JTTEE5 17:199–213

DOI: 10.1007/s11666-007-9148-y
1059-9630/$19.00 Ó ASM International

Peer Reviewed
Technical and Economical Aspects
of Current Thermal Barrier Coating Systems
for Gas Turbine Engines by Thermal Spray
and EBPVD: A Review
Albert Feuerstein, James Knapp, Thomas Taylor, Adil Ashary, Ann Bolcavage, and Neil Hitchman

(Submitted June 19, 2007; in revised form August 17, 2007)

The most advanced thermal barrier coating (TBC) systems for aircraft engine and power generation hot
section components consist of electron beam physical vapor deposition (EBPVD) applied yttria-stabilized
zirconia and platinum modified diffusion aluminide bond coating. Thermally sprayed ceramic and MCrAlY
bond coatings, however, are still used extensively for combustors and power generation blades and vanes.
This article highlights the key features of plasma spray and HVOF, diffusion aluminizing, and EBPVD
coating processes. The coating characteristics of thermally sprayed MCrAlY bond coat as well as low
density and dense vertically cracked (DVC) Zircoat TBC are described. Essential features of a typical
EBPVD TBC coating system, consisting of a diffusion aluminide and a columnar TBC, are also presented.
The major coating cost elements such as material, equipment and processing are explained for the different
technologies, with a performance and cost comparison given for selected examples.

Keywords advantages of TS, APS coatings, coatings for gas

and temperature profiles present along the gas path from
turbine components, TBC topcoats, thermal air intake to exhaust. A diagram of the relative tempera-
properties review ture reduction achieved using both TBC and cooling air
technologies on hot section hardware is shown in Fig. 2.
A typical TBC consists of two key layers: an oxidation
resistant bond coat such as diffusion aluminide or overlay
MCrAlY bond coating, and a ceramic top layer, typically
1. Introduction 7-8 wt.% Y2O3-stabilized ZrO2 (7YSZ), to reduce the
heat flux into the component.
Thermal barrier coating systems (TBCs) are widely The ceramic top layer is typically applied either by
used in modern gas turbine engines to lower the metal plasma spray or by electron beam physical vapor deposi-
surface temperature in combustor and turbine section tion (EBPVD) (Ref 2, 3). Significant effort is going into
hardware. Engines for both aero-jet propulsion and land- the development of new ceramic compositions with lower
based industrial power generation have taken advantage thermal conductivity. Concepts used are advanced multi-
of this technology to meet increasing demands for greater component zirconia (ZrO2)-based TBCs using an oxide
fuel efficiency, lower NOx emissions, and higher power defect clustering design and materials whose compositions
and thrust. The engine components exposed to the most have a pyrochlore structure (Ref 4, 5). In addition to a
extreme temperatures are the combustor and the initial low-thermal conductivity, other desired properties of a
rotor blades and nozzle guide vanes of the high-pressure thermal barrier coating are also phase stability during long
turbine. Metal temperature reductions of up to 165 °C are term high-temperature exposure and thermal cycling,
possible when TBCs are used in conjunction with external resistance to erosion and pollutants such as, e.g., CMAS,
film cooling and internal component air cooling (Ref 1). In which can destroy the integrity of the thermal barrier
film cooling a protective blanket of cooling air is ejected coating by infiltrating the pores and react with the coating.
onto the external surface of the turbine vane or blade, An aluminum-enriched bond coat composition is used
from internal passages within the airfoils, by means of to provide a slow growing, adherent aluminum oxide film,
holes or slots in the surface. Figure 1 is a schematic of the otherwise known as a thermally grown oxide, or TGO
key elements of an aircraft gas turbine, with the pressure (Ref 6). This alumina scale is an ideal oxygen diffusion
barrier, since it has one of the lowest oxygen diffusion
rates of all protective oxide films (Ref 7).
Albert Feuerstein, James Knapp, Thomas Taylor, Adil Ashary, Bond coat oxidation is the primary cause of TBC fail-
and Neil Hitchman, Praxair Surface Technologies, Inc., ure (Ref 8). Thermal cycling testing has shown the modes
Indianapolis, IN USA; and Ann Bolcavage, Rolls Royce of failure to include the growth of a delamination crack in
Corporation, Indianapolis, IN USA. Contact e-mail: albert_
the zirconia layer just above the TGO and bond coat,
[email protected].

Journal of Thermal Spray Technology Volume 17(2) June 2008—199

 components such as combustor hardware, turbine outer
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air seal ring segments, and stationary nozzle guide vanes.

Rotating blades and some high-pressure turbine section
vanes, which require surfaces with a smooth finish and the
ability to withstand a high degree of thermo-mechanical
strain, are often coated using EBPVD technology. Alter-
nate thermal spray technologies using liquid precursors
show promising results and potential, but need still opti-
mization work (Ref 12).

