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Mechatronics I
Module I
Week 2

Source: PowerPoint Stock images

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persian-proverbs
 Learning Objectives 3

After this lecture, you should be able to:

✓ Perform circuit analysis using Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) and

Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL)

✓ Determine an equivalent circuit for a given two-terminal circuit

✓ Determine the components of power in an AC circuit

✓ Analyze different op-amp circuits

✓ Explain the function of a solenoid

✓ Define a relay
 Simple Electrical Systems 4

Basic passive electrical elements. (a) A resistor. (b) An inductor. (c) A capacitor.
 Simple Electrical Systems 5

✓ Resistors. Ohm’s law states that the voltage drop, 𝑒𝑅 (𝑡), across a resistor R is proportional
to the current i(t) going through the resistor.

✓ Inductors. The voltage drop, 𝑒𝐿 (𝑡), across an inductor L is proportional to the time
rate of change of current 𝑖(𝑡), going through the inductor.

“future”

✓ Capacitor. The voltage drop, 𝑒𝐶 (𝑡), across a capacitor C is proportional to the integral current
𝑖 𝑡 going through the capacitor with respect to time.

“past”
 Modeling of Electrical Networks 6

✓ The classical way of writing equations of electric networks is based on the loop method or
the node method, both of which are formulated from the two laws of Kirchhoff, which state:

❑ Current law or loop method. The algebraic

summation of all currents entering a node is zero.
𝑖=𝑁

෍ 𝐼𝑖 = 0 𝐼1 − 𝐼2 −𝐼3 = 0
𝑖=1

❑ Voltage law or node method. The algebraic sum of all

voltage drops around a complete closed loop is zero.
𝑖=𝑁

෍ 𝑉𝑖 = 0 𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉1 −𝑉2 = 0
𝑖=1
 Applying the Voltage Law 7

𝑒𝑅 (t) 𝑒𝐿 (t)

𝑑𝑒𝑐 (𝑡)
𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐶 (2)
𝑑𝑡

✓ Replacing (2) into (1)

𝑒 𝑡 = 𝑒𝑅 (𝑡) + 𝑒𝐿 (t) + 𝑒𝑐 (t) 𝑑 2 𝑒𝑐 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑒𝑐 (𝑡)

LC 𝑑𝑡 2 + 𝑅𝐶 𝑑𝑡
+ 𝑒𝑐 (t) = 𝑒(t)

𝑑𝑖(𝑡)
𝑒 𝑡 = 𝑒𝑅 (𝑡) + 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑒𝑐 (t) (1)
 Applying the Voltage Law 8

In control systems it is customary to rewrite the equation of the RLC network as

where 𝜔𝑛 and ζ are the natural frequency and the damping ratio of the system, respectively.
 Modeling of Electrical Networks 9

✓ Note that the RLC network is analogous to the translational system

Development farads of series analog: (a) mechanical system; (b) desired electrical representation; (c) series analog; (d)
parameters for series analog.
 Modeling of Electrical Networks 10
Example
Consider the RC circuit shown below. Find the differential equation of the system. Using
the voltage law.
The voltage across the capacitor is

Differentiating
or
(3)

(1)
Replacing (2) and (3) into (1)

The voltage across the resistor is

(2) where the RC is also known as the time
constant of the system.
 Voltage and Current Diving Circuits 11

✓ When two resistors are connected in series in a circuit, it is called a voltage dividing circuit

𝑅2
𝑉2 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛
(𝑅1 +𝑅2 )

✓ When two resistors are connected in parallel in a circuit, it is called a current dividing circuit

𝑅1
𝐼2 = 𝐼
(𝑅1 +𝑅2 )
 Obtaining the Equation for the Voltage Divider 12

Consider the circuit composed of two resistors 𝑅1 and 𝑅2

𝑅2
𝑉2 = (𝑅 𝑉1
1 + 𝑅2 )

𝑉1 I 𝑉2

(𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 𝑉2 ) Rearrangement of this equation

