General Principles and Methods of Teaching

Topics:
1. Instructional Planning
2. Definition of Terms
3. Techniques of teaching, discussion, art of questioning, classroom management

Competencies
1. Explain the general principles and methods of teaching
2. Distinguish expository and exploratory methods of teaching
3. Name the different strategies using the indirect discovery approach
4. Use principles of teaching learning associated with instructional operations and curricular management
• Instructional Planning
• Stating Objectives
• Selection of learning activities to achieve objectives
5. Select and apply teaching techniques appropriate for particular teaching learning situations.

INSTRUCTIONAL PLANNING: DEFINITION, PRINCIPLE AND COMPONENTS

Instructional Planning
• The ability to visualize into the future—creating, arranging, organizing and designing events in the mind that
may occur in the classroom accurate time management and related instances teacher’s ability to make decisions
about the how and what of teaching

Importance/ Function of Instructional Planning

• Provides an overview of instruction
• presents a total picture of the lesson for the day or for the year
• allows some degree of flexibility
• Facilitates good management and instruction
• provides a classroom script to follow as lessons are conducted
• shows a clear direction of lessons
• Makes learning purposeful
• teacher’s clear understanding of students’ behavior will help increase students’ opportunities for
learning and reduce anxiety and uncertainty
• enables the teachers to engage in reflective thinking before making/writing a unit/lesson plan or even
during teaching time
• Provides for sequencing and pacing
• Economize time
• Makes learners’ success more measurable which assists in reteaching
• Provides for a variety of instructional objectives
• Creates opportunity for higher level questioning
• Assists in ordering supplies
• Guides substitute teachers

Variables in Instructional Planning (Brown, 1988)

• teacher- attitudes, beliefs, teacher’s content background
• students- age, background knowledge, motivational level, interest
• content- the type of content that influences the planning process, textbook being used
• learning content- subject matter guidelines
• Material/ resources- activities and equipment/ tools for teaching are considered first in planning
• Time- considerable planning for time

Lesson Plan

• Sets forth the proposed program or instructional activities for each day
• A daily plan
• A step-by-step approach to learning

Components of Lesson Plan

1. objectives
2. subject matter
3. learning activities
- review/ drills

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- motivation (intrinsic/extrinsic)
- presentation of the lesson
- generalization
- application
4. evaluation
5. assignment (for enrichment, extension or remedial

Instructional Objectives
• Specific and relates to singular subjects and grade levels which includes
a. Behavior – Do what?
b. Condition – Under what conditions?
c. Criteria – How well?

Aims
• General objectives of the Philippine Educational System; broad and value-laden statements about the intent of
education
• Answer the needs and demands of society especially children and youths
• Formulated by experts

Goals
• Statements that cut across subjects and grade levels
• Represent the entire school program by professional associations
• More definite than aims butstill non-behavioral and therefore non-observable and non-measurable

Objective
description of what is to eventually take place at the classroom level that are stated in..
• Behavioral terms
• State specific skills
• Tasks
• Content attitudes

Domains and Levels of Objectives

Each domain reflects a particular set of beliefs and assumptions about how students learn and behave
• Cognitive Domain – objectives that have their purpose to develop students’ intellectual skills
1. Bloom’s Taxonomy
o knowledge- emphasis on remembering information
o comprehension – emphasis on understanding and organizing previously learned information
o application- emphasis on using information in pertinent situations
o analysis – emphasis on thinking critically about information by studying its parts
o synthesis- emphasis on original thinking about information by putting its parts into new whole.
o evaluation- emphasis on making judgments about information based on identified standards
2. Anderson’s Taxonomy (Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy)
 Remembering
 Understanding
 Applying
 Analyzing
 Evaluating
 Creating

3. Marzano and Kendall’s Taxonomy- consists of three learning system (Cognitive, Metacognitive, and Self-
System)
Retrieval
Comprehension
Analysis
Knowledge Utilization
Metacognition
Self-System

• Affective Domain - deals with attitudes, values, interest and appreciation which ranges from simple
awareness or perception of something to internalizing a phenomenon so that it becomes a part of one’s lifestyle
o receiving – emphasis on becoming aware of some communication or phenomenon from the environment
o responding – emphasis on reacting to a communication or phenomenon through participation
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o valuing – emphasis on attaching worth to something form the environment evaluating beliefs in the form of
acceptance, preference, and commitment
o organization – organizing the values in relation to each other
o characterization – acts in accordance with the accepted value and becomes part of personality

• Psychomotor Domain - objectives in this domain are especially appropriate of the objectives generally
associated with motor and muscular-skill development
o Perception- Uses the sense organs to obtain cues that guide motor activity; ranges from sensory stimulation
(awareness) through cue selection to translation.
o Set- Readiness to take particularities, includes mental, physical, and emotional set. Perception is
an important prerequisite.
o Guided response- Concerned with early stages of learning a complex skill. Includes imitation, trial and
error.
o Mechanism- Concerned with habitual responses that can be performed with some confidence and
proficiency (less complex).
o Complex Overt response-Skill fully performs acts that require complex movement patterns, like the highly
coordinated motor activities. Proficiency indicated by quick, smooth, and accurate performance,
requiring minimum effort.
o Adaptation-Concerned with skills so well learned that they are modified to fit special requirements or to
meet a problem situation.
o Origination- Creates new movement patterns to fit a particular situation or problems.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES & METHODS OF TEACHING

Concepts
• Approach- viewpoint toward teaching
• Strategy- general design of how the lesson will be delivered
• Method- procedure employed to accomplish the lesson objective/s
• Technique- style or art of carrying out the steps of a method

Principles Underlying Instruction

• Principle of Context – learning depends largely on the setting materials in which the process goes on. This
principle comes in different scales of application:
• textbook only
• textbook with a supplementary material
• non-academic and current materials (newspaper, clippings, articles, magazine)
• multi-sensory aids
• field experiences; personal, social and community understanding