2.1 Plasma-Sprayed Ceramic Thermal Barrier

Coatings
A ceramic top layer deposited by air plasma spray
(APS) consists of either of two morphologies. A ‘‘low
density’’ coating exhibits an even spacing of pores and
voids ranging from 20 lm to nanosized, with sub-critical
horizontal micro-cracking between individual splat layers.
Fig. 1 A gas turbine engine schematic, showing the different These features, along with the inherent phonon scattering
sections along the engine along with corresponding pressure and
temperature profiles. Diagram after Michael Cervenka, Rolls-
properties of the 7YSZ atomic lattice, aid in reducing heat
Royce Corporation, 2001 flux transfer to the metallic bond coat and component.
The coating density usually ranges between 80 and 86% of
the theoretical value. Figure 3 shows optical and SEM
images of a typical low-density coating in cross section.
Alternatively, dense, vertically segmented coatings,
such as Zircoat (Praxair Surface Technologies, Inc.)
(Ref 13) shown in Fig. 4, are successfully used in both
aircraft and land-based gas turbine engines (Ref 14).
Dense, vertically macro-cracked TBCs provide improved
tolerance of the ceramic layer to the strain caused by the
CTE mismatch of ceramic and bond coat. The vertical
segments are in the primary direction of the conductive
heat flow, and thus do not inhibit conductive heat transfer
through the coating thickness.
As in the case of APS low density coatings, horizontal
splat boundaries and porosity, as well as a limited amount
of horizontal crack branching from the vertical segments
of Zircoat, influence the defect-generated contribution to
the thermal conductivity.
Fig. 2 Schematic of a TBC on an air-cooled gas turbine engine
component (Ref 2). The thermal barrier acts as a heat flow 2.2 EBPVD Ceramic Thermal Barrier Coatings
resistor and is only efficient in cooled engine components
EBPVD TBCs, consisting of a fine columnar micro-
cracking within the TGO, and at the TGO/bond coat structure, are utilized in the most advanced gas turbine
interface (Ref 9-11). engines. The loosely bonded columnar grains, presented in
This article concentrates on TBCs for selected high- Fig. 5, serve the same purpose as vertical crack segments in
temperature applications in a modern gas turbine engine. plasma-sprayed coatings, and provide a high degree of
Specifically, the key features of each layer which affect mechanical compliance. However, the lack of large splat
performance, common deposition technologies, and the boundaries and other features normal to the heat flow
economic factors that must be considered, are addressed. direction ensures that 7YSZ EBPVD TBCs will have rel-
atively higher thermal conductivity values vs. their plasma-
sprayed counterparts of the same composition (Ref 9).
The 7YSZ EBPVD TBC polished cross section in
2. Modern Ceramic Thermal Barrier Fig. 5 shows a plurality of fine columnar grains nucleating
Coatings on top of the aluminide bond coat. These subsequently
increase in size during the vapor deposition process due to
Presently essentially two types of application methods competitive growth. The fracture surface in Fig. 6 contains
are used to deposit the 7YSZ ceramic layer onto com- a fine profusion of micro-columns which collectively con-
mercial gas turbine engine components. Plasma spray stitute each columnar grain. Even at this level of magni-
deposition is commonly utilized to deposit TBCs onto fication, there are no discernable horizontally oriented

200—Volume 17(2) June 2008 Journal of Thermal Spray Technology

 Peer Reviewed
Fig. 3 (a) and (b): Cross section of APS low density TBC, containing approximately 15% porosity. Two different magnifications are
shown to reveal the ‘‘macro’’ and ‘‘micro’’ structure of the coating

Fig. 4 (a) and (b): Cross section of APS Zircoat TBC, containing approximately 16-24 cracks per linear centimeter. Two different
magnifications are shown to reveal the ‘‘macro’’ and ‘‘micro’’ structure of the coating

Fig. 5 EBPVD TBC, featuring a plurality of vertical, loosely

bonded columnar grains Fig. 6 SEM image of a 7YSZ EBPVD TBC fracture surface

Journal of Thermal Spray Technology Volume 17(2) June 2008—201

 Table 1 Average thickness, density, and room
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temperature thermophysical data of 7YSZ coatings

Thickness, Density Diffusivity Conductivity
TBC lm 3
at 23 °C, at 23 °C,
description g/cm % Bulk cm2/s W/m K
YSZ—low density 262 5.14 85.0 0.00338 0.83
YSZ—Zircoat 724 5.56 91.8 0.00547 1.46
YSZ—EBPVD 144 4.68 77.7 0.0768 1.71
All measurements were taken at normal air pressure. The value for
the specific heat was measured at 0.489 Ws/g K

features that would impede conductive heat flow through

the coating.

2.3 Thermal Conductivity of APS and EBPVD TBC

TBC coatings deposited by APS offer a thermal con-
ductivity significantly lower (0.9-1.1 W/m K), than that of
fully dense, monolithic 7YSZ (>2 W/m K), as the
boundaries and pores tend to lie parallel to the surface and
therefore perpendicular to the temperature gradient. By Fig. 7 Temperature dependence of thermal conductivity for
contrast, although the thermal conductivity of EBPVD 7YSZ TBCs
TBC is not as low (1.7-1.8 W/m K) as that of APS coat-
It is worthwhile to mention that the thermal conductivity
ings, EBPVD TBCs are nevertheless preferred for thin
of a porous material may be affected by the external gas
aero blade TBCs because of the strain tolerance imparted
pressure, according to the pore size and morphology. Thus
by the microstructure.
the thermal conductivity of APS coatings typically increases
Thermal conductivity is primarily affected by the den-
with increasing pressure, as it is the case in the engine,
sity of the coating, the number of internal boundaries and
whereas EB-PBD thermal conductivity is almost pressure
pores. The orientation of the internal cracks and pores
independent. This aspect is of prime importance as the
relatively to the thermal flux is also critical. In order to
measurement conditions (temperature and pressure) of the
calculate thermal conductivity, one must also know the
thermal conductivity are in general far from those in service
specific heat of that particular ceramic composition, the
(as it is well shown on Fig. 1).
density, and the thermal diffusivity as a function of tem-
It is also important to mention that the thermal con-
perature (measured using the laser flash technique, Ref
ductivity increases with long time thermal aging of the
15). More specific details on these techniques are pub-
coatings (APS as well as EB-PVD coatings) due to (i)
lished elsewhere (Ref 16, 17).
sintering effects, (ii) phase transformations in 7YSZ.
A list of the thickness and density of typical TBC
Actually, this is a main issue which justifies the today
morphologies, as well as the resulting room temperature
search for new ceramic coatings with low conductivity
thermal diffusivity and thermal conductivity data mea-
AND increased stability (Ref 18, 19).
sured with the laser flash method, is shown in Table 1.
Density measurements are expressed as both measured
values in g/cm3 and as a percentage of the bulk value.
Specific heat was measured using a standard Perkin- 3. Bond Coat
Elmer Model DSC-2 Differential Scanning Calorimeter
with sapphire as the reference material (ASTM E1269). The term bond coat may imply that diffusion aluminide
The standard and sample were subjected to the same heat or MCrAlY coatings are applied only for increased
flux as a blank and the differential powers required to heat adherence of the TBC coating to the substrate alloy.
the sample and standard at the same rate were determined Although these coatings do enhance the bonding between
using the digital data acquisition system. From the masses alloy and TBC, their primary function is to increase the
of the sapphire standard and sample, the differential high-temperature oxidation and corrosion resistance of
power, and the known specific heat of sapphire, the spe- underlying structural alloy.
cific heat of the sample is computed. High-temperature alloys derive their protection against
The thermal conductivity values measured at normal oxidizing environments by forming a thin oxide layer
atmospheric air pressure and at each temperature on commonly termed as a TGO. This layer acts as a barrier
heating are shown in Fig. 7. Data points obtained upon between the alloy and the atmosphere, and impedes fur-
cooling in these coatings showed no significant rise in ther oxidation. Growth of the TGO occurs either by out-
thermal conductivity due to sintering effects, due to the ward diffusion of metal ions or by inward diffusion of
short amount of time at high temperature. oxygen ion through the oxide layer.

