Introduction and the First Law of Thermodynamics All living things depend on energy for survival, and modern civilizations will continue to thrive only if existing sources of energy can be developed to meet the growing demands. Energy exists in many forms, from the energy locked in the atoms of matter itself to the intense radiant energy emitted by the sun. Many sources of energy exist; many are known, some perhaps unknown; but when an energy source exists means must first be found to transform the energy into a form convenient to our purpose. The chemical energy of combustion of fossil fuels (oil, coal, gas), and waste (agricultural, industrial, domestic), is used to produce heat which in turn is used to provide mechanical energy in turbines or reciprocating engines; uranium atoms are bombarded asunder and the nuclear energy releaseth is used as heat; the potential energy of large masses of water is converted into electrical energy as it passes through water turbines on its way from the mountains to the sea; the kinetic energy of the wind is harnessed by windmills to produce electricit; the energy of the waves of the sea is converted into electrical power in floating turbines; the tides produced by the rotation of the moon produce electrical energy by flowing through turbines in large river. estuaries; hot rocks and trapped liquids in the depths of the earth are made to release their energy to be converted to electricity; the immense radiant energy of the sun is tapped to heat water or by suitable device is converted directly into electricity. Figure 1.1 shows the various energy sources and the possible conversion paths with the mofe important transfers shown as bold lines; more information can be found in Chapter 4 of ref. 1.1 and the bibliography therein. ics is the science of the relationship between heat, work, Applied thermodynamics is : Ae EY: and the properties of systems. It is concerned with the means necessary 10 convert heat energy from available sources such as fossit fuels into mechanical work. A heat engine is the name given to a system which by operatiny ina cycli ‘manner produces net, work from a supply of heat~ The laws of - . 1 on observations of the world in ¢ two mutually convertible of Thermodynamics. It an object at a low wav that a river nevertaireduericn and the First Law of Thermodynamics Fig 11 Energy conversion diagram Nuclear } flows unaided uphill. This observation is the basis of the Second Law of Thermodynamics, which can be used to show that a heat engine cannot convert all the heat supplied to it into mechanical work but must always reject some heat at a lower temperature. These ideas will be discussed and developed in due course, but first some fundamental definitions must be made. 1.1 Heat, work, and the system Surroundings In order to deal with the subject of applied thermod ics ri ly it is m4 G”"22 r aon corn the concepts pret om I G} ear is a form of energy which is transferred fro1 body E Z r mM one body to another body y Y bodice NST temperature, by virtue ok the temperature difference between the Yi i LL). Foveaarnpe, when bod say 20°C, is brought 21°C, then there will ‘Thermal insulation Fig. 1.2 Two isolated of A and B are equal bodies in contact temperature of B 1° and they are said to be in thermal Serratia nly and is therefore transitory Rs 8 a collection of matter withi aie (Fa, 13) The boundaries re nor non geeae in te cylinder of «reciprocating engine during hfFig. 14 Fluid ina cylinder as a closed system Fig. 1.5 Fluid ina turbine as an open system 1.1 Heat, work, and the system expansion stroke may be defined as a system whose boundaries are the cylinder walls and the piston crown. As the piston moves so do the boundaries move (Fig. 1.4), This type of system is known as a closed system. An: open system is one in which there is a transfer of mass across the boundaries; for instance, the fluid in a turbine at any instant may be defined as an open system whose boundaries are as shown in Fig. 1.5. Surroundings Boundary Piston ‘Surroundings pressure of a system iS the force exerted by the system on unit area si pone Units of pressure are, for example, pascal, Pa (where 1 Pa = 1 N/m?), or bar; the symbol p will be used for pressure. Pressure as defined here is called absolute pressure. A gauge for measuring pressure (¢.g. as shown in Fig. 1.6(a).and 1,6(b)), records the pressure aboye atmospheric. This is called- gauge pressure, 1.