• Principle of Focus – instruction must be organized about a focus or direction

▪ Scales of application Focus established by:
• page assignment in textbook
• announced topic together with page or chapter references
• broad concept or a problem to be solved, or a skill to be acquired to carry on understanding

• Principle of Socialization – instruction depends upon the social setting in which it is done.
▪ Scales of application
Social patterns characterized by: submission>contribution>cooperation

• Principle of Individualization – instruction must progress in terms of the learner’s own purposes, aptitudes,
abilities and experimental procedures
▪ Scales of application Individualization through:
• differential performance in uniform tasks
• homogenous grouping
• control plan
• individual instruction
• large units with optional related activity
• individual undertakings, stemming from and contributing to the joint undertaking of the group of learners

• Principle of Sequence – instruction depends on effective ordering of a series of learning tasks.

▪ Sequence is a movement
▪ from meaningless emergence of meaning

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 • from immediate remote
• from concrete symbolic
• from crude discriminating
▪ Scales of application Sequence through
• logical succession of blocks of content (lesson/courses)
• knitting learning/lesson/course together by introductions, previews, pretests, reviews
• organized in terms of readiness
• organized in terms of lines of emerging meanings

• Principle of Evaluation – learning is heightened by a valid and discriminating appraisal of all its aspects
▪ Scales of application
• evaluation or direct results only
• evaluation related to objectives and process
• evaluation on total learning process and results

General Approaches to Teaching

Two approaches in teaching: Direct Instruction Approach and Indirect Instruction Approach

A Comparison Between Direct and Indirect

Approaches

Direct Indirect
Approach Approach
• makes use of expository strategies • makes use of exploratory strategies
• aimed at mastery of knowledge and skills • aimed at generating
• teacher-oriented Knowledge for experience
• direct transmission of information from • learner-centered
teacher • students search for information with teacher’s
• teacher-controlled supervision
• highly structured • learner-controlled
• content-oriented • flexibly organized
• learner is passive, receives ready • experience-oriented
information for the teacher • learner is active in search for information

Direct Instruction Methodology

1. Deductive Teaching/Anticipatory Deduction/Explanatory Deduction

Concept/s Steps
• presents a rule/concept/generalization/ principle Statement of the Problem
• illustrate the serule/concept, etc. • motivation
with examples • discussion/relating problem to real life situation
Generalization
Anticipatory – forecasts details found • solve the problem from given one or two
in the different students generalizations, rules
Explanatory – connects facts with Inferring
Principles as interpreted by the • look for the principle that will fit the solution of the
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 teacher problem
Verification
• establish validity using references/ materials

2. Showing Method
Concept/s Step/s
• use for teaching concepts and skills Introduction
• a teacher-centered strategy that uses teacher • review of prior learning
explanation and modeling combined with student
practice and feedback to teach concepts and skills Presentation
• widely applicable in different content areas • explaining the new concept
• establishes interaction between teacher and students • modeling the skill
• helps students to learn procedural knowledge Independent Practice
• promotes learning of declarative knowledge • more practice of the skill on concept learned for
• focuses students’ attention on specific content/skill retention and transfer
• ensures mastery of skills

3. Lecture/Discussion/Expository Method

Concept Steps
• designed to keep students learn organized I. Planning
Bodies of knowledge • Identifying goals
• a teacher-directed model designed to keep • Diagnosing studentbackground
learners understand relationship in organized • Structuring
bodies of knowledge • Preparing advance organizers
• attempts to help students understand not only II. Implementation
the concepts but how they are related • Introduction
• based on David Ausubel’s concept of defining the purpose of the lesson, sharing of
meaningful verbal learning objectives and overview to help students see the
• helps learner link new with prior learning and organization of the lesson
relate the different parts of new learning to • Presentation
each other defining/explaining major ideas
• designed to overcome the most important Comprehension monitoring-determining whether
weakness of the lecture method by strongly Or not student understand concepts and ideas
emphasizing learners’ involvement in the • Integration
learning process exploring interconnections between important ideas
• applicable in different subject areas • Review and closure
• ensures clear understanding of information summarizing the lecture
• allows student’s participation

4. Demonstration Strategy

Concept Steps
• a show and tell method I. Preparation
• teacher presents and talks about a process, a concept • motivation
and shows the principles • identify objectives/problem/procedure
• learner observes and notes down events during II. Explanation of Concepts/Principles/
teachers’ performance Process/Theory, etc.

III. Demonstration of concept process by the teacher,

students observe and take down notes
IV. Discussion of students’ observations and
answering problems
V. Verification - justification conclusion

Indirect Instruction Methodologies

Inductive Teaching

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 Concept Steps
 It is a discovery learning strategy Preparation
 Involves many observable cases or instances • apperception
that can be compared by the learners • motivation
 Students formed own conclusions/ • presentation of the aims of the lesson
generalization when they are ready to so Presentation
 Used when the generalizations are important • teacher/learner cite specific cases of instances
enough to justify the time spent to the lesson which will be the source/ bases of drawing
 Lesson progresses from observations to generalization
generalizations Comparison and Abstraction
• noting commonalities/differences among the cases,
examples cited
Generalization
• Draw generalization for the instances/ examples
given from generalization which can be a rule, a
formula, principle, concept, etc.
Applications
• Use the newly learned generalizations in new real-
life situations

