EXPLORING SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL 11-14 I ede es RN ere a= a ert blue ery EVE eit) b camer ey eee sts teeters) i Core gee nan Deere eae ed eee ree) ET a ad PearsonHow to use this book Biology 8A Food and nutrition 8Aa 8Aa 8Ab BAC BAC sad BAe BAe BAe Food and advertising Nutrients Uses of nutrients. Balanced diets ‘Making new foods (STEM) Digestion Surface area (WS) Absorption Packaging and the law 8B Plants and their reproduction 8Ba 8Ba 8Ba 8Bb 8Bc 8Bc 8Bd 8Be 8Be Useful plants Classification and biodiversity Accuracy and estimates (WS) ‘Types of reproduction Pollination Air quality (STEM) Fertilisation and dispersal Germination and growth Animals using plants 8C Breathing and respiration 8Ca 8Ca 8b 8cb aCe aCe acd Water sports and breathing Aerobic respiration Gas exchange system ‘Means and ranges (WS) Getting oxygen Epidemiology (STEM) ‘Comparing gas exchange 10 12 14 16 18 20 21 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 37 38 40 42 44 46 48 8Ce 8Ce Anaerobic respiration Fitness training 8D Unicellular organisms 8Da 8Da 8Da 8Db 8Dc 8Dc 8Dd 8De 8De The Black Death Unicellular or multicellular Tackling diseases (STEM) Microscopic fungi Bacteria Pie charts (WS) Protoctists Decomposers and carbon Black Death hypotheses Chemistry 8E Combustion 8Ea 8Ea 8Eb 8Ec 8Ec BEd 8Ee 8Ee 8Ee Engines Burning fuels Oxidation Fire safety Fair testing (WS) Air pollution Global warming Carbon footprints (STEM) Reducing pollution 8F The periodic table 8Fa 8Fa 8Fb 8Fc 8Fc Fireworks Dalton’s atomic model Chemical properties Mendeleev's table Anomalous results (WS) 50 52 53 54 56 58 60 62 64 66 68 69 70 n2 74 76 78 80 82 84 85 86 88 90 928Fd 8Fd 8Fe 8Fe Physical trends Inspiring teachers (STEM) Chemical trends Firework ban 8G Metals and their uses 8Ga 8Ga 8Gb 8Gc 8Gd 8Gd 8Ge 8Ge 8Ge Building up Metal properties Corrosion Metals and water Quality evidence (WS) Metals and acids Pure metals and alloys New alloys (STEM) Metals in art 8H Rocks 8Ha sHa 8Hb 8Hb 8He 8Hd 8Hd 8He 8He Disaster! Rocks and their uses Igneous and metamorphic Predicting eruptions (STEM) Weathering and erosion Sedimentary rocks Theories in geology (WS) Materials in the Earth Living in danger Physics 81 Fluids 8la sla 8la 8ib Bic 8id Ble Ble Ble Exploring extremes The particle model Calculations with density (WS) Changing state Pressure in fluids Floating and sinking Drag Operating aeroplanes (STEM) Humans at the extremes 04 96 98 100 101 102 104 106 108 10 12 14 116 7 us 120 122 124 126 128 130 132 133 134 136 138 140 142 144 146 148 8J Light 8Ja Seeing things 8Ja Light onthe move 8Jb Drawings and conventions (WS) 8Jb Reflection 8Je Refraction Jd Cameras and eyes 8Jd Looking after our eyes (STEM) 8Je Colour 8Je Invisibility cloaks 8K Energy transfers 8Ka_Living in extremes 8Ka Temperature changes 8Kb Transferring energy 8Ke Controlling transfers 8Ke Accuracy and precision (WS) 8Kd_ Power and efficiency 8Kd_ Managing disasters (STEM) 8Ke Paying for energy 8Ke Keeping warm 8L Earth and space 8La Changing ideas 8La_ Gathering the evidence 8La_ Working in space (STEM) 8Lb Seasons 8Le Magnetic Earth 8Ld Gravity in space 8Ld_ Making comparisons (WS) 8Le Beyond the Solar System BLe Studying space Glossary Periodic table Index Acknowledgements 149 150 152 154 156 158 160 162 164 165 166 168 170 172 174 176 178 180 181 182 184 186 188 190 192 194 196 197 206 207HOW TO USE REDUCING PO ON Fact boxes contain fascinating facts for you to think abou Ican.... boxes help you to reflect on what. you have learned. Consider each statement Carefully and think about how well this applies to you. You should be able to answer the question at the top of the page by the have finished the page. The Key words for the page are in bold. You can look up the meaning of these words in the Glossary, on pages 197-205. Ifyouare having trouble finding information about something, use the Index, on pages 208-209. Questions are spread throughout the page so you can answer them as you go alon8Aa You would not see adverts like the ones on this page today! There are now much stricter rules on the claims that a food advert can make. A claim is a statement that is supposed to be true. Adverts often contain claims to convince you to buya product. Many countries now have laws that say that, all health claims must be supported by scientific evidence. ‘We also know much more about the effects of food on the body today. Scientists think that foods that are high in fat and sugar can cause people to put on too much weight. For this