202—Volume 17(2) June 2008 Journal of Thermal Spray Technology

 The oxides which allow minimal diffusion grow slowly Second, it significantly improves the oxidation properties

Peer Reviewed
and thus provide maximum protection to the underlying of the aluminide coating (Ref 22). Typically 5 to 10 lm Pt
alloy. The most commonly used TGOs for protection of is deposited by electroplating, followed by a diffusion
high-temperature commercial alloys are a-alumina aluminide process.
(Al2O3) and chromia (Cr2O3). These oxides have slow Platinum aluminide can also be made either with the
growth rates and due to their higher thermodynamic sta- low activity—high-temperature process or by the high
bility, are easily formed on metallic alloys. Chromia has activity—low-temperature diffusion process. Figures 8
higher growth rates than alumina, but has the disadvan- and 9 show schematically the microstructures of these two
tage of forming gaseous CrO3 at temperatures above types of coatings. Since the part surface is grit blasted
1000 °C. Presently, most advanced alloys and metallic prior to the application of the platinum, grit inclusions can
coating rely on forming alumina scale for high-temperature serve as markers to indicate the additive coating layer or
protection. Also, a significant amount of chromium can be the original alloy surface. In the case of the low
added to the alloys and coatings for high-temperature activity—high-temperature process, the additive layer is
corrosion resistance. above the nickel diffusion zone, and in the case of high
Additions of large amounts of aluminum in structural activity—low-temperature process, the additive layer is
alloys (greater than about 6 wt.%) to form protective under the original surface marked by the grit inclusions.
alumina scale can adversely affect the mechanical prop- The relative thickness of the nickel diffusion zone also
erties. Furthermore, additions of refractory elements such indicates the degree of outward diffusion of nickel. As the
as tantalum, tungsten, and rhenium in advanced alloys coating grows inwardly in the high activity—low-temper-
systems are made at the expense of chromium and alu- ature process, it traps the carbides and other inclusions
minum. Diffusion aluminide and thermal spray overlay near the original alloys surface, as shown in Fig. 9. These
coatings, on the other hand, can contain large amount of inclusions can have a deleterious effect in that they can
aluminum, because they do not have to provide structural lower the oxidation/corrosion resistance of the coating.
strength to the engine components. Diffusion aluminide In either processes, platinum aluminide can be single
coatings can contain up to 30 wt.% aluminum, and most phase ((Ni, Pt)-Al) or double phase ((Ni, Pt)-Al + PtAl2).
thermally sprayed MCrAlY coatings contain 10 to The PtAl2 secondary phase is schematically shown in
12 wt.% aluminum.

3.1 Diffusion Aluminide

Diffusion aluminide coatings are based on the inter-
metallic compound b-NiAl. Pack cementation is a com-
monly used process, because it is relatively inexpensive
and capable of coating many small parts in one batch.
The parts are immersed in a powder mixture, contain-
ing alumina and aluminum particles, and ammonium
halide activator. Coating takes place at temperatures be-
tween 800 and 1000 °C. Aluminum halides react on the
surface of the part and deposit aluminum.
More advanced processes consist of ‘‘over the pack’’
vapor phase aluminizing (VPA) or chemical vapor depo-
sition (CVD). These processes can control the flow of the
aluminum halides to selected areas of the parts to be Fig. 8 Microstructure schematic showing platinum aluminide
coated, and are used especially when there is a need to formed from a low activity—high-temperature process
coat also the internals of components.
Depending on the activity of the aluminum and the
coating temperature, one can achieve two coating micro-
structures (Ref 20). The low activity—high-temperature
process (1050-1100 °C), forms NiAl by outward diffusion
of nickel.
In the high activity—low temperature process (700-
950 °C), Ni2Al3 and possibly b-NiAl forms by inward
diffusion of aluminum. Typically a diffusion heat treat-
ment is applied to form a fully homogeneous b-NiAl layer.

3.2 Platinum Aluminide

The addition of platinum to the diffusion aluminide
coating system is beneficial in two ways: First, the plati-
num enhances the diffusion of aluminum (Ref 21) into the Fig. 9 Microstructure schematic showing platinum aluminide
substrate alloy during the diffusion aluminizing process. formed from a high activity—low-temperature process

Journal of Thermal Spray Technology Volume 17(2) June 2008—203

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Fig. 11 Micrograph of a typical two-phase NiCoCrAlY bond

Fig. 10 Optical micrograph of an outwardly grown platinum coating, applied using LPPS, after several hours in service. The
aluminide diffusion coating. The top thin white layer is electro- aluminide phase (dark) is depleted near the coating surface, and
plated nickel, used for edge retention during metallographic oxide pegs protrude from the TGO into the bond coating
preparation of the sample