Inquiry Approach
Concept Steps
 Engages learners in critical thinking, Presentation and clarification of a problem/ issue of
analysis and problem solving inquiry
 A systematic and disciplines method • presentation of objectives
of solving and assessing results • statement of the problem, issue or query
 Involves testing solution to see if they work • clarification of the problem
and a step-step procedure to solve a problem Formulation of Hypotheses
systematically • giving tentative solutions to the problem/ query
 Engages students in investigative work • clarify hypotheses
 Involves scientific ways of solving problems • noting down of hypotheses
that include these steps: Gathering Data
• select references/sources of data/ information
1.Defining problems • appraise and organize the needed information to
2. Formulation of hypotheses answer the problem solving
3.Gathering data Testing Hypothesis
4.Analyzing & interpreting data
5.Making conclusion Formulation of Conclusions
• Note needs for more study and evaluate procedures
Forms of Inquiry
1. Guided Inquiry Application
 Teacher provides data, problems, questions to • Solving problems using rule/principle etc. in new
students situations
2. Open inquiry
 Students give solutions/gather data and draw
conclusions
3. Individualized Inquiry
 Students work independently

Laboratory Method
Concept Steps
 Hands-on experiences about materials or facts I. Preparatory
obtained from research, investigation or • Motivation
experiences • Orientation to the work/activity
 Actual context of learners with the • Presentation of materials
materials/variables • Precautionary measures
 Used to develop skill in basic science process II. Supervised Work Period/Laboratory
 A discovery experiences • Students work on the problem (may be the same of
 Develop centered thinking skills different problem)
 Involves all students in the manipulative skills • Teacher supervises the students’ work
 Role of teacher is mostly supervision of III. Culminating Activities

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 activity • Reporting of group work result/findings
 Proper handling of tools, equipment’s, • Discussion of the process/findings
laboratory material (keeping/using/ retrieval) • Formulation of generalization, rule, concepts, etc.
 • Opportunity to improvise tools/equipment • Application of the discussed
concepts/generalization to new situation

Problem Solving Method

Concept Steps
 An activity that will remove a difficulty or I. Identification and recognition of the problem
flexibility through reasoning process
II. Discussion of key elements of the problem
 May be used; for solving a whole unit/subject
as a problem or utilizing problem solving III. Statement of hypotheses
method in a unit of work Students give/suggests temporary solutions to the
 Involves scientific ways of searching problems
information
 Energizes students to participate activity to IV. Collection/Gathering Data
find the best solution to a problem • Noting down relevant information/ evidences
• Interpretation of related evidences
 Develop higher order thinking skills (HOTS)
• Organizing collected/gathered information
 Enhances analytical, logical and create
abilities
V. Critical evaluation of suggested solutions
 Involves these steps
or hypotheses
✓ Defining problems
✓ Stating/explaining VI. Verification of accepted hypotheses
✓ Critical evaluation of hypothesis/solution • Testing of given solutions/hypotheses
✓ Verification of accepted hypotheses VII. Application of the solutions to solve the
problem– given problem or another problem

Discovery Teaching
Concept Steps
 Teacher facilitates discovery Inductive Discovery
 Learners participate actively in the learning I. Observe and discuss specific examples
process II. Identify and describe common elements of
 • Learning depends on own insights, features
reflections and experiences (discovery III. State main idea based on the common elements
learning) against the new examples /elements
 The two discovery teaching strategies are • Check them
✓ Inductive discovery
Deductive Discovery
✓ Deductive discovery I. Present an idea that can be verified against
evidences
II. Learners gather/collect finds supporting evidences
or examples
III. Reasoning/Justifying why certain evidence found
is supported to the main idea.
IV. Students continue searching/finding other
evidences to support. The given idea.

Project Method
Concept Steps
 A significant practical unit of activity of a Purposing
problematic nature • Statement of objectives of the projects
 Involves planning and carrying out of the • Explain the nature of the project
planned activities • Teacher and students decide on the activities
 Students completes certain task in a natural cooperatively
manner Executing
 Involves the use of physical materials to • Student carry out the activities as planned under the
complete the unit of experience guidance of the teacher
 Develops sense of cooperation, responsibility Evaluation

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 to complete a task • Viewing of finished project
 Energizes students to evaluate own and • Evaluation by teacher and students based on some
other’s works(projects)objectively based on decided criteria for the project evaluation
developed criteria.

Other Indirect Models/Strategies of Teaching

• Problem-Based Instruction (PBI)
O The essence of PBI consists of presenting students with authentic/meaningful situation that can serve as
spring boards for investigations and inquiry.
o This model ishighlyeffectiveapproachforteachinghigher-levelthinkingprocessesinvolving:
o Deriving questions on problem both socially important and personally meaningful to students.
o Interdisciplinary focus on a particular subject but solutions require students to deliver into many subjects.
o Authentic investigation necessitates students to pursue investigation that seek real solution to real problems.
o Production of articrafts and exhibits requires students to construct products in the form of articrafts and
exhibits that represents their solutions.

• Constructivist Models
o Popularized by Piaget and Vygotsky
o Aperspectiveofteachingandlearninginwhichalearnerconstructsmeaningfromexperienceandinteraction
with others
o Teacher provides meaningful/relevant experiences for students from which students construct their own
meaning (facilitation)
o Suggests that learners develop their own understanding of topics they study instead of having it delivered to
them by others.
o Places learner in the center of the learning process why the play an active role in the process of constructing
their own understanding.

• Metacognitive Strategy
o Students are trained to become aware of and control their own learning through the metacognitive process.
o Used when students:
- plan what strategies to use to meet goal
- decide what resources are needed
- monitor own progress
- evaluate progress

• Reflective Teaching
o Process that enables individual to continually learn from own experiences by considering alternative
interpretations of experiences, actions, discussions, beliefs, using introspection and analysis
o Used when students:
- Acquire concrete experiences
- Analyzes experiences
- From abstractions
- Apply generalizations to actual situation

• Cooperative Learning Strategies

o Features:
- Heterogeneously grouped
- Interdependence among members
- Individual accountability
- Explicit teaching of collaborative skills
o Variants:

JIGSAW
• How/when used:
o A group are formed
o Material is divided into sections
o One member takes care of a section of the material
o Each member meets with those from other groups who are assigned to a similar section
o Members discuss/work on the material
o Return to their previous group to inform others in their group

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 o Testing students after the ―puzzle‖ is completed

Student Teams Achievement Strategy (STAS)

• A type of group work activity in which students interact together to master a specific academic material
• How/When Used:
o Information is presented;
o Students are divided into learning teams to master lessons using worksheets;
o Discussion, tutoring, quizzing one another;
o Scores from tests are recorded; and
o There is improvement from the previous achievement score of the team, additional points are given.