¢. absolute pressure equals gauge pressure plus 3 ‘The gauge shown in Fig. 1.6(b) is called a Bourdon gauge. The absolute pressure of the system in a closed elliptical section tube forces the tube out of ‘Surroundingsind the First Lew of Thermodynamic’ {the atmosphere. The tube's displacement i scale, which can be calibrated directly in bars tmospheric, it is called vacuym position against the pressure : i acirculal recorded by a pointer on acl ‘When the pressure of a system is below a Pinal oe 70) Uctube is completely evacuated and then sealed, the gauge will act as a garometer and the atmospheric pressure can be measured (Fig. 1.7(b)) Surroundings Surroundings “Perfect vacuum cum barometric Atmospheric Vacuum Bees pressure (b) The gauges shown in Figs 1.6(a) and 1.7(a) measure gauge pressure in mm of a liquid of known relative density, and are called manometers. For example, when water is the liquid, then P apne 1 Ms . ‘mm of water = 7; x 9806.65 N/m? = 9.81 N/m? = 9.81 Pa where 1m? of water weighs 9810 N; say. ’ Mercury (Hg) i i i ¢ = es often used in gauges. Taking the relative density of 1 A Imm Haraos 13.6 x 9810 N/m? = 133.4 N/m? = 133.4 Pa Fora simple i i the ple Mens : Heswonietéra and pressure Measurement, see ref. 1.2. Specific |@ system is the volume occupied by unit mass of the “ ~ “yw nits are, for exam Work is eae be Per kilogray oF possessed by a body. ‘nergy in transition, It ig 'as units of N m/kg. ever contained in a bodyi" Paddle wheel Work input ‘Surroundings Paddle wheel ut Hh Heat __| Heat a System fe Lagging Bera Heat flow (a) Ae hence the intrinsic energy of the gas increases. Since the cylinder is well lagged, no heat can fiow into or out of the gas. The increase in intrinsic energy of the gas has therefore been caused by the work done by the piston on the gas. As another example, consider a gas contained in a rigid container and heated (Fig. 1.8(b)). Since the boundaries of the system are rigidly fixed then no work is done on or by the system. The pressure and temperature of the gas are observed to increase, and hence the intrinsic energy of the gas will increase. The increase in intrinsic energy has been caused by the heat flow to the system. In-the example of Fig. 1.8(a) the work done.on the system is energy which i8 apparent only during the actual process of compression. There is an intrinsic energy of the system initially and an intrinsic energy finally, but the work done appears only in transition from the initial to the final condition. Similarly, in the example of Fig. 1.8(b), the heat supplied appears only in transition from one state of the gas to another. : Another way in which work may be transferred to a system is illustrated in Fig. 1.9. The paddle wheel imparts a change of momentum to the fluid and a work input is required to turn the shaft. The kinetic energy attained by the fluid is dissipated by internal fluid friction, and friction between the fluid and the container. When the container is well lagged, all the work input goes to _ increasing the intrinsic energy of the system. Convention ‘i The sign convention used in this book assumes that all external inputs to a system are positive. That is Heat supplied to a system, Q, is positive. Work input to a:system, W, is positive. jen a system. boundary is drawn to define the system then it follows that Rilo be i t, W, will always be shown by arrows pointing will be quite clear when numbers are is positive or negative; a negative from the system; a negative value ‘system on its surroundings. ion by referring throughout r that for a device designed toit bustion engine or turbine, the w, er, such as an internal com! - ts Lp iealbie is always negative. Although the above sign conventio, Sie used for all algebraic equations it will be made clear in the wording that the system is producing a work output. For example Work done by the system = —W i igned. specifically to cool a fluid, such Similarly, for the case of a-system designe a Sa eniah for example, it is clear that the heat supplied to the system is always negative, Hence we can write Heat rejected by the system = —Q Units — Throughout this book SI units will be used. The International System of Units (Systéme International d'Unités, abbreviation SI) was adopted by the General Conference of Weights and Measures in 1960 and subsequently endorsed by the International Organization for Standardization. It is a coherent system. In a coherent system all derived unit quantities are formed by the product or quotient of other unit quantities. In SI units six physical quantities are arbitrarily assigned unit value and hence all. other physical quantities are derived from these, The six quantities chosen and their units are.as follows: length (metre, m); * mass (kilogram, kg); time (second, s); electric current (ampere, A); thermodynamic — temperature (degree kelvin, K); luminous intensity (candela, cd). Thus, for example, velocity = length/time has units of m/s; acceleration = velocity /time has units of m/s?; volume = length x length x lengtirhas units of m*; specific volume = volume/mass has units of m>/kg. Force, energy, and power ‘Newton's