produced by Tribomet (Praxair Surface Technologies,

Fig. 8. Figure 10 is a cross section SEM micrograph of a Inc.) (Ref 27), a Ni or Co electroplating process with
two-phase platinum aluminide coating. Although exis- CrAlY powder entrapment and subsequent diffusion heat
tence of the PtAl2 phase ensures sufficient platinum in the treatment. Uses for the coatings also expanded to other
coating, excess PtAl2 can be detrimental, as it makes the high-temperature applications in gas turbine and internal
coating brittle. A ‘‘blue zone’’ (as it appears in the optical combustion engines, such as turbine shrouds (abradable
microscope) is characteristic for the outer region of the and rub tolerant coatings), abrasive blade tips, and ther-
additive layer. It also indicates the coating to be on the mal barrier coating (TBC) bond coatings.
aluminum rich side of b-NiAl phase. Overlay coatings compared to diffusion coatings pro-
Important characteristics of platinum aluminide coat- vide more independence from the substrate alloy and
ings are overall thickness, platinum and aluminum con- more flexibility. The coating composition can be adjusted
centrations, thickness of the diffusion zone, and the according to the expected degradation mechanisms in
amount of PtAl2 phase. Coating thickness, which typically service. MCrAlY bond coatings contain typically four or
includes the diffusion zone, ranges from 50 to 100 lm. more elements. Chromium gives these coatings excellent
Since aluminide coatings strongly interact with the corrosion resistance combined with good oxidation resis-
underlying substrate via diffusion, the formation of brittle tance. After the coating deposition, a vacuum heat treat-
phases and the formation of a fast growing secondary ment provided a diffusion bonding for optimum adhesion.
reaction zone (SRZ) must be avoided. Therefore, each MCrAlY coatings generally show a two-phase micro-
aluminide deposition process must be specifically tailored structure b + c (NiAl + Ni). The presence of continuous
for different superalloy compositions. matrix fcc c-phase increases its ductility and thus the
thermal fatigue strength. The b-phase is the main reservoir
of the aluminum in the coating. With increasing TGO
3.3 MCrAlY Overlay Bond Coatings
thickness the aluminum rich phase in the outer region of
The first commercial MCrAlY alloy was an iron-based the coating depletes and the c-phase predominates (Ref
FeCrAlY formulated by Pratt and Whitney in the late 28). Figure 11 shows a cross section of a coating after an
1960s (Ref 23). Soon thereafter, they also patented extended period of oxidation. The b-depleted region also
CoCrAlY (Ref 24) and NiCoCrAlY compositions (Ref 25). shows a vast array of oxide protrusions.
Initially, MCrAlY coatings were applied either by vacuum These oxide protrusions sometimes form from the
induction or EBPVD. Primarily used as airfoil coatings, oxidation of reactive elements such as yttrium or hafnium.
they were very successful in enhancing the oxidation and The reactive element oxide protrusions are called ‘‘pegs,’’
hot-corrosion resistance of gas turbine hardware. How- and are thought to be one of several mechanisms
ever, due to cost considerations, coatings manufacturers responsible for the enhanced adhesion of the alumina
soon developed techniques such as air, vacuum, and low- scales. MCrAlY alloys are effective because they are
pressure plasma spraying (APS, VPS, and LPPS) and thermally and chemically compatible with their substrates
high-velocity oxy-fuel (HVOF) deposition. Union Carbide and have a minimal effect on base-metal properties. Per-
(now PST) developed an inert gas shrouded plasma spray formance is attributed to their ability to form a tenacious,
process for MCrAlY and other oxygen-reactive coatings protective scale that inhibits any interactions between the
(Ref 26) which maintained oxygen pickup to below host surface and the outside corrosive environment. The
0.1 wt.%. Most recently, MCrAlY coatings have also been primary protective scale is aluminum oxide. Although

204—Volume 17(2) June 2008 Journal of Thermal Spray Technology

other elements in the coating can also form oxides, they above 1 wt.%, the oxide scale is not alumina but yttrium

Peer Reviewed
are not as protective as alumina. Accordingly, their for- aluminum garnet, which is not as protective as alumina.
mation is discouraged by proper alloying of the MCrAlY. The effect of other additions beyond those found
Scale formation is related to the aluminumÕs activity within the most common MCrAlY alloys has also been
and its diffusivity in the alloy. This activity is increased by investigated. Additions of rhenium (Re) have been shown
chromium. Chromium (17-25 wt.%) also lowers the to improve isothermal or cyclic oxidation resistance, and
amount of aluminum needed to form and maintain the thermal cycle fatigue (Ref 34). The amount of silicon (Si)
protective oxide film and also provides excellent corrosion added to any MCrAlY alloy must be limited. Too much
resistance. A schematic diagram showing the relative will substantially lower the alloyÕs melting range. How-
oxidation and corrosion resistance of the most common ever, in small amounts, it has been shown to promote
overlay MCrAlY and diffusion aluminide coatings is alumina scale adherence and, in some cases, form an oxide
shown in Fig. 12. film of its own. The refractory metal tantalum is some-
The aluminum in MCrAlY, usually between 8 and times added to a MCrAlY coating to improve the alloyÕs
12 wt.%, forms the oxide scale. In general, it is desirable high-temperature capabilities and resistance to sulfidation
to provide a slow growing well adherent pure alumina and hot corrosion. Platinum, though very expensive, is
scale (TGO). As a major constituent of the alloy, it pro- often added to a MCrAlY coating to increase its oxidation
vides a reservoir from which the alumina scale is repeat- and hot-corrosion properties for operating at tempera-
edly replenished. tures up to 2000°F (1093 °C). With regard to trace ele-
Elements beneficial for the scale adherence are reactive ments, considerable attention is now paid to minimizing
elements such as yttrium, hafnium, and zirconium. Thus, sulfur, in some cases to well below 10 ppm (Ref 35). Sulfur
all MCrAlY coatings usually contain 1 wt.% yttrium or has shown to be detrimental for the adherence of the
less. The mechanism of yttrium enhancement of MCrAlY thermally grown alumina scale.
oxidation resistance is still debated. Several studies have
attributed yttriumÕs beneficial effects to modification of
the alumina mechanical properties, pegging of the alumina 4. Coating Process Technologies
to the metallic layer, or gettering of sulfur impurities
which migrate from the bond coat or superalloy substrate
In the following, we concentrate on selected TBC sys-
(Ref 30, 31). Additions of hafnium and zirconium play a
tems as applied at Praxair Surface Technologies for aero
similar role, they also seem to prevent spallation of the
and industrial power gas turbines, and their related
TGO (Ref 32).
deposition processes. Table 2 lists the presently used
Work at the University of Pittsburgh has shown that
combinations for these three key applications.
the alumina scale on FeCrAlY coatings is fine grained and
columnar, but not textured. In contrast, a-alumina on
4.1 Plasma-Spray Coating of Combustors, Blades,
FeCrAl is coarser grained and equiaxed, but also not
and Vanes
textured. This difference was attributed to yttrium sup-
pressing aluminum transport in the scale (Ref 33). It is A plasma-spray booth for applying TBCs onto aero-
possible to add too much yttrium, and additions at and space and IGT combustors consists not only of the phys-
ical enclosure and the equipment contained therein, such
as torches, gas and power service lines, tooling, multi-axis
robots for gun and/or part manipulation, and ventilation
systems, but also external process control components
such as control panels for power, gas flow regulation, and
powder feeder settings. Other necessary capital equipment
includes grit blasting and cleaning/inspection facilities for
component pre-coating preparation, and may also incor-
porate heat treatment furnaces and stripping tanks. Both
MCrAlY and YSZ ceramic layers are typically applied in
the same booth in sequential order, although separately
dedicated systems may be used.