reason, these types of foods cannot be advertised on children’s TV. FEB wry do weneed to eat food? Eh book atadverta. {| What claim is being made? | Suggest why a company would not be able to make this claim today. Ey) 20k tthe adver for doughnuts (8). al Explain why these doughnuts are supposed to be good for you. b| Suggest what is wrong with eating too many doughnuts. Ea 21 ina organ ystems food broken down and taken into the blood? b| Name two parts ofthis organ system. ¢| Describe the functions of these parts [EB] 22est one thing people should do in order to eat healthily, Salley ta te Sees hereto ‘Sod cht promote wey hae ‘Sons and" fe sbktely ite Pee eee ee eR ct SnIn science, the word diet means what you eat. Your diet provides raw materials for your body, which are needed for energy (to move, keep warm, make new materials), growth and repair, and health. What do scientists mean by diet? al What isa nutrient? Food substances that provide raw materials are called nutrients. These include carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins and minerals. b| What does your body use nutrients for? ‘The main carbohydrates in food are insoluble starch and soluble sugars. There are many different sugars, including sucrose (table sugar) and glucose. There are many different sorts of fats. Some are solid and some are liquid at room temperature. We call liquid fats oils. Fats and oils are sometimes called lipids. ‘We also need to eat fibre. This is made of plant cell walls and is not used by the body, but it keeps us healthy by helping food move through the intestines and stopping them getting blocked (constipation). Wholegrain cereals and breads contain a lot of fibre. Waters also very important since about 65 per cent of you is water! Water: = acts asa lubricant «= dissolves substances so that they can be carried around the body ® fills up cells so that they hold their shape = cools you down, when you sweat. How are water and fibre helpful for preventing constipation? FullBran is a new cereal that contains alot of fibre, Write a health claim for use in a FullBran advert. Explain why you should drink plenty of water in hot weather. Food labelling Nutrition information labels show the amounts of different nutrients in a food. You can compare the nutrients in different foods using the ‘per 100 gram (g) of food’ values. You cannot compare foods using ‘per serving of food: since servings of different foods are different sizes.Nutrition labels also show the amount of fibre and the amount of energy stored in the food. Food labels have a list of ingredients and highlight substances that people may be allergic to (e.g. nuts, eggs). Labels also show warnings about substances that can cause problems. For example, in Europe, if'a drink contains a lot of caffeine, the label will state:‘Not suitable for children, pregnant women and persons sensitive to caffeine! Testing foods In many countries, government scientists test food to make sure that labels are correct. Photos C, D and E shows tests for starch, protein and fats. C| Test for starch: add rece of iodine Ror there is starch Petes erated Contd E| Test for eae) Ree ae aero Ses peda) eg Pease ee eon List the names of the nutrients on label B, Suggest why a breakfast cereal box states: ‘May contain traces of nuts. The food referred to in label B contains two carbohydrates: starch and sugars. How much of. eachis there in one serving? TRC te eer ag Pekka ated Peet heen cue act PYieatog cubic! afood sample ety ero Pension rie Cis So theres protein See) purple colour within afew ices Gita tested butter and bread with iodine solution. Which nutrient was she testing for? 100 g ofa milk powder contains 27 g of fat, 38 g of carbohydrate and 26 g of protein. al Describe how you would test for the nuttients in milk powder and what results you would expect. b| Why do the totals of the nutrients not add upto 100g? Ican... 1 recall the nutrients we need in our diets * interpret nutrition information labels 1 recall the tests used to detect some nutrients.UK NG, iLS, CEE SADNU" Different nutrients are used for different things in your body. FEB iistat the itferent types of nutrient in food. =nerg When you eat food, you gain mass. When doing everyday activities, the fuel in your food is used up and so you lose mass. To make sure your mass = does not change, the amount of fuel you use 7 should be balanced by the amount you eat. Your body’s main source of energy carbohydrates. There is a lot of starch in foods like bread and potatoes, and sugars