second law may be written as i a as force c mass x acceleration for a body F = kma where m is the mass penelope rie SouAnaet e of a body accelerated with an acceleration a, Ina coherent system Of units such as SI,k F=ma (1) by a force F; = 1, hence The SI unit of force newton, N, i.e, 1 ce is therefore. kg m/s?, Nis the force required to ind herice both introduced syie. 1 joule, J = 1 newton x 1 metre or 1J=1Nm ‘ T he use: of additional names for composite units is extended further by introducing the watt, W, as the unit of power, ie, 1 watt, W = 1J/s=1Nm/s Pressure The unit of pressure (force per unit area) is N/m? and this unit is sometimes called the pascal, Pa. For most cases occurring in thermodynamics the pressure expressed in pascals would be a very small number; a new unit is defined as follows: 1 bar = 105 N/m? = 10° Pa The advantage of using a unit such as the bar is that it is approximately equal to atmospheric pressure. In fact the standard atmospheric pressure is exactly 1.013 25 bar. . As indicated in section 1.1, it.is often convenient to express a pressure as a head of a liquid. We have: : Standard atmospheric pressure = 1.01325 bar = 0.76 m Hg Temperature — The variation of an easily measurable property of a substance with temperature can be used to provide a temperature-measuring instrument. For example, the length of a column of mercury will vary with temperature due to the expansion and contraction of the mercury. The instrument can be calibrated by marking the length of the column when it is brought into thermal equilibrium with the vapour of boiling water at ‘atmospheric pressure and again when it isin thermal equilibrium with ice at atmospheric pressure. On the Celsius (or Centigrade) scale 100 divisions are made between the two fixed points and the zero is taken a Talat volume at constant pressure, or the change in pressure at ‘ass of gas which is not easily liquefied-(e.g. oxygen, conta ole eet ed as a measure of temperature. Such an instrument i as thermometer. It is found for all gases used in Be et aa ‘hat if ‘the graph of temperature against volume in the aa pressure gas thermometer is extrapolated beyond the ice point to the eae ‘hich the volume of the gas would become zero, then the temperature PO ial jmately (Fig. 1.10). Similarly if the graph of lume gas thermometer is [ temperature is found. An and an absolute scale of nitrogen, helium, etc.) can be us4 i a1.3 The of the working fluid between the square millimetre, of 10°), and an intermene mm?, and the square metre, m?, is large (a factor re Hate size is useful; the Square centimetre, cm?, is recommended for limited use only. For volumes, the difference between the cubic millimetre, mm’, and the cubic metre, m?, is much tgo great (a factor of 10 } and the most commonly used intermediate unit is the cubic decimetre, dm*, which is equal to One-thousandth of a cubic metre (ie. 1 dm? = 10? m?). The cubic decimetre can also be called the litre, | ly ie, 1 litre, 1 = 1 dm? = 1073 m3 (Note, for very precise Measurements, 1 litre = 1.000028 dm?.) Certain exceptions to the general rule of multiplying factors are inevitable. The most obvious example is in the case of the unit of time. Instead of the centisecond, kilosecond, or megasecond, for instance, the minute, hour, day, etc. are used. Similarly, a mass flow rate may be expressed in kilograms per hour, kg/h, if this gives a more. convenient number than when expressed in kilograms per second, kg/s. Also the speed of road vehicles is expressed in kilometres per hour, km/h, since this is more convenient than the normal unit of velocity which is metres per second, m/s. The state of the working fluid In all problems in applied thermodynamics we are concerned with energy transfers to or from a system. In Practice the matter contained within the boundaries of the system can be liquid, vapour, or gas, and is known as the . working fluid. At any instant the state of the working fluid may be defined by certain characteristics called its properties. Many properties have no significance in thermodynamics (e.g. electrical resistance), and will not be considered. The thermodynamic properties introduced in this book are pressure, temperature, specific volume, specific internal energy, specific enthalpy, and specific entropy. Tt has been found that, for any pure working fluid, only two independent Properties are necessary to define completely the state of the fluid. Since any two independent properties suffice to define the state of a system, it is possible to represent the state of a system by a point situated on a diagram of Properties. For example, a cylinder containing a certain fluid at pressure p, and specific volume v, is at state 1, defined by point 1 on a diagram of p against v (Fig, 1.11(a)). Since