momentum, Impacts & Work-Energy

98
99
 100

Q.21 A ball of mass 3 kg moving with a velocity

of 4 m/s undergoes a perfectly-elastic
direct central impact with a stationary
ball of mass m. After the impact is over,
the kinetic energy of the 3 kg ball is 6 J.
The possible value(s) of m is/are

(a) 1 kg only (b) 1 kg, 9 kg

(c) 1 kg, 6 kg (d) 6 kg only

[Gate2019 (2)]

Q.22 The 2 kg block shown in figure (top view)

rests on a smooth horizontal surface and
is attached to a massless elastic cord that
has a stiffness 5 N/m.

The cord hinged at O is initially unstretched

and always remains elastic. The block is
given a velocity v of 1.5 m/s perpendicular
to the cord. The magnitude of velocity in
m/s of the block at the instant the cord is
stretched by 0.4 m is
 101

(a) 1.36 (b) 1.07

ANSWER KEY :
(c) 0.83 (d) 1.50
[Gate2020 (1)] 1 2 3 4 5
Q.23 A rigid block of mass m1  10 kg having a b c b a
velocity v0  2 m / s strikes a stationary
6 7 8 9 10
block of mass m 2  30 kg after travelling
a b c d c
1 m along a frictionless horizontal surface
as shown in the figure. 11 12 13 14 15

8 0.64 c 14.11 d
16 17 18 19 20

20 (b,d) c a 2,414
The two masses stick together and jointly
move by a distance of 0.25 m further along 21 22 23
the same frictionless surface, before they b a 1
touch the mass-less buffer that is
connected to the rigid vertical wall by
means of a linear spring having a spring
constant k  105 N / m . The maximum
deflection of the spring is _________ cm
(round off to 2 decimal places).

[Gate2020 (1)]
 102

SOLUTIONS 1 1
Kx 2  mgx = mV 2  x = 0.1m 
2 2
and this K.E. will be converted in to
Q.1 (a) mgh.
Total lift of block = h + x
From conservation of linear
1
Momentum  981  103  .12  100  9.81  .1  100  9.81  h
2
mV   M + m  U h = 4.9 m
mV  h + x  4.9  .1  5 m
 U=
M+m
 Q.3 (c)
fk = μN i 

 
fk = μ  M + m  g i

 fk
a
M + m
 
a  μg i
'

Now V22  U 2  2μgs

2
 mV 
 0   2μgs
M + m
M + m
 V=  2μgs
 m 

Q.2 (b)

1
Kx 2 Wll be converted into G.P.E. Power = rate of energy supplied ‘or’
2
 taking reference as compressed condition  obtained
1
Kx 2  mgh If counter weight is moving with velocity
2
V then cage will also be moving with
1
or  981  103  .12  100  9.81h velocity V.
2
h = 5m = 5000 mm So. total K.E.
OR
1 1
 mV 2  mV 2  mV 2
When spring will reach its natural length. 2 2
K.E of the block of mass 100 kg held on it. and to absorb (or to stop) this energy
(taking reference at natural length of time available is t second.
spring)
103
104
105
 106

VA 3

VB 4
Q.20 (2.414)

Let, A = Point of release,

B = Point at which body corner to rest
Applying law of conservation of energy
Since No Friction 
 K.E. + P.E A   K.E + P.E B
0  P.E A  P.E B  0
mgh = mg  sin 45
x
h= ,
Q.19 (a) 2
x 2h 2m
Total distance travelled = 1 + 2  2.414m

Q.21 (b)

Momentum is conserved
m1u1 + m 2 u 2 = m1v1 + m 2 v 2
3 × 4 + 0 = 3v1 + mv 2 ...(i)
Coefficient of restitution (e = 1)
v 2  v1
e= 1
u1  u 2
v 2  v1
  1  v 2  v1  4 ...(ii)
4

KE of m1 after impact is 6 J
 107

1 6 2
m1v12 =6 J  v1    2m / s
2 3

From equation (ii),

For v1 = +2 m/s
v 2 = 6 m/s
For v1 =  2 m/s
v 2 = 2 m/s
From equation (i),
For v 2 = 6 m/s
m = 1 kg
For v 2 = 2 m/s
m = 9 kg