are found in sweet foods. Another source of energy comes from fats. There are a lot of fats in dairy products and fried foods. Fats are stored in your body so that there is y always a source of energy. A lot of this stored fat You gain mass You lose mass doing comes from the fats that you eat. However, ifthe when you eat. ‘everyday things carbohydrates you eat are not all used up, they can be turned into fat. Some fat is stored under your skin to insulate your body and help you stay warm. iii Aa aig EBB careth's mass has increased. Suggest why. cee eo kh ee nrg o Why do you need starch in your diet? ON ee cu eek foods containing sugars during races. TEBE what does your body use fat for? Different foods contain different amounts of energy, which is measured in kilojoules (kJ). Respiration in your cells releases the energy. As your cells respire, the energy is transferred (moved) from the nutrients, making it available for you to grow, move, think and keep warm, The amount of energy your body needs to transfer depends on your age, whether you are male or female and how active you are.How dally eneray requirements change with age 14000 Male FE [earner ‘ocno] A Sleeping 180 12000 Watching TV 250 FSikees 3 10000 Walking slowly 470 Eos. cling slowly 660 % sooo Cycling quickly 1090 3 7000 Running fast, 1700 3 6000. 5000. a| Look at label B on page 6. How much energyis in 100g} 3, 4000 of the food? © 3000 b| How much of this food would provide the energy < 2000. needed by someone of your age and sex for one day? 1000. | How much of the food would provide the energy for o i BS BB 2 hours of slow walking? PEPEP EP: al Between which ages do people need most energy? Age (years) | Suggest a reason for this. a] Ravi a fitness trainer. His wife isthe same age and works at acall centre. Who will need more energy perday? b| Explain why thisis. Jasmine eats more carbohydrates than she needs for energy. Explain why her mass will change. Growth and repair Proteins are very important for making new cells to help us to grow and repair our bodies. Proteins are found in foods like meat, fish, eggs, cheese, beans and milk. For health All nutrients are important for health, and these include tiny quantities of vitamins and mineral salts (usually just called minerals). For example, vitamin A is needed for healthy skin and eyes, and vitamin C helps cells, ee 1 F | Food packaging and adverts often point o the vitamins and minerals the foods contain. in tissues to stick together properly. Vitamin D and OW WITH calcium are needed to make bones, and iron is used to A") | 5 make red blood cells. WTS B Give three important reasons for eating food. a| State two good sources of each type of nutrient found in food. | Why do our bodies need each type of Nutrient? Present your answer as a table. Suggest one effect ofa lack of ron on your body. Explain your reasoning,== BALANCED is recommended thal you eat five Bread, sce, potatoes and No single food contains all the substances __potons outs and vegetables ;pasta contain lots that you need, so you must eat many different °° afmany vitamins and 7 foods. If you eat the right amounts of a wide variety of foods you have a balanced diet. People who have a problem caused by too much or too little of a nutrient in their diets are said to suffer from malnutrition. BEB Whatisa balanced diet? EE) Wty 'ssomeonewhoisvery overweight suffering from malnutrition? Meat, fish, beans, ‘Milk and dairy Deficiency eggs end uis conn Foo anagarkshigh ode tangs made lots of protein. Bee! fers. eic camer vou fom milk) are good diseases ndeggeare good tne ngce sues of fa and sours af ron acum ‘san occasional tea. People who lack a nutrient for a long time Pubic Meath England in esociaon withthe Welsh Government. he Scotish Government ard the Food can suffer from a deficiency disease. (ccs nn nae lack of protein can cause kwashiorkor (pronounced 'kwash-ee-or-ker). One symptom isa large belly, caused by fluid collecting around the intestines and muscles that become too weak to hold the stomach and intestines in place. Alack of vitamin A causes night blindness (not being able to see well in low light). Scurvy is caused byallack of vitamin C, and causes painful joints and bleeding gums. A lack of calcium and vitamin D can cause rickets, in which weak bones do not form properly. Tiredness and shortness of breath are symptoms of anaemia, caused by a lack of iron. EE 2! Whateliseases are shown in photos B and C. Explain your reasoning, | Suggest a change that someone could make reeset tien