Table 2 Selected examples of TBC systems for various

gas turbine applications
Example Bond coat Topcoat
Aerospace NiCoCrAlY via shrouded Zircoat via air
combustor plasma spray plasma spray
IGT HPT blade NiCoCrAlY HVOF Low-density YSZ
via air plasma spray
Fig. 12 Common MCrAlY and diffusion aluminide coating Aerospace Platinum-aluminide Columnar YSZ
compositions in relation to oxidation and hot-corrosion resis- HPT blade via diffusion via EBPVD
tance, after M. Schütze (Ref 29)

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Fig. 13 Plasma TBC coating of an annular combustor Fig. 14 Dual layer NiCrAlY bond coat (heat treated), with an
average thickness of 150 lm, applied by the shrouded plasma
process

For the coating of most annular combustors, a simple

two-axis manipulator is sufficient to move the plasma proprietary design, oxygen content in argon-shrouded
torch and rotate the component. An example of a typical plasma spray deposited MCrAlY has been shown to con-
setup of this type is shown in Fig. 13, where a plasma torch tain an order of magnitude lower oxygen content in
attached to an extension arm is used to apply the ceramic comparison to conventional air plasma-sprayed or HVOF-
YSZ layer on the inner diameter of a can-style combustor. deposited MCrAlY coatings.
Combustors with more complex geometry or with features Accordingly, PST has historically applied a two-layer
far off-angle to the torch centerline require the use of bond coat system (Ref 36) onto combustors and other
robots and turntables or other manipulation equipment aerospace and IGT components via gas-shrouded plasma
with multiple axes of movement. spray (Ref 26), in conjunction with vacuum heat treat-
The cost of applying coatings onto combustors via ment. The inner layer is sprayed from a finer cut of
plasma spray is primarily influenced by two factors. First, powder, and sinters to at least 95% theoretical density
the direct materials costs of MCrAlY powder, YSZ pow- during heat treatment. This layer has an average rough-
der, and process gases are determined by the required ness of 5 lm, whereas a higher roughness for YSZ
thickness of each layer, the surface area to be coated, and mechanical attachment is preferred. Therefore, the second
the deposition efficiency of the plasma-spray process. layer of bond coat is added on top of the first, consisting of
Second, the cost of labor includes not only the operatorÕs the same composition but of coarser powder, so as to
preparation of the coating booth and actual thermal spray produce a final roughness of at least 10 lm on the surface.
time, but also preparation of components beforehand for Figure 14 shows a typical two-layer MCrAlY bond coat
thermal spray, such as inspection, cleaning, and grit produced with shrouded plasma spray.
blasting. The HVOF deposition system comprises an oxygen and
4.1.1 Bond Coating Deposition. Two bond coat fuel mixture consisting of kerosene, propylene, propane,
deposition techniques are reviewed here, the Shrouded natural gas, or hydrogen, depending on the gun. The
Plasma system and HVOF. Both systems have similarities mixture of oxygen and fuel is injected into the combustion
in their requirements to provide an acceptable coating. chamber and is ignited internally or externally from the
In order to provide optimum adherence for a TBC gun. The powder is injected internally into the upper
topcoat, a surface roughness of the MCrAlY bond coat at stream of the combustion flame, either axially or radially.
least approximately 10 lm Ra is desirable so as to The ignited gases form a circular flame, which surrounds
mechanically anchor the layers together. This is usually the required coating powder as it flows through the nozzle.
accomplished by using a coarse powder with a size dis- The combustion temperatures can exceed 2800 °C
tribution within the range of 40 to 125 lm. A coating depending on gun operating parameters and the fuel type.
produced by a coarser powder, however, tends to exhibit The flame configuration shapes the powder stream to
porosity. If the bond coat has more than 6% porosity, even provide uniform heating and acceleration of the powder
after vacuum heat treatment, any pores still inter-con- particles. Similar to the plasma spray process, the selection
nected can result in accelerated internal oxidation of the of gun parameters is based on providing the optimum
coating once in service. heating and acceleration of the powder particles by the
As the effluent emerges from the plasma torch, it is flame. Typical gas velocities are 1000 to 1200 m/s and can
surrounded by an argon shroud to minimize the pickup of exceed 1500 m/s, depending on which hardware and spray
oxygen during flight to the component. With this parameters are utilized. To achieve the required bond coat