Q.22 ( a )

Energy conservation,

1 1 1
mv12 = mvo 2  kx 2
2 2 2
 2 1.52  2  vo2  5  0.42
 vo  1.360 m / s

Q.23 ( 1 )

Collision Theory

Conservation of momentum,

m1  v o  m 2  0   m1  m 2   v
10  2  10  30  v  v  0.5m / s
1 1
Now,  m1  m2   v 2  kx 2
2 2

10  30    0.52   105  x 2

1 1
2 2 
1 1
 x2  4  x  m  1cm
10 100
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5 Plane Motion
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Q.11 A rigid triangular body, PQR, with sides 3v v

of equal length of 1 unit moves on a flat (a) (b)
2r 2r
plane. At the instant shown, edge QR is
parallel to the x-axis, and the body v 2v
(c) (d)
moves such that velocities of points P r 3r
and R are VP and V R , in the x and y [Gate2020 (2)]
directions, respectively. The magnitude
Q.13 The wheels and axle system lying on a
of the angular velocity of the body is
rough surface is shown in the figure.

VR Each wheel has diameter 0.8 m and mass

(a) 2VP (b)
3 1 kg. Assume that the mass of the wheel
is concentrated at rim and neglect the
VP
(c) (d) 2 VR mass of the spokes. The diameter of axle
3
is 0.2 m and its mass is 1.5 kg. Neglect the
[Gate2019 (2)] moment of inertia of the axle and assume
Q.12 A circular disk of radius r is confined to g = 9.8 m / s 2 . An effort of 10 N is applied
roll without slipping at P and Q as shown on the axle in the horizontal direction
in the figure. shown at mid span of the axle. Assume
that the wheels move on a horizontal
surface without slip. The acceleration of
the wheel axle system in horizontal
direction is ______________ m / s 2 (round off
to one decimal place).
ANSWER KEY :

1 2 3 4 5
a c c a 20
6 7 8 9 10
251.32 3 d 7.5 420
If the plates have velocities as shown, the
magnitude of the angular velocity of the 11 12 13
disk is d a 5
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SOLUTIONS
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Q. 11 (d)

At the given instant, instantaneous centre

(IC) is at mid of Q and R, that is S.

Let’s take  to be angular velocity of body..

Then, VP = (PS) 
VP V 2V
   P  P
PS 3/2 3
{  PQ = PR = QR = 1}
Also, VR =  SR 
VR VR
    2VR
SR 1/ 2

Q. 12 (a)
For pure rolling

Q.10

m = 2 kg, g = 10 m/s 2
FBD of mass P at point Q
N-mg = ma, at no slip condition.
mv 2
N = mg +
R
2  20  
 2  10   420 N
2
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 mass moment of in inertia of axle is neglected 

VP  V   PR   ...  i 
 f  0.8 = 0.32 + 1
VQ  2V   QR   ...  ii 
 f = 0.4  1.25 ......  ii 
Divide by  ii  to  i  Comparing equation  i  and  ii  , we get
QR 5  0.7  1.25  0.4 
2=  QR=2PR
PR 3.75
PR  QR  2r  
1.10
 PR  2  PR   2r = 3.409 rad/s 2
2
 PR  r So, the acceleration of the wheel axle
3 system in horizontal direction.
2 
From equation  i  , V   r   a cm  r.
3 
3v  0.4  3.409  1.36 m/s 2

2r a cm  1.4 m/s 2

Q.13 ( 5 )

Due to rough surface, friction force (f)

will act on both the wheels.
Net force along horizontal direction of
motion of the whole system.
10  2f =  2  1    a
a =r
where r = 0.4 m and  = angular acceleration
 10  2f = 3.5  0.4  

 f = 5  0.7  ....  i 
Net torque about centre of mass,
 10  0.1  2  f     cm .
Icm  2  1   0.4 
2

Here,
Icm  0.32 kg-m 2
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PRACTICE QUESTIONS
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SOLUTIONS
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