ee cry sweets. Polar bear and husky dog livers contain so much vitamin A that they are poisonous f eaten by humans. In 1913, the Antarctic ‘explorer Xavier Mertz died from eating his sledge dogs'livers. to their lifestyle to cure scurvy.Starvation The worst form of malnutrition is starvation, in which people lack nearly all the nutrients they need. People who are starving get thinner and thinner. Obesity People whose food contains more energy than they need may become overweight. This can cause heart disease, when fat clogs the arteries and stops enough blood reaching the heart muscle tissue. If very little blood reaches the heart muscle, it can start to die (a heart attack), which causes a painful squeezing feeling in the chest. People who are overweight are more likely to have high blood pressure, which can damage the heart or kidneys or cause blood vessels to burst. People who are very overweight are said to be obese. Obesity is increasing in many countries, so some scientists want to stop adverts for fatty or sugary foods. How willa balanced diet stop people becoming overweight? | What condition isthe man in photo € suffering from? bj Suggest why he has developed this condition. | What health problems is he more likely to develop? Help with your diet Many nutrition information labels give people an idea about how much of each nutrient can be eaten in a day. These Reference Intakes (or Rls) are usually shown for adults. Note: 1 mg (milligram) = 0.001 g; 1 wg (microgram) = 0.000001 g. 1100 9 of Reference butter Intake (Ft) [contains energy (00K) 3000 catbohyarate | 260g 0g protein 309 055) fat 709 Big fee 249 09 vitamin | 800 ug B87 9 vitamin C omg omg um Boom 15mg 14mg amg) 03mg Ozma DT eae ea cette y Cr eu a Rae) ne ruc Mme {| How much wholemeal bread would an adult need to eat for it to provide all their energy needs fora day? Give your answer to the nearest 100 g. | Suggest why only eating wholemeal bread would be a bad idea. ¢| Inwhat way would putting butter on the bread be good?MAKING NEW 8Ac FOODS People have been inventing new foods for thousands Rae aor ges uted eset ots) Prone te Re asec) by accident about 7000 years ago in the Middle East eee eee cen cick ac Regen ence food lasted longer. Grete eet ee eat eae ene ne last longer, taste better, look better or are healthier, ve one advantage of canned foods. eg ee A| Canning, salting, jamming, pickling and ive two reasons why food technologists drying are ways of changing foods to make them invent new foods today. Pie Notall food technologists develop new foods. Some of them test foods to ensure that they contain the right ingredients Beer reer eee tee geet a) Neneh ea ete en Et technology. The researchers in photo B, for example, are uid foods (such as milk) to destroy Gece a RM cea eke acta as Cree Rr ete eeu et ‘Most food technologists leave school with a good knowledge ren OM ree ne CMa get a degree in food technology. It may also be possible to eran neon ac een ice ee) em eS eae Cicer n) erecta! destroy harmful microorganisms in foods Suggest two advantages of killing microorganisms in foods using electricity rather than heat. Cee er Ror eee ee a A food packet claims that the food contains starch. Explain eet ei how a food technologist would test this claimFood technologists who develop foods need to be inventive. They first identify something that people want (e.g. snack bar with less sugar) They then think up different ideas to do this. They try out each idea and Rote eos To come up with ideas, food technologists think about whether they can: eMac ee mc oe Tee eRe ea Seo) Ser CE extra ingredient to a food) adapt ideas from other products (eg. use Ree een es td eer este ecm ct eee ean ae ‘Suggest two ways to make a snack bar with less sugar. anon en ederediet ies D | Food technologists tasting different versions of the same food. you would like to see for sale, People have asked a pizza company to use healthier pizza bases. The nutrition lopretlens information forthe existing pizza base Bleached white four, wate glucose, suse shown. hydrogenated vegetable il state some waysin which the pizza base. [sshnes) xanthan gum Goaddstetchines) could be made healthier. ype values | pe1003 | paar | Choose one way and explain two ideas for changing the pizza base in this way. Choose one idea and design a delivery box to advertise your new pizza base. Carbohydrate which sugars. Allergy advice Product contains glutenProteins, fats and most carbohydrates are too big for your body to use and need to be broken down into smaller pieces. Digestion turns large insoluble molecules into smaller soluble ones. Digestion occurs as your food passes through your gut (a tube made up of different organs). The gut and some other organs that help digestion (such as the salivary ‘a What does the digestive system do? | Why do we need to digest food? lands, liver and pancreas) form the digestive system. 