the state is defined, then the temperature of the fluid, T, isP Jocated on a diagram of p against 7 wa and the Ta Tih At any other instant the piston fhe inst © (FBS ver such that the pressure and specific volume are chan moved in ate then be marked on the diagrams. Diagrams of properig OA slly in applied thermodynamics to plot state changes. The a aa ts the pressure-volume and temperature-entropy diagrams, ba eaihalpy “entropy ‘and pressure-enthalpy diagrams are also used frequently 4.4 Reversibility In section 1.3 it was shown that the state of a fluid can be represented by. point located on a diagram using two properties as coordinates. When a system changes state in such a way that at any instant during the process the state point can be located on the diagram, then the process is said to be reversible The fluid undergoing the process passes through a continuous series of equilibrium states. A reversible process between two states can therefore be drawn as a line on any diagram of properties (Fig. 1.12(a)). In practice, the fluid undergoing a process cannot be kept in equilibrium in its intermediate states and a continuous path cannot be traced on a diagram of properties. Such teal processes are called irrenersible processes. An irreversible Process is usually represented by a dotted ‘line joining the end states to indicate that the intermediate states are indeterminate (Fig. 1.12(b))._ A more rigorous definition of reversibility is as follows: ( When a fluid undergoes a reversible process, both the uid and its surroundings can always be restored to their original state) _ The criteria of reversibility are as follows: be frictionless. The fluid itself must have no internal friction no mechanical friction (e.g. between cylinder and piston) ‘between the fluid and its surroundings during the ‘small. This means that the process must take place the force to accelerate the boundaries of the systemina ider undergoing a pression 1.8 Reversible work (c) The difference in t the process must rejected to oF fro e emberatse between the fluid and its surroundings during _ a nitely small. This means that the heat supplied of fluid must be transferred infinitely slowly. It is obviou: Reeteinucte cid ete above Criteria that no process in practice is truly an internal reversibilit many practical processes a very close approximation to although the sorrousde may be obtained, In an internally reversible process, itself is at all ti ngs can never be restored to their original state, the fluid mes in an equilibrium state and the path of the process can be exactly Tetraced to the initial state, In general, processes in cylinders with a Teciprocating piston are. assumed to be internally reversible as a reasonable Approximation, but processes in rotary machinery (e.g. turbines) are known to be irreversible due to the high degree of turbulence and scrubbing of the fluid, Reversible work Consider an ideal frictionless fluid contained in a cylinder behind a piston. Assume that the pressure and temperature of the fluid are uniform and that there is no friction between the piston and the cylinder walls. Let the cross-sectional area of the piston be A, let the pressure of the fluid be p, let the pressure of the surroundings be (p + dp) (Fig. 1.13). The force exerted by the piston on the fluid is pA. Let the piston move under the action of the force exerted a distance di to the left. Then work done on the fluid by the piston is given by force times the distance moved, ie. | Work done, dW = (pA) x dl = —pdv- where dV is a small increase inv volume. The negative sign is necessary because the volume is decreasing. Or for a mass, m, dW = —mp dv el where v is the specific volume. This is only true when criteria (a) oa ie a reversible process a series of state points can be na i done on the joi i Giagram of properties. The work eee ordre so Wis therefore given by the area under Siero plotted on a p-v diagram (Fig. 1-14), ido = m (shaded area on Fig. 1.14) and (b) hold (1.2) "| Work done e pression process When p can be expressed in terms of v then the integral, m {7 p dv, can be evaluated. V7. Example 1.1 Unit mass of a fluid at a pressure of 3 bar, and with. a specific volume of 0.18 m/kg, contained in a cylinder behind a piston expands reversibly toa pressure of 0.6 bar according to a law p = c/v?, where c is a constant. Calculate the work done during the process. Solution Referring to Fig. 1.15 is sure-specific volume ram for mple 1.1 pressure/(N/m?) also © = po? = 3 x 0.18? = 0.0972 bar (m?