Some Essential Teaching Techniques

• Discussion
O An attempt to get away from the traditional classroom procedure of question and answer and recitation style;
it is also a tool for implementing the democratic process in teaching and learning transaction.
o Togetthedesiredunderstandingthroughanalysisandevaluationoffactsbyencouraginggroupthinkingas
learners/participants attempt to find solutions to a problem.

Types of Discussion Procedures

Panel- Forum-A direct, conversational, interactional discussion among a small group of experts or well-
informed lay persons.
o Like any intelligent conversation, except that participant speak loud enough for the audience to hear
o Success depends on the preparations done before the meeting, the wise selection of participants, and the
discussant leader
o Guidelines to Ensure a Successful Panel-Forum:

▪ The leader or chairperson

 Emphasizes tactfully the purpose and philosophy of the discussion;
 Keeps the conversation moving from point to point;
 Makes sure that each panel member has a chance to express his/her views, to ask questions intended to
clarify points for the audience.
 Maintains an impartial position by refraining from participating as a member of the
panel.
 Must be group-oriented rather than self-centered; and
 Summarizes discussion briefly and invites comments or questions from the audience

▪ The participants in the panel

 Talk in a formal manner; and
 Contribute to the method of public conversation meeting by giving brief remarks to each other but
should be heard by the audience

Symposium-Forum

▪ More formal than the panel discussion

▪ Persons with special competence deliver uninterrupted speeches on different aspects of a problem, And
these are followed by a forum period
▪ Essentially a public-speaking program; not conversational
▪ Guidelines to Ensure a Successful Symposium Forum

o Organizing a symposium includes:

o Deciding the purpose of the meeting
o Choosing and framing the topics to arouse interest
o Choosing speakers (the number of speakers depends on the number of significant
sources of information or points of view that should be considered)
o Choosing a chairman
o Briefing the chairman and the speakers on the objective of the symposium and in the
procedures to be followed
o Speakers should not forget that discussions mean ―thought in process, ‖ that its purpose is
to help listeners analyze the problem and not to make conclusions for them
o In the discussion process, the chairman or the moderator should help bring together the
thoughts of the speakers as the program unfolds. The chairperson also makes a proper
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 transition to the forum period.
O The chairperson or moderator sees to it that the important questions about the issues
presented are not neglected before the adjournment of the forum.

Debate
▪ A discussion that occurs when people with different beliefs study the same problem and arrive
At different conclusions;
▪ A more formal type in which each participant makes a prepared speech for or against a proposition;
▪ Debaters are usually allotted equal time to speak to present an analysis of a problem and a fair

▪ Guidelines to Ensure a Successful Debate

o Attitude in debate is properly adjusted in relation to the subject, the opponents, and the listening
audience. Arguments are directed toward the person. A proper attitude includes keeping one’s
perspective, temper and sense of humor.
o Refutation, or the answering of opponents’ arguments, should be woven throughout the main speeches
in a debate. There are a number of ways of answering an argument that is to be refuted; including
- Pointing out that it is not relevant or important to the question
- Showing that it is not supported by the facts or that insufficient evidence has been given
- Indicating fallacies in reasoning
- Arriving at a contrary argument by sound reasoning
- Supplying more and better evidence to support one’s side of the argument
- Turning the argument so that it actually helps one’s side
o Make each point consistent with those made by colleagues who a real so upholding a similar
view.
o In answering point of the other side, it is well to have a large supply of evidence that can be
drawn from to support one’s position.
o A knowledge of the audience on the question will be helpful in determining whether the audience is
favorably or unfavorably disposed to what is being said.
o A card-index file of all points and evidence that may be used should be kept; with some system
worked out, so that the members of the team can quickly draw on the material they want to include at
any given stage in the debate.

Round Table Conference

▪ A small discussion group seated face to face around a table, without a larger audience; a small
conference by another name and has the nature of an informal semi social gathering
▪ Members will not be hearing speeches but do their own talking

Guidelines to Insure a Successful Round Table Conference

o All members should have a precise understanding of what is to be delivered
o A leader whom the group likes and respects is chosen to lead and prepare for the meeting
o Procedure in conducting the session of a round table conference is summarized below:
- Introducing remarks, stating the question to be discussed in as interesting a manner as possible
- Statements of the facts or a brief story of a real or fictitious case
- Presentation of agenda
- Group discussion of each of the issues in the agenda
- Summary of the discussion
- Consideration of what action to take as a result of the discussion

Special Techniques to insure active participation in the forum period:

a. Role playing
▪ Spontaneous acting out of problems or situations
▪ Portray a situation more candidly
b. Case Study
▪ Another group centered procedure which presents specific situations or problems to stimulate
discussion
▪ Thistechniqueimpliesextensiveanalysisandinterpretationofacaseselectedtodemonstratealearning
outcome
c. Buzz Session
▪ Is used when dealing with familiar topics that need group opinion, evaluating, planning or
interaction