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Fig. 15 Working principle of the Praxair TAFA JP5000 HVOF gun

density and surface roughness, MCrAlY applied with this

technology can be either a single or dual layer. The
schematic in Fig. 15 demonstrates the working principle of
the Praxair TAFA JP5000 HVOF gun.
4.1.2 Thermal Barrier Coating Deposition. The cera-
mic TBC is applied onto the MCrAlY bond coating using
plasma spray technology, with the resulting coating and its
properties significantly influenced by the torch settings.
YSZ ceramic powder is injected into the plasma effluent,
heated, and accelerated toward the combustor surface.
Where this injection takes place, in conjunction with other
processing factors, dictates the TBC microstructure. Low-
density TBCs, containing 15-20% pores, consist of multi-
ple splat layers, along with a profusion of pores, voids, and
sub-critical horizontal cracks between the splats. This
microstructure is best obtained from plasma torches with
powder injection ports externally positioned to the exit
nozzle. Higher density, vertically segmented TBCs require
Fig. 16 Combustor TBC system consisting of Zircoat TBC and
a more complete treatment of the injected powder. This NiCrAlY bond coat. TBC surface was surface finished before
may be done through external injection with increased metallographic evaluation
torch power, or through internal injection within the torch
body. tion and good thermal shock resistance over extended
time at high-operation temperatures. Plasma-sprayed
4.2 TBC Systems for Combustors ceramic thermal barriers are almost always employed.
Figure 17 shows a TBC system for a typical IGT compo-
Figure 16 shows an example of a TBC coating system nent, consisting of an HVOF-applied MCrAlY bond coat
for a combustor, consisting of a NiCrAlY bond coating and an air-sprayed YSZ low-density topcoat, whereas
and Zircoat ceramic top layer. Generally, MCrAlY bond Fig. 18 shows a large industrial vane receiving a HVOF
coatings, whether single layer or dual-layer, are applied to bond coating.
thicknesses ranging from 125 to 250 lm. The thickness
and type of thermal barrier layer is often dependent on the 4.4 Platinum Aluminide/EBPVD TBC Systems
desired morphology, as well as the expected conditions in
service. Low-density YSZ coatings typically range from The platinum aluminide/EBPVD TBC system can be
250 to 500 lm, although thicknesses up to 1000 lm are not applied to a variety of modern aircraft and IGT parts, as
uncommon in IGT combustors. Dense vertically seg- shown in Fig. 19. The only limitation is whether the engine
mented coatings are generally thicker, due to their higher hardware can fit into and be easily handled within the
thermal conductivity. Thicknesses above 500 lm are often various processing chambers. This TBC system requires
recommended for good thermal insulation. three separate coating processes: electroplating, alumi-
nizing, and EBPVD.
4.4.1 Platinum Aluminide Deposition. Platinum plat-
4.3 TBC Systems for IGT Components
ing and diffusion aluminide are basically batch processes.
The total coating thickness for IGT components ranges Depending on the part size, 10 to 100 parts are processed
between 400 and 500 lm. Typically, HVOF is used at PST simultaneously.
to apply the bond coating due to the large part size and Parts are cleaned in a vapor degreaser; grit blasted, and
long stand-off distances required during coating. A low- weighed prior to platinum electroplating. The thickness of
density TBC topcoat provides maximum thermal protec- the platinum layer is controlled in terms of weight gain

Journal of Thermal Spray Technology Volume 17(2) June 2008—207

Peer Reviewed

Fig. 19 Typical aircraft and IGT parts coated with EBPVD

Fig. 17 IGT TBC coating system consisting of 2 layer HVOF TBC. The part in the center is a CF6-80C2 1st stage HPT blade,
bond coat and low density TBC the part on the left is a CF34 1st HPT blade, and the part on the
right is a GE Power Systems Frame 6 Nozzle

Fig. 18 A large IGT vane, with the trailing edge receiving an Fig. 20 Platinum electroplating line, semi-automated
HVOF applied bond coating

and by plating current and time. Uniformity of platinum 4.4.2 EBPVD TBC. EBPVD TBC coatings are pro-
thickness is critically important in controlling the micro- duced by vacuum deposition of YSZ in a reactive atmo-
structure of the coating. Typically 5-10 lm thick platinum sphere at elevated temperatures (approximately 1000 °C).
is deposited in this process. The electroplated platinum is Processing comprises the following steps:
then diffused in a vacuum furnace prior to the aluminum The incoming parts are inspected and then typically
diffusion. cleaned in an ultrasonically enhanced aqueous or solvent
Platinum plated parts are then loaded in a retort con- cleaning process. Immediately before TBC coating, they
taining the aluminum donor and activator for VPA. Areas receive a surface conditioning treatment, which also pro-
of parts not receiving coating, such as the roots of turbine vides a clean oxide free metal surface.
blades, are masked by nickel paste or tape. Retorts are TBC coating is done in an EBPVD vacuum coater.
then placed in the hot zone of a furnace. A pre-deter- Parts are loaded into a vacuum chamber onto a manipu-
mined time-temperature cycle is then followed. At the lator. The chamber is then pumped down to vacuum and
completion of this cycle, parts are demasked and cleaned the parts manipulator transfers the load to a preheat
before preparing for EBPVD TBC application. Figures 20 chamber, where they are heated to approximately
and 21 show a modern platinum electroplating line and a 1000 °C. During this preheating phase, the initial thin
VPA furnace. TGO forms to provide the necessary bond to the TBC.

208—Volume 17(2) June 2008 Journal of Thermal Spray Technology

 The parts are then transferred to the coating chamber. After achieving the necessary coating thickness, the

Peer Reviewed
7YSZ ingot is evaporated by electron beams in vacuum parts are retracted into the load chamber and cooled
and deposited onto the preheated parts. By a combination down. Normally, the as-coated surface finish is sufficient
of rotation and tilting, a uniform coating over the airfoil for engine use. Some critical parts receive an optional
surface is accomplished. Unwanted coating deposition is surface finish and optional age heat treatment. Final
masked off by the fixturing. To compensate for some inspection checks for spits and pits from ingot eruptions
oxygen loss during coating, a minor amount of oxygen is and for chipped coating due to handling. Ancillary pro-
added to the process. Typical deposition speeds are 2 to cesses such as YSZ ingot conditioning, stripping of coating
6 lm per minute. fixtures, and stripping of non-conforming hardware sup-
port the operation.
To cope with a wide product spectrum, it is critical that
tooling can be changed within a short time to effectively
coat part types with different coating thickness/coating
time. This is accomplished by a 4-load chamber concept
(Ref 37), as shown in Fig. 22.
A highly efficiency EBPVD production coater is shown
in Fig. 23. The design allows having at any time one load
of parts inside the coating chamber receiving a 7YSZ top
layer.