1. Putting food in your mouth is ingestion. Your teeth grind {food into small pieces and mix itwith saliva, which is| produced by your salivary = glands. Saliva is an example of a digestive juice ~ it helps digest fo0d. It also makes food easier to swallow, ——__ tongue — salivary glands ~~ pancreas 4.Inthesmall intestine, more \ digestive juices are added (including from the pancreas). The liver adds a substance to help digest fats, Small molecules of digested food are then — absorbed (taken into the body) here. The appendixis a small tube that helps some animals to digest grass. In humans it helps Sencar cur caer (appendicitis) If this happensit is removed. 2. When you swallow, food enters, the oesophagus (or gullet). Muscles in the oesophagus contract to make the tube above the food narrower, and this pushes food towards the stomach, Food is moved through the whole gut in the same way. 4 3.1In the stomach, food is churmed up with acid (pH 1-2) and more digestive _- hoes are addes 5, Food that we cannot digest (e.g. fibre) goes \ into the large intestine, where water is removed _ This forms a more solid material called faeces (pronounced ‘fee-sees') 6. The rectum stores faeces, which are then pushed out of the anus in a process called defaecation or egestion. It takes about 24—48 hours for food to go through the gut. (Note that defaecation is getting rid of undigested food. Excretion is gotting rid of wastes produced by your cells.) Draw a flow chart to show what happens in each organ of the gut, What are ingestion and egestion? Describe how food is pushed through the gut.Gut bacteria Bacteria are microorganisms (organisms you need ? a microscope to see). Although they are tiny, your Intestines contain about 1 kilogram (kg) of the’ Some of these bacteria are useful, but other types are harmful. ‘The bacteria in your gut feed on your food and can digest some foods that your body cannot. The bacteria grow and reproduce using some of these digested molecules, but the rest of the molecules can be absorbed into your body. Re at i Po suite Enzymes eS O Enzymes are substances that speed up the breaking down oflarge molecules “QDs. == into smaller ones. Substances that speed up reactions (without being changed er - themselves) are called catalysts. Enzymes are biological catalysts. <2 Most of the enzymes needed for digestion are produced by your body and are found in the various digestive juices that are added to food as it travels, through the gut. Amodel that helps us think about how enzymes work compares them to scissors, The enzymes help to cut through the connections that hold the molecule together. Give one benefit and one disadvantage of having bacteria in your gut. a How do digestive juices help with digestion? b| Use the scissors mode! to explain how enzymes work.The area of a rectangle is worked out using this formula: area of a rectangle = length x width Area is measured in square units, like metres squared (m’), centimetres squared (cm?), millimetres squared (mm). So, if the length and width are in metres (m), the area is in m’, A tennis court is a rectangle 23.78 m long and 10.97 m wide: area = 23.78 x 10.97 260.87 m? FER) Whetisthe area ofa soccer pitch thats 100 mong and 45 m wide? Show your working EIN ao) Be nly Brees Yel eloy [oe 1d ye ooo! ondarea= 10510, Qo) / The total area of all the surfaces on a three-dimensional shape is called the surface area. Itis important because it can affect the speed at, which things happen. Radiators and air conditioning evaporators have folds or fins on them to increase their surface areas, This means that more energy can be transferred from them in a certain length of time. Calculating surface areas ‘Accube has six faces. To find the surface area of a cube you find the area of each face and add them all together. Some cells are roughly cuboid, so we can estimate the total surface area by finding the total of the areas of a cell's six rectangular faces. front atea = 12x10 = 120mWORKING SCIENTIFICALLY Estimate the surface area of an approximately cuboid cell, with length 10 um, width 15 ym ‘Area of both ends = 100 + 100 = 200 um? and height 20 um, Show your