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 ▪ Involves groups not exceeding six persons
▪ A leader and a secretary are chosen to lead the discussion and to record what have been
discussed
▪ Each group is given the time to present the questions or outcomes of their discussion
d. Workshop
▪ Involves the use of group process in attacking and solving problems
▪ Persons with problems of common concern come together to attack and solve their problems
cooperatively
▪ Makes use of a variety of means and devices in the solution of problems such as group meeting,
individual
conference, field trips, excursions and the use of resource persons and consultants
▪ Values gained from the workshop are both intellectual and social
e. Seminar
▪ Deliberately looks for the solution to the problems form the evidence based on reading, experiences
and
Minds of the participants
▪ Attempts to develop a policy or solution that is better than what is in existence

ART OF QUESTIONING

What is Questioning?
Key technique in teaching
▪ Purposes of Questions
o Arouse interest and curiosity
o Review content already learned
o Stimulate learners to ask questions
o Promote though and the understanding of ideas
o Change the mood/tempo, direction of the discussion
o Encourage reflection and self-evaluation
o Allow expressions of feelings

Types of Questions
o According to thinking process involved:
o Low-level questions- focused on facts, don’t test level of understanding or problem-solving skills
- Examples: Who declared martial law? What important events happened in WW II?
o High-level questions-go beyond memory and factual information, more advance, stimulating and more
challenging, involve abstraction and point of view.
- Examples:
- How did the recent war between the government forces and MILF affect the people in Mindanao? What
alternative could we practice to become attentive?

o According to type of answer required:

o Convergent questions- tend to have on correct and best answer.
- Are used to drill learners on vocabulary, spelling and oral skills but not appropriate for eliciting thoughtful
responses
- Usually start with what, who, when, or where
- Are referred to as low-level questions
- Are useful when applying inductive approach and requires short and specific information from the learners

o Divergent questions- open-ended and usually have many appropriate answers.

- Reasoning is supported by evidence and examples
- Associated with high level thinking processes and encourage creative thinking and discovery learning

o According to the cognitive taxonomy

- 1st Level: Knowledge- memorize, recall, label, specify, define, list, cite, etc.
- 2nd Level: Comprehension-describe, discuss, explain, summarize translate, etc.
- 3rd Level: Application-solve, employ, demonstrate, operate experiment, etc.
- 4th Level: Analysis- interpret, differentiate, compare invent, develop, generalize
- 5th Level: Synthesis: Invent, develop, generalize
- 6th Level: Evaluation- Criticize, judge, interpret

o According to the questions used by teachers during open discussion

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- Eliciting Questions-these are employed to: encourage an initial response; encourage more students to
participate in the discussion; rekindle a discussion that is lagging or dying out
- Probing Question—seek to: expand or extend ideas; justify ideas; clarify ideas
- Closure-seeking Questions-used to: help students form conclusions, solutions or plans for investigating
problems.
-Referential questions –are questions that seek to draw response from students which a teacher has no
expected answer
-Display Questions- are questions in which a teacher expects a correct answer from the
Student

▪ Guidelines in Asking Questions

o Wait Time- the interval between asking a question and the student response.
o Prompting- uses hints and techniques to assist students to come up whit a response successfully
o Redirection-involves asking of a single question for which there are several answers; used in a high level
questioning.
o Probing-a qualitative technique used for the promotion of effective thought and critical thinking; provides
the students a chance to support or defend a stand or point of view
o Commenting and prompting- used to increase achievement and motivation

▪ Tips on Asking Question

o Ask questions that are:
- stimulating/thought-proving
- within student’s level of abilities
- relevant to students daily life situation
- sequential- a stepping stone to the next
- clear and easily understood
o vary the length and difficulty of questions, phrase questions clearly
o have sufficient time for deliberation
o follow up incorrect answer
o call on volunteers orn on-volunteers
o call on disruptive students
o move around the room for rapport/socialization
o encourage active participation

Determining Appropriate Evaluation Instruments

The concept of evaluation

▪ aims basically to determine student mastery of what has been taught.
▪ is a two-part process:
o measuring pupils’ individual performance
o judging about the adequacy of the–may use one of two major approaches in determining how well a pupil has
performed:
o norm-reference assessment, where a pupils’ performance is compared to the average
performance of his/her classmates;
o criterion – reference assessment, where the rating is based on comparison of a students’
performance with a pre-determined standard instrument used for evaluation may be:
o informal evaluation –depends on teacher’sobservationsofavarietyofpupilperformancesastheydolearning
tasks, complete projects, or interact with others; requires teachers to make judicious inferences about what
learners can and cannot do; may use this question as a basic guide in selecting informal assessment techniques,
―Will the procedure provide the information/ need to make an adequate judgment about a child’s
performance?
o formal evaluation – includes teacher–prepared tests and commercially-available standardized tests, such as
rating scales, learning checklists, essay tests, true-false test, multiple-choice tests, completion tests, matching
tests, etc.

• may also be used to:

o assesses progress of individual learners
o evaluates own performance of teacher
o refines instructional plans and/or provide instruction to clear up understandings of
certain topics taught
o provide basis for instructional planning when the same content tested is taught again
o has a need for good record keeping to monitor the

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 o progress/development of learner’s overtime

When to use some test types.

• use informal evaluation tools when looking for specific behaviors that learners are expected to demonstrate
• use rating scales and checklist when judgment about several levels of performance quality is needed
• use essay tests especially for upper grade levels when determining students to put together isolated process of
information in a meaningful way
• use true-false test when covering a broad range of content
• use matching test if pupils’ grasp of association is to be tested
• use completion test to sample only a cross-section of content and to eliminate guessing among pupils

What evaluation type to use during the instructional act

a. Prior to Instruction: Pre assessment
• done to determine the learner’s entry behavior (what knowledge/skills/attitudes they already know or still need
to know) before objectives are set or before instruction begins for maximum learning purposes
• involves use of such instruments as readiness test, aptitude test, pretest on course objectives, or observational
techniques
b. During Instruction: Formative Evaluation
• provides on-going feedback to the teachers and students regarding their success or failure during instruction;
• helpful in deciding whether changes in subsequent learning experiences are needed
• helpful in determining specific learning errors that need correction
• usually makes use of paper and pencil tests and observational methods
c. After Instruction: Summative Evaluation
• is provided to determine>how well students have learned/attained instructional objectives>how well
instruction
Was done

CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT

What is Classroom Management?