/kg)? and .p,= inn teem “therefore (= —0.0972 x w(t P O18 ae Nmjkg 29840 N m/kg ‘ by the fuid = +29840 N m/kg1.8 Reversible work fen an expansion process takes place reversibl ner 16), th wii ikes pl ibly (see Fig. 1.16), the integral 2 We -m{ pdv= —m/(shaded area on Fig. 1.16) 1 A process from right to left on the p-v diagram is one in which there is a work input to the fluid (i.e. W is positive), Conversely, a process from left to right is one in which there is a work output from the fluid (ic. W is negative) When a fluid undergoes a series of process and finally returns to its initial state, then it is said to have undergone a thermodynamic cycle. A cycle which consists only of reversible processes is a reversible cycle. A cycle plotted on a diagram of properties forms a closed figure, and a reversible cycle plotted on a pv diagram forms a closed figure the area of which represents the net work of the cycle. For example, a reversible cycle consisting of four reversible processes 1 to 2, 2 to 3, 3 to 4, and 4 to 1 is shown in Fig. 1.17. The net work input is equal to the shaded area. If the cycle were described ifi the reverse direction (ie. 1-t0 4, 4 to 3,3 to 2, and:2 to 1), then the shaded area would represent net work output from the system. The rule is that the enclosed area of a reversible cycle represents net work input (i.¢. net work done on the system) when the cycle is described in an anticlockwise manner, and the enclosed area repens work output (ie. work done by the system) when the cycle is described in a clockwise mannef. Jinder at an initial pressure behind a piston according ina cy! volume is doubled. The fluid is then cooled 13jodynamics First Law of Therm etion and the i ts original position | the piston regains 1 stant pressure unt! Posi - ated hie eteealbty with the piston Sand et eee oy rf i fs to the original value of 20 wa! Calcul a re: x iba fluid, for an initial volume of 0.05 m Solution q Referring to Fig. 1.18 piVi = p2¥3 18> Figure for le 1.2 . ay ‘9 Py pv? = constant 0.05 o1 Volume/(m?) therefore ~~ y%\} _ 20 is n=n(#) =5i 7 Shar A , Woycinize fF p AV from equation (1.2) = —area 12BA1 5 a a ) ie. Wa= =f ay where c= p,V? = 20 x 0.05? bar m* am a K . " hea ' Wy = ~109 x 20 x oawas[ — 1)" VJoos Lt = =10% 20 x oonas( 51 - 1 = ~50000 3 005 01 Sein Way = area 32BA3 = p,(V, — V,) = 105 . x5 x (0.1 — 0.05) = 25000Nm Work done from 3 to 1 is zero since the piston is locked in position. Therefore Net work done = W,. + W,, = ~ (enclosed area 1231) = ~ 50000 + 25000 = = 25000 N m ork done by the fluid is +25000 N m above that work is be shown that —{ Siven by ~ § p dv for a reversi Pdv is not equal 10 the workF 1.6 Conservation of « GY and the first law of thermodynamics fit sents with ost ons 120, Irreversible ona yee diagram process is irreversible. For example, consider a cylinder, divided into a number of compartments by sliding partitions (Fig. 1.19), Initially, compartment A is filled with a mass of fluid at pressure p,. When the sliding partition 1 is removed quickly, then the fluid expands to fill compartments A and B. When the system settles down to a new equilibrium state the pressure and volume are fixed and the state can be marked on the p-V diagram (Fig. 1.20). Sliding partition 2 is now removed and the fluid expands to occupy compartments A, B, and C. ‘Again the equilibrium state can be marked on the diagram. The same procedure can be adopted with partitions 3.and 4 until finally the fluid is at p, arid occupies f volume ¥, when filling compartments A. B, C, D, and E. The area under the curve’l=2.0n Fig. 1.20 is given by fz, p.dV, but no work has been done (apart from the negligible work required to move the partitions). No piston has been moved, no turbine wheel has'been revolved; in other words, n9 external force has been moved through 2 distance. This is the extreme case of an irreversible process in which f p dV has @ value and yet the work done is zero. When a fuid expands without a restraining force being exerted by the surroundings, as im the example above, the process is known Free expansion Serer pew Gy eriterion (b), section 1.4. Tp many practical expansion es rk ie ‘done by the fluid which is less than Jp dv and in many processes Some WO! ses work is done which is greater than f p dv. It is eer oo ocesses by dotted lines ona pv diagram practical come’ irreversible pr important to represent at The dotted line does not represent work as a reminder that the @ 1.6 Conservation of energy hypothesis that it can neither be created nor erie the early part of the nineteenth century, and the First Law of 15seduction and the First Lew of Thermodynamics i of the Conservation of Energy. The Firg Sa nee ican ec one statment o this Bena! principle we vata reference to thermal energy, (i.e. heat), and mechanical energy ane system undergoes a complete thermodynamic cycle the intrinsic energy of the system is the same at the beginning and end of the sa free the various processes that make up the cycle work is done on or by the fluiq and heat is supplied or