Surface area of the cuboid = 240 + 240 + 200 = 680 ym? If food is given a greater surface Som area, there is more room for e WH, ‘enzymes to get to work and break down the food. This is why, for ‘example, teeth are important for grinding up food. om Surface areas also important for ‘the small intestine; the larger its surface area the faster it can absorb digested food. surface area of large cube: ie rg ib ot ho 6 x (6 x 6) = 216 cm? surface area of one smaller cube: Ey 1 tb2id measures sem ions 4 cmwide and 6 cm tall. there are eight smater cubes, so total surface area = 54 x 6 al Calculate its surface area, | The cuboid is cutin half along its longest edge. Calculate its new surface area. Explain why a sugar cube Surface area : volume ratio dissolves more slowly in a cup of coffee than the same amount of loose sugar granules. The surface area : volume ratio is the surface area divided by the volume, or Sutface area volume Explain why the same amount of | The bigger the surface area : volume ratio, the more surface area food is digested faster when it is something has per unit volume. Cells need large surface area : in small pleces compared with volume ratios to be able to take enough of the substances they large pieces. . need from their surroundings. Look at diagram D. Calculate the surface area : volume ratio of: al the large cube b| one of the small cubes. Show your working.Enzymes break up large molecules into smaller, soluble ones. enzyme. The small molecules can then be absorbed by the small intestine. ABO BO a| Where is digested food absorbed: f + Models help us to think about how complicated things happen. ee Diagram B is a model of the small intestine. Visking tubing is a thin ® @ @ material containing tiny holes that only small molecules can pass @ 2 through. In diagram B the inside of the tubing represents the inside of smaller glucose “~~ the small intestine. The water around the tubing represents the blood. ‘molecules A| Starch is digested into —Visking tubing Ce ak Sn mixture of water, } — enzymes and starch ee a ‘What would you expect to find in the water at er | —tightly tied ‘the end of the experiment shown in diagram CU B that was not there at the start? Explain your reasoning. Once absorbed, digested nutrients are dissolved a| Why do your cells need to respire? in the blood plasma (the liquid part). Blood carries b| Which parts of the blood carry the the nutrients around the body for cells to use. For substances needed for respiration? example, all your cells need glucose in order to release energy (using respiration). All particles naturally spread out. This is called Glucose Wate diffusion. If there are more particles of a substance ™novein movein in one area than another, eventually the particles fandom — random h even spreading become evenly spaced due to diffusion. After a meal, Grectione, directions. ‘of molecules ‘there are many more digested nutrient molecules inside the small intestine than in the blood. This, causes an overall movement of these molecules into, the blood, by diffusion. Particles move randomly in alll directions. So some molecules of glucose will move from the blood into the small intestine, but many more go the other way. There is an overall movement of glucose C| molecules in one direction. wall of small" 5 intestine diffusion inside small "in blood intestineWhat is diffusion? Why do some glucose molecules move out of the blood and others move into it? Explain how diffusion allows the small intestine ‘to absorb soluble molecules but not insoluble ones. Seeger nice Pens econ tig enemas Small intestine adaptations The greater the surface area, the more room there is for molecules to pass between the inside of the small intestine and the blood. So, a greater surface area allows more diffusion of molecules. This allows more glucose to be absorbed more quickly. To increase its surface area, the wall of the small intestine is folded. It also contains lots of little finger-shaped vill (one is called a villus). To further increase surface area, each villus cell has a folded top (that forms microvilli, one is a microvillus). The wall ofthe villus is only one cal thick 50 that substances o not have to difuse very far This increases the speed of absorption. wall of small /intestine has many folds muscle layers vill, How is the small intestine adapted to absorbing digested nutrients quickly? al Give one short-term effect of drinking alcohol ‘onthe digestive system, | Explain why this may cause fewer nutrients to get into the blood. | Explain