Refers to the operation and control of classroom activities; involves the ability to maintain order and sustain
pupil attention.

What are the Purposes of Classroom Management?

▪ To minimize the occurrences of discipline problems
▪ To increase the proportion of classroom time devoted to constructive and productive activity.

3 C’s of Classroom Control

▪ Content- facilitate the delivery of instruction
▪ Conduct- promotion of orderly and safe learning environment
▪ Context- emphasis is on communication rather than physical elements associated with classroom setting

Types of Control
▪ Preventive Control- aimed at minimizing the onset of anticipated discipline problems though planning
▪ Supportive Control- aimed at directing student’ behavior before it becomes a full-blown problem
▪ Corrective Control-seeks discipline student’ behavior before it becomes a full standard of good conduct

Nature and Dynamics of Approaches to Classroom

Management Behavior-Modification Approach

o Based on principles of behavioral psychology: ―All behavior is learned‖ (Sulzer and Mayer)
o Built on two assumptions:
- Learning is controlled largely, if not entirely, by events in the environment.
- There are four processes that account for learning at all age levels and under all conditions (positive
reinforcement, negative reinforcement, extinction or time out and punishment). A behavior is shaped by
consequence (what consequence follows a behavior).

Some situations that illustrate the use of Behavior Modification Approach

 Ben prepares a neatly written paper, which he submits to the teacher. The teacher praises Ben’s work and
comments that neatly written papers are more easily read than those which are sloppy. In subsequent papers,

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 Ben takes great care to write neatly. >Positive reinforcement, the introduction of reward after a behavior,
causes the behavior to increase in frequency

 Susan whose neat work has always been praised by the teacher, prepares a neatly written paper, which she
submits
to the teacher. The teacher accepts and subsequently returns the paper without comment. Susie becomes less
neat in subsequent papers. >Extinction is the withholding of an anticipated reward in an instance where that
behavior was previously rewarded. Extinction results in the decreased frequency of the rewarded behavior.

 The students in Ms. Tan’s English class have come to expect that she will give them the opportunity to play
a word game if their work is satisfactory. This is the activity they will enjoy. Miss Tan notes that all their
papers were neatly done except Jim’s paper. She tells Jim that he will not be allowed to participate in the
class game and must instead, sit apart from the group. >Subsequently, Jim writes less sloppily. Time out is
the removal of a reward from the student or the removal of the student from the reward, it reduces the
frequency of reinforcement and causes the behavior to become less frequent

 Jim prepares a rather sloppily written paper, which he submits to the teacher. The teacher rebukes Jim for
failing to be neat, informs him that sloppily written papers are difficult to read, and tells him to rewrite and
resubmit the paper. Jim writes less sloppily. >Punishment introduces an undesirable or aversive stimulus
after a behavior and the punished behavior tends to be discontinued ▪ Jim is one student in the class who
consistently presents the teacher with sloppy papers. Despite the teacher’s constant nagging of Jim, his work
becomes no neater. For no apparent reason, Jim submits a rather neat paper. Miss Tan accepts it without
comment-and without the usual nagging. Subsequently, Jim’s work becomes neater. >Negative

Guidelines for Using Punishments

o Don’t threaten the impossible. Make sure the punishment can be carried out.
o Don’t punish when you are at loss of what else to do in an emotional state. The quiet cool approach is more
effective that the angry, emotional approach.
o Don’t assign extra homework as well as the subject
o Be sure the punishment follows the offense as soon as possible. Don’t impose the punishment two days after
the student misbehaves
o Be sure the punishment follows the offense as soon as possible. Don’t overact mild behavior or underplay or
ignore serious misbehavior.
o Be consistent with punishment. If you punish one student for something, don’t ignore it when another student
does the same thing.
However, students and circumstances differ, and there should be room for modification
o Don’t use double standards when punishing. You should treat both sexes to same way, and low-achieving
students the same way.
o Give the students the benefit of doubt. Before accusing or punishing someone, make sure you have the facts
right
o Don’t hold grudges. Once you punish the student, put the incident behind and try to start with a clean slate.
o Don’t personalize the situation. React to misbehavior, not to the student
o Document all serious incidents. This is especially important if the behavior involves sending the student tout
of the room or possible suspension.

Socioemotional-Climate Approach
o Has its roots in counseling and clinical psychology (Carl Rogers)
o Places great importance on interpersonal relationships
o The teacher is the major determiner of interpersonal relationships and classroom climate
o Attitudes that are essential in effective facilitation of learning (Rogers)
o Realness, genuineness and congruence – realness is the expression of the teacher being himself or herself, the
teacher is aware of his/her feelings, accepts and acts on them and is able to communicate them when
appropriate... allows the teacher to be perceived by students as a real person
o Acceptance, prizing, caring and trust – behaviors that makes students feel trusted and accepted
o Emphatic understanding-using student’s point of view, sensitive awareness of the student’s feelings and is
non evaluative and nonjudgmental

Principle of Communication (Ginott, Teacher and Child)

o The teacher talks to the situation and not to he personality and character of the child

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o The teacher shows the ability to describe what she/he saw, describe how he/she feels and describe what needs
to be done.