rejected; the network input can be defined as ¥ Wand the net heat supplied as © Q, where the symbol } represents the sum for a ay complete cycle. Since the intrinsi€ energy of the system is unchanged the First Law of Thermodynamics states that: When a system undergoes.a thermodynamic cycle then the net heat supplied to the system from its surroundings plus the net work input to the system from its surroundings must equal zera. That is Eo+Eweo (13) Example 1.3)” ‘Solution ~The cycle is shown di lagrammatically in Fig. 1.21. suompasses the entiresplant. Strictly, this borane indary js rhe le Ty is shown which For uni “S encompassing the working fluid only, % 40 = 2800 — 2100 = 700 ks “at the steam flow be mi kg/s. Thereore ; — EdQ=700mew “ ka 1 And 80° Edm Sm t000 se 2595 py Fig. 1.21. Steam plant for Example 13,yeu both; similarly there will be either work input Then in equation (1.3) E40 + Faw =0 ie 700 rh — 995 = 0 therefore 1.421 kg/s } The non-flow equation In section 1.6 it is stated that when a system possessing a certain intrinsic energy is made to undergo a cycle by heat and work transfer, then the net heat supplied plus the net work input is zero. This is true for a complete cycle when the final intrinsic energy of the system is equal to its initial value. Consider now a process in which the intrinsic energy of the system is finally greater than the initial intrinsic energy. The sum of the net heat supplied and the net work input has increased the intrinsic energy of the system, ie. Gain in intrinsic energy = Net heat supplied + net work input When the net effect is to transfer energy from the system, then there will be a loss in the intrinsic energy of the system. a ‘When a fluid is not in motion then its intrinsic energy per unit mass is known as the specific internal energy of the fluid and is given the symbol u. The specific internal energy of a fluid depends on its pressure and temperature, and is itself a property. The simple proof that specific internal energy is a property is given in ref. 1.4. The internal energy of mass. m, ofa fluid is written as U, ie. mu = U. The units of internal energy, U, are usually written as KJ. Since internal energy is a property, pe gin in internal energy in changing 2 can be written U, — U,. 2 ‘ eae energy = net heat supplied + net work input, 2 2 es ae eae yg + Law i ion! ‘ocess or series of processes between state land eather) rae ae nee +t fluid into or out of the system. In any-one state 2 pro’ there ither heat supplied or heat rejected, but not TEE ET a ve t or work output, but not both. Hence, ra non-flow process a4) 7tion and the Firet Law of Thermodynamics snus equation is known as the nonsfiow energy equation. Equay vere writen in ferential form, For a small amount of heat s Hon (14) ig ‘4 small amount of work done on the fluid dW, and a small dir ote , 1D ‘specific internal energy du, then a [io+ dW = du cs tkample 1.4 In the compression a ’ tie lee tepe paatiriaeed te cer eget 901) ig Coens it is a gain or a loss. Ret tag: working Avid stating wheter Solution Q= —45kI/kg (—ve sign since heat is rejected). W = 90 kJ/kg Using equation (1.4) Q+Weu,-u, 45+ 90 =u, — uy therefore * uy — uy = 45 kd /kg ie. Gai in internal energy = 45 ki /ke i re J f = fey ale te ape a penecss mene ‘energy of 200 kJ/kg after expansion. Calculate the heat-flaw poo oes eon ap apna he aed Solution From equation (1.4) Q+Wau-m a ie Q- 100 = 200 - 420 ° therefore s oc Q= ~120kN/k ie, Heat rejected by the air = +120kJ/kg to note that equations (1.3), (1.4), and (1.5) are true whet! reversible. are energy equations. oy Processes we have, from equation (1.2) pacFig 1.22 Steady-flow pen system 3 1.8 The steady-flow equation lence for any rev ersible non- scion (neh Non-flow process for unit mass, substituting in dQ = du + pdv 16 or substituting in equation (1.4) 28: 2 Q=(—uy+ [rae (1.7) : i Equations( 1.6) and(1.7)can only be used for ideal reversible non-flow processes. The steady-flow equation In section 1.7, the specific internal energy’of a fluid was said to be the intrinsic energy of the fluid due to its thermodynamic properties. When unit mass of a fluid with specific internal énergy, u, is moving with velocity C and is a height Z above a datum level, then it possesses a total energy of u + (C?/2) + Zg, where C?