5. Cost
The cost to coat an actual part with a modern TBC
system is a complex function of many factors. These fac-
tors can be grouped into three cost categories:
A—One time cost factors
 Application development
 Tooling development and design
 Process qualification and approval
 Production process documentation

B—Direct coating related cost factors

 Direct materials (powder, ingot, plating salt, alumi-
nizing donor ally)
 Auxiliary materials (grit, cleaning agent, gloves)
Fig. 21 VPA aluminizing furnace  Labor for

Fig. 22 Schematic operation with four load lock chambers (Courtesy of ALD Vacuum Technologies, Inc.)

Journal of Thermal Spray Technology Volume 17(2) June 2008—209

 platinum aluminide diffusion, the higher operation tem-
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peratures require the use of superalloys. Tooling wear is

essentially dependant on the tooling stripping process,
with grit blasting in general more aggressive than wet
stripping. A tooling fixture for an aero turbine blade
typically costs several hundred dollars, whereas a fixture
for an IGT bucket can cost three to five times as much.
With this variability in the cost elements, it can be
misleading to state actual coating costs with precision. For
each of the coating examples given above, it is more useful
to state a typical range of costs related to various pro-
cessing factors.
In a high-volume application, the one time costs
become diluted, and the remaining key factors are:
 Equipment amortization
 Labor
 Direct materials (powder, ingot)
Fig. 23 A 4-chamber EBPVD production coating system  Energy and process gas
 Indirect cost and material
Incoming inspection
Cleaning 5.1 Cost Structure for Selected Examples
Surface preparation (e.g., aqueous or solvent cleaning
In the following, these cost elements for selected
and grit blasting)
examples are evaluated. Figure 24 exhibits the main cost
Fixturing and masking groups B and C, as previously mentioned. For this cost
breakdown, the following assumptions hold:
 Post-coating processing (e.g., heat treatment)
 An equipment amortization scheme of 10 years
 Equipment amortization
depreciation with a 10% annual interest rate.
 Energy
 Material costs between $30 and $70 per kg for ceramic
 Process gases powder and ingot, and $50 to 100 per kg for MCrAlY
powder. The price for 1 oz Pt is above $900.
C—Indirect cost factors (materials and services)  Energy costs are essentially site related, and are based
 Material preparation and recycling (e.g., ingot degas- on US averages.
sing)  Gas prices of approximately $0.1 to 0.2 per kg for
 Preventive maintenance and spare parts CO2, $0.5 per m3 for argon and $1 to 2 per liter for
kerosene.
 Strip and rework in case of non-conformance
 Tooling cleaning and rework
 Tooling replacement 5.2 Combustor Coating
 Packing and shipping
The cost is determined by the size of the combustor and
the surface area to be coated. Depending on the size of the
Thus, the cost to coat an actual part is very much combustor and the quantities, cost can range between
dependant on the part volume and the production life several hundred and several thousand dollar per part. For
cycle of a part. The higher the volume and the longer the the cost element breakdown, a mid-sized combustor and a
production life is, the less is the relative percentage of the coating thickness of 200 lm for the bond coat and 1 mm
one-time cost. for the topcoat was used. For the investment, an APS
The actual coating process efficiency is also a tradeoff plasma cell for approximately $0.4 to 0.8 million was
between process uniformity requirements and the process considered. Adding an automated parts handling system
window. The wider the coating specification (within a can add another $0.5 to 0.8 million.
reasonable range), the more economic is the coating
process—especially in multipart batch operations such as
5.3 IGT Blade or Vane Coating
EBPVD and diffusion aluminizing—since more parts can
be coated at a time. Necessary capital equipment includes a robotic spray
Tooling costs are also very process and part dependant. booth, equipped with both HVOF and plasma torch/con-
For thermal spray processing, stainless steel tooling sole systems, along with the necessary cleaning and grit
material is usually sufficient, whereas for EBPVD and blasting facilities. Also, masking and de-masking of the

210—Volume 17(2) June 2008 Journal of Thermal Spray Technology

 Peer Reviewed
Fig. 24 Cost structure of selected coating applications. Direct materials are powder, platinum salt, and YSZ ingot. Labor assumes two
persons per spray booth and ancillary services. Amortization assumes 10 years depreciation and 10% interest. Indirect materials and
services include grit, cleaning agents, maintenance materials, etc.

cooling holes, which is a labor-intensive process, needs to aluminide thickness of 50 to 100 lm and an EBPVD TBC
be considered. coating thickness of 125 lm is used.
The high-deposition rates and relatively high-associ-
ated material costs, with the HVOF bond coat system,
result in a cost breakdown where the material cost is the
most significant portion of the cost. With APS TBC
6. Discussion
application, the relatively low-deposition rates and com-
paratively low-material expense, labor becomes the most The cost of the thermal spray process, because of the
significant portion of the cost. Thus, dependent on the relatively low equipment cost, is essentially driven by the
blade or vane size, costs can range between several hun- material (powder) cost and labor cost. The material cost
dred and several thousand dollar per part. For the cost aspect is even more extreme in the case of platinum alu-
element breakdown, a coating thickness of 200 lm for the minide, where platinum can count for several $10 per part.
HVOF bond coat and 250 lm for the TBC topcoat was In the case of EBPVD with the substantial equipment
used. cost, the equipment depreciation calls for close to 50% of
the overall production cost.
The relative contribution of these cost factors also
5.4 EBPVD TBC on PtAl
provides guidance for application development for process
A PtAl diffusion coating facility consisting of a plati- and product optimization.
num plating line, vacuum heat treat furnaces, and VPA Processes with a high percentage of material cost
diffusion furnaces costs between $3 million and $6 mil- demand improvement of the material utilization. In the
lion. Equipment cost is the highest for EBPVD. case of thermal spray processes, optimized torch param-
Depending on the machine capacity, an EBPVD TBC eters can increase the material deposition efficiency sub-
facility costs between $15 million and $30 million. stantially and need to be evaluated for each new
For a given minimum platinum thickness requirement, application. In the case of platinum electroplating, the
the average thickness amount has to be increased in case application development tends toward improving the
of a part with a complex 3D shape and critical thickness uniformity and reproducibility of the platinum distribu-
locations. As a guideline, a typical aero blade 8 to 10 cm in tion. This allows adjusting the overall thickness in such a
length costs between $80 and $150 to aluminize. The same way that the specified thickness requirement is met even
part is usually coated in batches of 12 per run in a large at critical locations without having to deposit an excessive
EBPVD coater. Depending on the coating thickness and thickness on uncritical locations.
the indirect coating factors previously discussed, a guide- Equipment amortization cost dictates the utilization
line for the coating cost is for EBPVD TBC only $120 to of the facility. In the case of thermal spray processes,
$200 per part. For larger aero parts with thicker coating where the labor and material cost are the major cost
requirements such as nozzle guide vanes, where only four factors, the equipment amortization is moderate; the
to six parts can be coated in one batch, this cost easily equipment can be utilized in a one shift or two shift
triples. For the cost breakdown, a typical platinum operations. In the case of expensive capital equipment