Glasser’ View: The importance of Teacher Involvement (Schools Without Failure)

o Student misbehavior is the result of the student’s failure to develop success identity
o Suggests that a teacher should:
- Become personally involved with the student; accept the student but not the student misbehavior
- Elicit description of the student’s present behavior
- Assist student in making a value judgment about the problem behavior
- Help student plan a better course of action
- Guide student in making a commitment to the course of action he/she selected
- Reinforce the student as she follows the plan and keeps the commitment
- Accept no excuses if the student fails to follow through with her commitment
- Allow the student to suffer the natural and realistic consequences of misbehavior

Use of logical consequence

o LC express the reality of the social order; LC results from a violation of an accepted social rule (Punishment
expresses the power of a personal authority)
o LC are logically related to the misbehavior; the student sees the relationship between them is behavior and its
consequence
o LC involve no element of moral judgment; student’s misbehavior is viewed as a mistake, not a sin
o LC is concerned with what will happen next; the focus is on the future (Punishment is in the past)
o LC are involved in a friendly manner (Punishment involves either open or conceale danger); the teacher
should try to disengage himself from the consequence

Group –Process Approach

o Also known as sociopsychological approach –based on the principles from social psychology and group
dynamics (Schmuck, Johnson and Bany and Kounin)
o Based on the following assumptions:
- Schooling takes place within a group context- the classroom group
- Teacher’s task is to establish and maintain an effective, productive classroom group
- The effective, productive classroom groups characterized by certain conditions that are compatible with the
properties
- of a social system
- The classroom management task of the teacher is to establish and maintain such conditions

Six properties of Classroom Management (Schmuck)

o Leadership – creating a climate in which students perform leadership functions
o Attraction – refers to the friendship patterns in the classroom group
o Norms – shared expectations of how group members should think, feel and behave
o Communication – the vehicle through which the meaningful interaction of members takes place and through
group processes in the classroom occur
o Cohesiveness – collective feeling that the class members have about in the classroom group
o Facilitation and Maintenance (Johnson and Bany)
▪ Facilitation – refers to management behaviors that improve conditions within the classroom
▪ Maintenance – management behaviors that restore or maintain effective condition

Four Kinds of Facilitation Behaviors

▪ Achieving unity and cooperation
▪ Establishing standards and coordinating work procedures
▪ Using problem solving to improve conditions
▪ Changing established patterns of group behavior

Three Kinds of Maintenance Behaviors

▪ Maintaining and restoring morale
▪ Handling conflict
▪ Minimizing management problems

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Techniques of Building Good Discipline:
▪ Demonstration. Students know exactly what is expected. In addition to having expected behavior explained to
them, they see and hear it.
▪ Attention. Students focus their attention on what is being depicted or explained. The degree of attention
correlates with the characteristic of the model (teacher) and characteristics of students
▪ Practice. Students are given opportunities to practice the appropriate behavior.
▪ Corrective feedback. Students receive frequent, specific, and immediate behavior is suppressed and corrected.
▪ Application. Students are able to apply their learning in classroom activities (role playing, modeling activities)
and other real-life situations

Strategies for Managing Students with Problems

▪ Accept students as they are, but build on and accentuate their positive qualities
▪ Be yourself. Students can recognize phoniness and take offense at such deceit.
▪ Be confident. Take charge of the situation, and don’t give up in front of the students.
▪ Provide structure. Many of these students lack inner control and are restless and impulsive.
▪ Explain your rules and routines so students understand them. Be sure your explanations are brief; otherwise,
you lose your effectiveness and you appear to be defensive of preaching
▪ Communicative positive expectations that you expect the students to learn and you require work.
▪ Rely on motivation, and not on your powers to maintain order; an interesting lesson can keep the students on
task
▪ Be a firm friend, but maintain psychological and physical distance so your students know that you are still the
teacher
▪ Keep calm, and keep your students calm, especially when conditions become tense or upsetting. It may be

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necessary to delay action until after class when emotions have been reduced
▪ size up the situation and be aware of undercurrents of behavior, since these students are sizing you up and
Are knowing manipulators of their environment
▪ Anticipate behavior, being able to judge what will happen if you or a student decide on a course of action may
allow you to curtail many problems.

Establishing Routines
• Beginning and ending the day or class period
• Transitions
• Getting/distribution of materials and equipment
• Group work
• Seatwork and teacher-led activities

Effective Questioning and Reacting Techniques

1. Varying type of question
2. Asking non-directed questions
3. Calling on non-volunteers
4. Rephrasing
5. Sequencing logically
6. Requiring abstract thinking
7. Asking open-ended questions
8. Allowing for sufficient wait time

Functions of Homework
1. Pre-learning
2. Checking for understanding
3. Practice
4. Processing

Principles in the Use of Homework

1. The purpose of homework and outcome of homework should be identified and articulated.
2. Homework tasks should be differentiated by:
a. Difficulty or amount of work
b. By the amount of scaffolding provided; and
c. Learner’s learning style or interest.
3. Parent involvement in homework should be kept to a minimum.
4. If homework is assigned, it should be commented on.
5. Move from grading to checking.
6. Establish and communicate a homework policy.
7. Establish a homework support programs.

Building and Enhancing New Literacies Across the Curriculum

21st Century Education
1. Focus on a project-based curriculum
2. There is an innovation in education
3. Schools will go from ‘buildings’ to ‘nerve centers’
4. Teachers from dispensers of knowledge to facilitators of learning

Attributes of 21st Century Education

1. Integrated and Interdisciplinary
2. Technology and Multimedia
3. Global Classrooms
4. Creating to Constant Personal and Social Change and Lifelong Learning
5. Student-Centered
6. 21st Century Skills
7. Project-based and Research Driven
8. Relevant, Rigorous, and Real World

Characteristics of 21st Century Teachers

1. Multi-literate
2. Multi-specialist
3. Multi-skilled

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4. Self-directed
5. Lifelong learner
6. Flexible
7. Creative problem solver
8. Critical Thinker
9. Has passion
10. High EQ

Technology Tools of 21st Century Education

1. Affinity Groups
2. Blogs
3. E-portfolio
4. Hypertext
5. Podcasts
6. Web 2.0
7. Myspace
8. Second Life
9. Semantic Web
10. Webkinz
11. Wiki
12. YouTube
13. Google
14. Prezi
15. Easybib
16. Social Media Platforms
17. Smartboards and Audience Response Systems
18. ReadWriteThink.org
19. WebQuest Page
20. Literacy Web

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Methods of Curriculum Integration
1. Project-Based Learning
2. Service Learning
3. Learning Centers/ Parallel Disciplines
4. Theme-based
5. Fusion

Multicultural Literacy – consists of the skills and ability to identify the creators of knowledge and interests to reveal the
assumption of knowledge from diverse ethnic and cultural perspective.
Global Literacy – aims to address issues of globalization, racism, diversity, and social justice.
- It requires awareness and action, consistent with a broad understanding of humanity, the planet, and the impact of human
decision on both.