/2 is the kinetic energy of unit mass of the fluid and Zg is the potential energy of unit mass of the fluid. In most practical problems the rate at which the fluid flows through a machine or piece of apparatus is constant. This type of flow is called steady flow. Consider a fluid flowing in steady flow with a mass flow rate, ri, through a * piece of apparatus (Fig. 1.22). This constitutes an open system as defined in section 1.2. The boundary is ‘shown cutting the inlet pipe at section 1 and the outlet pipe at section 2. This boundary is sometimes called a control surface, and the system encompassed, @ control volume. Inlet 1 : ww of heat Q units is supplied, and id that & ee ae it passes through the apparates of gore a jd across the boundary an expenditure of introduce the fluid Ach he fluid across the boundary 3 ly in oder 1 Pere inlet section is shown enlarged Jength |, and Jet the cross-sectional we have boundary across od element) 1”1.8 The steady-flow equation 2 Consider any sec ¥ Section of cross-sectional area 4 where the fluid velocity is € then the rate of volume flo W Past t] 7 volume flow divided by eke Sib region is CA. Also, since mass flow is CA Mass flow rate, ri = pen eed (1.41) where v is the specific volume at the sectio, This equation is known as the continuit With reference to Fig. 1,22 ects 4 n and p the density at the section Y of mass equation ee Example 1.6 In the turbine of a gas turbine unit the gases flow through the turbine at 17 kg/s and the power developed by the turbine is 14000 kW. The specific enthalpies of the gases at inlet and outlet are 1200kJ/kg and 360 kJ/kg respectively, and the velocities of the gases at inlet and outlet are 60 m/s and 150 m/s respectively. Calculate the rate at which heat is rejected from the- 1 turbine. Find also the area of the inlet pipe given that the specific volume of the gases at’ inlet is 0.5 m*/kg. ‘Solution A diagrammatic representation of the turbine is shown in Fig. 1.24. From equation (1.10), neglecting changes in height e , c? 5 Ci\e Gs +P)+d+ Wan(in+? 1124 Gas turbine Boundary Gases out Be eas Gases in < cS rd Ze ‘Boundary For unit mass flow rate: - 3 ci Kinetic energy at inlet = > = 1800 N m/kg = 1.8 kJ/ke ; © GF. 2.52 « (kinetic energy at inlet) 2sroduction end the First Law of ‘Thermodynamics - Example 1,7 Solution Also. = —14000kW Substituting in equation (1.10) 17(1200 + 1.8) + @ — 14000 = 17(360 + 11.25) therefore Q= -119.3kW ie. Heat rejected = +119.3 kW To find the inlet area, use equation (1.11), ie. asd om : \ therefore 17 x 0.5 Inlet area, Ay = ——~ = 0,142 m? Air flows steadily at the rate of 0.4 kg/s through an air compressor, entering at 6 m/s with a pressure of 1 bar and a specific volume of 0.85 m3/kg, and leaving at 4.5 m/s with a pressure of 6.9 bar and a specific volume of 0.16 m*/kg. The specific internal energy of the air leaving is 88 kJ/kg greater: than that of the air entering. Cooling water in a jacket surrounding the cylinder absorbs heat from the air at the rate of 59 kW. Calculate the power required to drive the compressor and the inlet and outlet pipe cross-sectional areas. In this problem it is more convenient to write the flow equati: i raed ion as ir’equation 1.8, omitting the Z terms, i 2 ; -c . a ie. f(s et nin) +0+W= mi(us ay a) A diagrammatic representation of th i ics that the heat rejected compressor is shown in Fig. 1.25. Note a across the boundary is equivalent t by the cooling water from the compressor, For anit mass ae rab ca x6 2 7 7 WV ke = 18.3/kg = 0.018 kJ/kgCh_4sx as, Problems 20 Se ee 5 B= 10.1 J/kg = 0.0101 kag Pity = 1 10® x 085 = 95000 1/4 1. P22 = 6.9 x 105 85 kI/kg x 0.16 = 110400 I/kg = Ma — My = BB kJ/kg /kg = 110.4 kJ/kg Also @ = —Sokw Now @Q ata O+Ww {ts -m+inn-nye(F-S)} 2.9.2 ie. = 59+ W = 0.4(88 +1 : 10.4 — 85 therefore + 0.0101 - 0.018) W = 104.4kW (Note that the change in kineti igil sting ier} ri inetic energy is negligibly small in comparison with ie. Power input required = 104.4 kW. From equation (1.11) CA n= — v = 0.057 m? 2 1 _ 04 x 085 6 ie. Inlet pipe cross-sectional area = 0.057 m? Similarly = 24 XONE _ 014m? 45 sectional area = 0.014 m has been used, despite the compression in a closed ° rion can be used because and therefore the Outlet pipe cross~ 7 the steady-flow energy eau! Pe ex # F sists of suction of ai é fact that the compression con’ oe cylinder, and discharge of air. The steady-flow equat the cycle of processes takes place many times in a minute, average effect is steady flow bf air through the machine. initial volume : ibe a ik eglinder behind # piston, ih Tr Mfone by the fluid when it expands reve ‘ a, Volume ot ra2 mandafina pressure of? Prction and the First Law of Thermodynamics V = constant to a final volume of 0.1 m? i > ='constant to a final volume of 0.06 m’. according to a law pv? = cons : nh according to a law, p = (A/V?) —(B/V), to a final volume of 0.1m? and g a pressure of I bar, where A and B are constants Sketch all processes on @ p-v diagram. etch all p (150.000 NN m; 90.000 N m; 34700 N m; 7640 Nm; 19209 Ny (iii) according to a law p 1.2. 1kg of a fluid is compressed reversibly according to a law pu = 0.25, where p is ig par and v is in m’/kg. The final volume is + of the initial volume. Calculate the wor done on the fluid and sketch the process on a p-v diagram (34660 N m 1.3. 