Journal of Thermal Spray Technology Volume 17(2) June 2008—211

 such as EBPVD and platinum aluminide, three shift Conductivity Thermal Barrier Coatings, J. Therm. Spray Tech-
Peer Reviewed

operation is mandatory. In the case of EBPVD, devel- nol., 2004, 13(1), p 84-92
5. D. Stöver, G. Pracht, H. Lehmann, M. Dietrich, J-E. Döring, and
opment tends toward effective utilization of the expen- R. Vaßen, New Material Concepts for the Next Generation of
sive capital equipment. Plasma-Sprayed Thermal Barrier Coatings, J. Therm. Spray
Technol., 2004, 13(1), p 76-83
6. F.H. Stott, Elevated Temperature Coatings, Science and Tech-
nology, Vol. 11. The Minerals, Metals and Materials Society,
7. Summary and Conclusion 1996, p 151-161
7. The Oxide Handbook, G.V Samsonov, Ed., IFI/Plenum, New
York, 1982
The following state of the art processes for the depo- 8. P.K. Wright and A.G. Evans, Mechanisms Governing the Per-
sition of TBC systems were compared: formance of Thermal Barrier Coatings, Curr. Opin. Solid State
Mater. Sci., 1999, 4, p 255-265
 Shrouded plasma and HVOF for MCrAlY bond coat 9. S. Alperine, M. Derrien, Y. Jaslier, and R. Mevrel, Thermal
 Plasma for low density YSZ and dense vertically Barrier Coatings—The Thermal Conductivity Challenge,
AGARD Report 823 ‘‘Thermal Barrier Coatings,’’ 15-16
cracked Zircoat October 1997, p 1.1-1.10
 Platinum aluminide diffusion coatings 10. V. Teixeira, M. Andritschky, H. Gruhn, W. Maliener, H.P.
Buchkremer, and D. Stoever, Failure of Physically Vapor
 EBPVD TBC. Deposition/Plasma-Sprayed Thermal Barrier Coatings During
Thermal Cycling, J. Therm. Spray Technol., 2000, 9(2), p 191-197
The key features of the coatings were outlined and 11. J.A. Haynes, M.K. Ferber, and W.D. Porter, Thermal Cycling
compared. Behavior of Plasma-Sprayed Thermal Barrier Coatings with
Various MCrAlX Bond Coats, J. Therm. Spray Technol., 2000,
The processing cost elements such as: 9(1), p 38-48
 Direct materials 12. E.H. Jordan, L. Xie, M. Gell, N.P. Padture, B. Cetegen,
A. Ozturk, J. Roth, T.D. Xiao, and P.E.C. Bryant, Superior
 Labor Thermal Barrier Coatings Using Solution Precursor Plasma
Spray, J. Therm. Spray Technol., 2004, 13(1), p 57-65
 Equipment amortization 13. T.A. Taylor, US Patent 5,073,433, Dec 17, 1991
 Energy and gas 14. T.A. Taylor, D.L. Appleby, A.E. Weatherill, and J. Griffiths,
Plasma Sprayed Yttria-Stabilized Zirconia Coatings: Structure-
 Indirect materials and services Property Relationships, Surf. Coat. Technol., 1990, 43/44, p 470-
480
have been evaluated and compared on an index basis 15. A. Feuerstein and A. Bolcavage, Thermal Conductivity of Plasma
for selected examples. The rough order of magnitude cost and EBPVD Thermal Barrier Coatings, Proceedings ASM Inter-
national Surface Engineering Congress 2004, Orlando, Florida
figures given for selected examples serve as a guideline; 16. R.E. Taylor, Thermal Transport Property and Contact Conduc-
each application needs its own detailed evaluation con- tance Measurements of Coatings and Thin Films, Int. J. Ther-
sidering all the elements as mentioned before. mophys., 1998, 19(3), p 931-940
In general, all presented technologies are considered to 17. W. Chi, S Sampath, and H. Wang, Ambient and High-Temper-
ature Thermal Conductivity of Thermal Sprayed Coatings,
be mature. Still, substantial efforts are underway to J. Therm. Spray Technol., 2006, 15(4), p 773-778
improve quality and reduce cost by Lean Manufacturing 18. F. Cernuschi et al., Studies of the Sintering Kinetics of thick
and Six Sigma programs. TBCs by Thermal Diffusivity Measurements, J. Euro. Ceram.
Soc., 2005, 25, p 393-400
19. A. Flores Renteria et al., Effect of Morphology on Thermal
Conductivity of EB-PVD PYSZ TBCs, Surf. Coat. Technol.,
Acknowledgments 2006, 201, p 2611-2620
20. F.S Petit and G.W. Goward, Oxidation—Corrosion-Erosion
The authors would like to thank Dan Fillenwarth, Dan Mechanisms of Environmental degradation of High Temperature
Helm, and Daming Wang for their input and valuable Materials. Coatings for High Temperature Processes, E. Lang,
discussions. Ed., Applied Science Publishers, 1985
21. R. Bouchet and R. Mevrel, Influence of Platinum and Palladium
on Diffusion in bêta-NiAl phase, Defect Diffusion Forum, 2005,
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