Dimensions of Global Education

Dimension 1: Examine issues local, global, and cultural significance.
Dimension 2: Understand and Appreciate the perspective world views or others
Dimension 3: Engage in Open, Appropriate, and Effective Interactions across Cultures
Dimension 4: Take action for collective well-being and Sustainable Development

Social Literacy – entails the development of social skills, knowledge, and positive human values toward desire and
ability in human beings to act ad react positively and responsibly in a wide range of complex social settings.

Types of Social Skills

1. Effective Communication
2. Conflict resolution
3. Active listening
4. Empathy
5. Relationship management
6. Respect
7. Problem-solving skills
8. Interpersonal skills

Media Literacy – the ability to access, analyze, evaluate, and create media.
- The ability to identify different types of media from wide array of sources and understand the
messages they bring.

Roles of Media Literacy

1. Learn to think critically
2. Become a smart consumer of products and information
3. Recognize point of view
4. Create media responsibly
5. Identify the role of media in our culture

Media and Information Literacy – a combination of knowledge, skills, and practices required to access, analyze,
evaluate, and use information and knowledge in creative, legal, and ethical ways.

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Dimension of Media and Information Literacy
1. Tool Literacy
2. Resource Literacy
3. Social-Structural Literacy
4. Research Literacy
5. Publishing Literacy
6. Emerging Technology Literacy
7. Critical Literacy

Integrating Media Literacy in the Curriculum

1. Teach students to evaluate media.
2. Show students where to find digital resources and databases.
3. Compare/Contrast various media sources
4. Discuss how media edits and alters
5. Examine the truth in advertisement
6. Have students create media
Financial Literacy - is a core life skill in an increasingly complex world where people need to take charge of their
own finance, budget, financial choices, managing risks, saving, credit, and financial transactions.

Financial Plan Steps:

1. Calculating the net worth
2. Determining the cash flow
3. Considering the priorities

Spending Strategies:
1. Start by listing your goals
2. Divide your goals accordingly
3. Estimate the cost
4. Project future cost
5. Calculate how much you need to set aside
6. Prioritize your goals
7. Create a schedule for meeting your goals

Investment and Investing Aspects

1. How long will you invest the money? (Time Horizon)
2. How much money do you expect your investment to earn? (Expectation of Investment)
3. How much of your investment are you willing to lose in the short-term in order to earn more in the long term?
(Risk Tolerance)
4. What types of investment interest you? (Investment type)

Emergency Savings Fund

1. To become financially independent
2. To save on everything you buy
3. To prepare for the future
4. To get out of debt
5. To respond to emergencies

Common Financial Scams

1. Phishing
2. Social media scams
3. Phone scams
4. Stolen Credit Card Numbers
5. Identity Theft

Things to Avoid
1. Never wire money to a stranger
2. Don’t give out financial information
3. Never click on hyperlinks in emails
4. Use difficult passwords
5. Don’t download software from pop-up windows

Digital Literacy - Is the set of competencies required for full participation in society that includes knowledge, skills, and
behaviors involving the use of effective use of digital devices.

Cybersecurity - is the practice of protecting systems, networks, and programs from digital attacks.
Cyber Citizenship - is an old value that is now applies to a new medium, the Internet. It means being responsible
when using the internet.
Eco-Literacy - Considers ecological systems and awareness of how society operates within natural aspects as an

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educational imperative.

Practices
1. Develop empathy for all forms of life
2. Embrace sustainability for all forms of life
3. Make the invisible visible
4. Anticipate unintended consequences
5. Understand how nature sustains life

Integrating Ecological Literacy into the Curriculum

1. Place-Based Learning
2. Project-Based Learning
3. Socratic Inquiry
4. Experiential Learning
5. Interdisciplinary Learning

Arts and Creative Literacy - It’s the act of turning new and imaginative ideas into reality.
Creativity - is the process of having original ideas that have value.

Seven Habits of Highly Creative People

1. Prepare the ground
2. Plant seeds for creativity
3. Live in the questions
4. Feed your brain
5. Experiment and explore
6. Replenish your creative stock
7. Liberate your creativity

Eye-Hand Coordination - Coordinated control of eye movement with hand movement and the processing of visual input
to guide reaching and grasping along with the use of hands to guide the eyes.

Visual Literacy - Refers to interpreting and creating visual images

Verbal Creativity
1. Fluency
2. Flexibility
3. Originality
4. Elaboration

Aesthetics - Aesthetic or Esthetics is the philosophical study of beauty and taste.

Approaches:
1. It is the study of aesthetic concepts
2. It is the study of mind, emotions, attitudes, etc.
3. It is the study of the aesthetic object

Integrating Arts and Creativity Literacy

1. Physical environment
2. Emotional environment
3. Project-based Learning
4. Teach Creative thinking skills
5. Alternative assessments
6. Scheduling
7. Student Centered and Personalized Learning
8. Incorporate arts
9. Integration of technologies
10. Preparing the body and brain for creativity

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