𝐼=
𝑅1 yields the following equation for
(𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 𝑉2 ) 𝑉2 Your challenge:
= the voltage divider Derive the
𝑉2 𝑅1 𝑅2
𝐼= expression for
𝑅2 the current in
the dividing
circuit.
 Convention 13

It is conventional to take the current flow as the movement of positive charges, that is,
opposite to the flow of negative charges. This convention was introduced by Benjamin
Franklin (1706–1790). Although we now know that current in metallic conductors is
due to negatively charged electrons, we will follow the universally accepted convention
that current is the net flow of positive charges.
Total Resistance, Capacitance, and Inductance 14
 Linearity Principle 15

A linear circuit is one whose output is linearly related (or directly proportional) to its input.

homogeneity (scaling) property

Linearity Principle
additivity property

✓ The homogeneity property requires that if the input (also called the excitation) is multiplied
by a constant, then the output (also called the response) is multiplied by the same constant.

Ohm’s law
If the current is increased by a constant k, then the voltage
increases correspondingly by k
i R
 Linearity Property 16

✓ The additivity property

Experiment 1 Experiment 2

𝑖1 R 𝑖1 R

(𝑖1+ 𝑖2 ) R (𝑖1+ 𝑖2 )R

𝑖2 R 𝑖2 R

o The additivity property requires that the response to a sum of 𝑖2 R

inputs is the sum of the responses to each input applied separately. How can you
determine whether a
system in the lab
exhibits linearity?
 Equivalent Circuits 17

They are used to simply electrical circuit analysis by reducing complex circuits by its equivalent
source and resistance

Thevenin equivalent circuit consists of

a an ideal voltage source (𝑉𝑡ℎ ) connected
a Thevenin in series with a resister (𝑅𝑡ℎ ).

b The Norton equivalent circuit: Norton

a equivalent circuit consists of an ideal
Norton cur- rent source 𝐼𝑠𝑐 connected in a
parallel with a resistor 𝑅𝑡ℎ .
b
 Thevenin’s Theorem 18

Step 1 – Find 𝑹𝒕𝒉

Step 2 – Find 𝑽𝒕𝒉
 19
Thevenin’s Theorem
CASE 1 - If the network has no dependent sources, we turn off all independent sources. 𝑅𝑡ℎ is the input
resistance of the network looking between terminals a and b

CASE 2 - If the network has dependent sources, we turn off all independent sources. Dependent sources are
not to be turned off because they are controlled by circuit variables.

o We apply a voltage source 𝑣𝑜 at terminals a and b and determine the resulting current io.

Then we find 𝑅𝑡ℎ = 𝑣𝑜 ∕ 𝑖𝑜

o Alternatively, we may insert a current source io at terminals a-b as show in Figure

below.
 20
Example – Case 1

Apply Thevenin's theorem on the circuit

Step 1 - Finding Rth

The equivalent resistance Rth is given as:

 21

Step 2 - Finding Vth or Voc

a

The open-circuit voltage Voc is given as:

𝟑𝟔×𝟔
Voc = = 4 × 6 = 24 V
(𝟑+𝟔)
 Thevenin’s Theorem 22

Example – Case ?

Step 1 – Finding 𝑅𝑡ℎ

Turn off voltage source (replacing it with a

short circuit) and the current source
(replacing it with an open circuit)
 Thevenin’s Theorem 23

Example – Case 1
✓ Applying mesh analysis to the two loops

Step 2 – Finding 𝑉𝑡ℎ

✓ 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖1

𝑖1 = 0.5 A

✓ 𝐶𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑉𝑡ℎ
 Thevenin’s Theorem 24

Example – Case 2
Find the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit at terminals a-b
 Thevenin’s Theorem 25
Example – Case 2
Step 1 - Finding Rth
o We turn off all independent current source
o We excite the network with a voltage source 𝑣𝑜 connected to the terminals as
indicated in below Figure. We set 𝑣𝑜 = 1 V to ease calculation.