0.05 m? of a gas at 69 bar expands reversibly in a cylinder behind a piston according to the law po!? = constant, until the volume is 0.08 m?. Calculate the work done by the gas and sketch the process on a p-V diagram. (15.480 Nm) 1.4 kg of a fluid expands reversibly according to a linear law from 4.2 bar to 1.4 bar, the initial and final volumes are 0.004m? and 0.02m?. The fluid is then cooled reversibly at constant pressure, and finally compressed reversibly according to a law pe = constant back to the initial conditions of 4.2 bar and 0.004 m°. Calculate the work done in each process and the net work of the cycle. Sketch the cycle on a p-b diagram. Seige a - (4480 N m; +1120 Nm; +1845 Nm; —1515Nm) 1.5 A fluid at 0.7 bar occupying 0.09 m> is compressed reversibl; y sc ly to a pressure of 3.5 bar soni a law po" = constant. The fluid is then heated reversibly at constant volume until t ees is4 so the specific volume is then 0.5 m?/kg. A reversible expansion according to a law pr? = constant restores the fluid to its initi Sih Ee luid to its initial state. Sketch the ) the mass of fuid present: (ii) the value of n in the first process: (iii) the net work of the cycle. (0.0753 kg; 1.847; —640 N m) ly at a constant pressure of 1.0: then compressed reversibly accc jon Pressure of 42>bar, then allowed to expand reverith i ies ly according io a law The work done in the constant press Facty 0.2 kg. Calculate the net. work n 5 bar until it has a specific ibly according to a law pv = constant internal energy and it te the work input for the compression stroke pees ‘Kilogram of air. Calculate (50 kJ/kg) done on the gas by the piston . : pisto! cooling water is 42 kJ/kg. Calculate the + it is a gain of a loss, (28 kJ/kg gain)expand behind a piston until = acai Ay I its internal energy is 1400 kJ: the law of expansion is (i) the work done; (ii) the final volume; (iii) the final pressure. (-100 kJ; 0.148 m3; 4.59 bar) The gases in the cylinder of an internal combustion engine have a specific internal energy of 800 kJ/kg and a specific volume of 0.06 m?/kg at the beginning of expansion The expansion of the gases may be assumed to take place according to a reversible law, po** = constant, from SS bar to 14bar. The specific internal energy alter expansion is 230 kJ/kg. Calculate the heat rejected to the cylinder cooling water per kilogram of gases during the expansion stroke 1.10 (104 kd /kg) 1.11 A steam turbine receives a steam flow of 1.35 kg/s and the power output is 500 kW. The heat loss from the casing is negligible. Calculate: (i) the change of specific enthalpy across the turbine when the velocities at entrance and exit and the difference in elevation are negligible; (ii) the change of specific enthalpy across the turbine when the velocity at entrance is 60 m/s, the velocity at exit is 360 m/s, and the inlet pipe is 3 m above the exhaust ES (370 ki /kg; 433 kJ/kg) 4.42 A steady flow of steam enters @ condenser with a specific enthalpy of 2300 kJ/kg and a velocity of 350 m/s. The condensate leaves the condenser with a specific enthalpy ‘of 160 kJ/kg and a velocity of 70 m/s. Calculate the heat transfer to the cooling fluid 7 \densed. per kilogram of steam con: : Se isi pera -flow conditions receives steam at the following ae a, Homa volume 0.143m*/kg, specific internal energy Sanaa Nelocity 30m s. The state of the steam leaving the turbine is as follows 2590 Me Sar, specific volume 437m? kg, specific internal energy 2360 kJ kg. Frese eee Heat is rejected to the surroundings at the rate of 025kW and the ‘elocity Geam flow through the turbine i 0:38 kg/s. Calculate the power developed er (102.7 kW) ‘A noutle isa device for increasing the velocity of a steadily Rowing flurd. At the inlet Reena nozae the specific enthalpy of the fluid ts 30251 kg and the velocity a4 +e sane. At the exit from the nozzle the specific enthalpy is 2790 KJ kg The nozzle js horizontal and there is & negligible heat loss from it. Calculate ') the velocity of the fluid at exit, the rate of flow of fluid when the inlet area is 0.1 m? and the specific volume at inlet is 0.19 m?/kg; ® ay it ‘nozale when the specific volume at the nozzle exit 1s 0.5 m?/ke | fi is aa oo e {688 m/s; 31.6 kg/s; 0.0229 m?) Energy Efficiency Longman searrieiD } a 1986 Fluid Meckanics 2nd ednnd the First Law ot Thermodynamics 1.3. BS 1041 Temperature Measurement HMSO; Section 2.1 1985 Guide to Selection and Use of Liquid-in-glass Thermometers, Part 3 1989 Guide to Selection and Use of Industrial Resistance Thermometers; Part 4 1966 Thermocouples; Part 5 197) Radiation Pyrometers; Part 7 1988 Guide to Selection and Use of Temperature-time Records 1.4 ROGERS G F.C and MAYHEW Y R 1992 Engineering Thermodynamics, Work and Heat Transfer 4th edn Longman