✓ Applying mesh analysis to loop 1

But

(1)
 Thevenin’s Theorem 26
Example – Case 2

✓ Solving the equations (1), (2) and (3) gives

✓ For loops 2 and 3, applying KVL produces

(2)

(3)
 Thevenin’s Theorem 27
Example – Case 2
Step 2 - Finding Vth
✓ But 4(i1 − i2 ) = 𝑣x

✓ Solving these equations leads to i2 = 10∕3

Vth = Voc = 6 i2 = 20 V

Vth
✓ Applying mesh analysis, we get

i1 = 5

The Thevenin equivalent of the circuit

 Thevenin’s Theorem 28

Your challenge: Solve again the previous example (case 2) considering

the following alternative way to determine 𝑅𝑡ℎ :
Insert a current source io at terminals a-b as shown in figure below
and find the terminal voltage vo. Again, 𝑅𝑡ℎ = v0 ∕ i0 .
 Norton’s Theorem 29

In 1926, about 43 years after Thevenin published his theorem, E. L. Norton, an American engineer at Bell Telephone

Laboratories, proposed a similar theorem.

Finding Norton current 𝐼𝑁

Finding Norton resistance 𝑅𝑡ℎ
 Norton’s Theorem 30

Step 1 - Finding Norton resistance 𝑅𝑡ℎ

Relationship between Norton’s and Thevenin’s theorems

Step 2 - Finding Norton current

 Norton’s Theorem 31

Example

Find the Norton equivalent circuit of the circuit at terminals a-b

Step 1- Find 𝑹𝒕𝒉= 𝑹𝑵

 Norton’s Theorem 32

Step 2- Find 𝑰𝒔𝒄 = 𝑰𝑵

Norton equivalent circuit

Converting to the
Thevenin equivalent circuit
5
4Ω
❑ Note that the 5 Ω resistor is shot circuited Ω

54ΩV

From these equations, we obtain

 AC Circuits 33

Steady-state response

✓ A sinusoidal forcing function produces both a transient response and a steady-state response

o The transient response dies out with time so that only the steady-state response remains.

o When the transient response has become negligibly small compared with the steady-state
response, we say that the circuit is operating at sinusoidal steady state.
 AC Circuits 34
Sinusoidal Voltage

A sketch of Vm sinωt: (a) as a function of ωt, (b) as a function of t

𝑉𝑚 = the amplitude of the sinusoid

ω = the angular frequency in radians/s
ωt = the argument of the sinusoid

T is called the period Frequency

of the sinusoid
 Phasor 35
✓ Sinusoids are easily expressed in terms of phasors

o The idea of phasor representation is based on Euler’s identity

o We may regard cosϕ and sinϕ as the real and imaginary parts of 𝑒 𝑗∅

Representation of 𝑽𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡

Given a sinusoid v(t) = 𝑉𝑚 cos(ωt + ϕ)

We can express v(t) as

V is thus the phasor representation of
the sinusoid v(t)
 Phasor 36

✓ Differentiating and Integrating a

❑ Differentiating a sinusoid is equivalent to

multiplying its corresponding phasor by jω
 Phasor Relationships for Circuit Elements 37

Time Domain Phasor or Frequency Domain

i = 𝐼𝑚 cos(ωt + ϕ)

Resistance
 Phasor Relationships for Circuit Elements 38

Time Domain Phasor or Frequency Domain

i = 𝐼𝑚 cos(ωt + ϕ)

𝑍𝐿 = j𝜔𝐿
Inductive reactance
 Phasor Relationships for Circuit Elements 39

Time Domain Phasor or Frequency Domain

i = 𝐼𝑚 cos(ωt + ϕ)

Capacitive reactance
 Impedance 40
✓ Ohm’s law in phasor form is

✓ The admittance Y of an element (or a circuit) is

Z is a frequency-dependent quantity known

as impedance, measured in ohms.
Rectangular form

Polar form

o The impedance represents the opposition that the circuit

exhibits to the flow of sinusoidal current.
Impedance 41
Impedance 42
Summary

*V and I are RMS Values

 Root Mean Square Value 43
Effective Value

RMS voltage and current:

𝟏 𝑻
𝑽𝑷 𝟏 𝑻 𝟐
𝑰𝑷
𝑽𝑹𝑴𝑺 = 𝟐
න 𝒗(𝒕) 𝒅𝒕 = 𝑰𝑹𝑴𝑺 = න 𝒊(𝒕) 𝒅𝒕 =
𝑻 𝟎 𝟐 𝑻 𝟎 𝟐
Effective or RMS Value 44

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 Effective or RMS Value 45

An experimental setup to establish a relationship between dc and ac quantities.

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 Measurements Using a Real Voltmeter 46

Why sometimes multimeters and oscilloscopes could produce an error?

✓ Multimeters and oscilloscopes have large impedance

(1 MΩ or higher), and power supplies have small
𝑅𝑠 resistance (less than 1 Ω), so the loading effect is
negligible

✓ If a voltmeter is used to measure the voltage in a

circuit with large resistance, then error due to loading
effects could be significant. Loading effects
 Maximum Power Transfer 47

The maximum power is transferred from a source to a load when the load
resistance is equal to the internal source resistance.

Example impedance matching

 48
Average power

1 𝑇 1 𝑇
𝑃 = න 𝑝 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = න 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 [cos(𝜃𝑉 − 𝜃𝐼 ) + 𝑐𝑜s(2𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃𝑉 + 𝜃𝐼 )]𝑑𝑡
𝑇 0 𝑇 0

(𝜃𝑉 − 𝜃𝐼 ) 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡

 Instantaneous Power 49

𝑣 t = 2𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃𝑉 )V

𝑖 t = 2𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃𝐼 )A

𝑝 𝑡 = 𝑣 𝑡 × 𝑖 𝑡 = 2𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃𝑉 ) × 𝑐𝑜s(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃𝐼 )

1
cos(𝛼)cos(𝛽) = [cos 𝛼 − 𝛽 + cos(𝛼 + 𝛽)]
2

𝑝 𝑡 = 𝑣 𝑡 × 𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 [cos(𝜃𝑉 − 𝜃𝐼 ) + 𝑐𝑜s(2𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃𝑉 + 𝜃𝐼 )]

 Active power, true power, or real power 50

𝑆 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 × 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 [(cos𝜃𝑉 − 𝜃𝐼 ) + jsin(𝜃𝑉 − 𝜃𝐼 )] = 𝑃 + 𝑗𝑄 = 𝑉 × 𝐼 ∗

Complex Power

𝑆= 𝑃2 + 𝑄𝐿 − 𝑄𝐶 2

𝑆= 𝑃2 + 𝑄2
= 𝑄𝐿 − 𝑄𝐶

𝑄= 𝑆 2 − 𝑃2

𝑃= 𝑆 2 − 𝑄2

P: real power, true power (W, KW, MW)

Q: reactive power. (Var, Kvar, Mvar)
S: apparent power, complex power (VA, KAV, MVA)
Power factor: cos𝜃𝑉 − 𝜃𝐼 )
 51
Active power, true power, or real power

P = VI
P=I R 2

2
Watts (W)
V
P= Heat
R
V
i

R
 Reactive Power 52

✓ Reactive power simply goes back and forth between the source

and the load with no net work being done.

𝑸 = 𝑉𝐼

𝑽𝟐
𝑸=
𝑿𝑳

𝑸 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑿
Volt-Amps-Reactive (VAR)
Does not represent an energy loss
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Analogy 53
 Readings
• Chapter 2: Fundamentals of Mechatronics, M.
Jouaneh

Find the PDF version of the book in the

folder “Helpful Material” on D2L
Problems
Problems
 Remainder for the week
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Lab 2: Getting Started with Teensy

- Needed tools:
• Teensy
• USB Cable
• Computer with USB

Assignment#1 is posted (Duration: One week)