why someone who drinks alcohol may suffer from malnutrition. You can think of the human small intestine as a tube which is about 6.5 m long and has.a diameter of 25 cm. Atube of these dimensions has a surface area of about 0.51 m?, Why is this different from the area given in the fact box? of vi Alcohol When alcohols drunk, fewer digestive enzymes are released into the small intestine. Drinking alcohol can damage the villi and cause them to become shorter,8Ac Most food companies put nutrition information labels on food packaging. Many companies also add traffic lights. Red means high, orange means medium and green means that a food is low in a certain nutrient. The more green the better. The percentage of the Reference Intake in a serving may also be shown. Companies must show ingredients on packaging and most foods must be dated. A ‘best before’ date tells you how long a food's taste will be at its best. A food is usually safe to eat after this date but does not taste as good. Foods with a’use AA | Food traffic lights: some fats (saturates) increase the risk by’date may cause harm after this date, often Sie eet eee aad because harmful bacteria grow in them. Pena teste etn tects a eu ely, FE) 2! Suagest why food producers use ——— words like finest’ on their foods. 25.06.12 b| Suggest why food producers sanaantainho advertise some foods as light. Ey) 2 Lstthecitferent types of nutients in photo A. In some countries there are strict rules on some words found b| What does each nutrient do? on food packaging. For example, in the EU foods labelled El [suogestnty only caren raitrents ‘organic must be produced without the use of artificial appear on food trafic lights fertilisers and pesticides. low fat food must contain less ibe how bacteria con than 3 g offats per 100 g of food. A reduced fat, light or lite’ ee oa ales sg ie food must contain 30 per cent less fat or energy than another system, food of the same type. Draw a flow chart to show how cells However, many other words have no rules, including get a fuel for respiration after you have ‘traditional style; finest’and ‘handmade! eaten starch eran8Ba It is estimated that we use products from over 100 different plants every day, and only some of these are for food. Many fabrics and dyes come from plants. Linen, for making tea towels and sheets, comes from flax plant stems. We make cotton from the fruits of a plant called Gossypium hirsutum. The original blue dye for jeans came from indigo plant leaves. We use plant scents in perfumes, soaps and shampoos. An example is the scent produced by lavender plants to attract bees, which pollinate them. Many medicines originally came from plants. The compound that VRE eco case cen nec nn com aspirin was developed from came from willow tree bark and the heart medicine digitalis came from foxglove plants. Many musical instruments are made from plants, and so are some pieces of sports equipment, such as cricket bats We use wood for buildings and furniture. Oils from rape seeds and sunflower seeds are used for biodiesel. Tyres are made from aliquid extracted from rubber trees. The list goes onand on! EE Aiplant aren the plant kingdom. Name cone other kingdom. EBB] cok tthe first sentence on this page What is an estimate? FEB) 21 What happens when bees polinate flowers? | Suggest two ways plants attract, insects for pollination, ¢| Fertilisation follows pollination. What happens in fertilisation? | Suggest one way in which plants spread their seeds. Ce Ree SR spruce woods. They are worth eros [Eg Mery organisms havea common name and a scientific name. Identify an example of each of these on this page.===] CLASSIFICATION We use the different characteristics of organisms ‘to classify them into groups. The five largest groups are the kingdoms. Each kingdom can be split into smaller groups. al What characteristics of animals are different from those of plants? | What are the other three kingdoms? How are flowering rz: most onder B® rae coast noel was Sin hy yn {ulolar (many oo rosy motte “Heod on oer organs Eel plants and conifers: Flowering plants have: Conifers have: Femshave: Moses have: sro3is Tools oats + thin eaves: ‘lem Ussue ‘xylem Ussue ‘ylem issue. that ose water. Howes cones “large, flat leaves. ‘needle-shaped leaves. They donot They do nat have flowers have roots or They donnothave cones. They donot have flowers. or cones, xylem tesve. kingdom en flowering plants ered Eee grouped together cord Oe) Cetcmnetey ‘and are tall with Pn sens Holionttus species Me eer eo) Ree nc cd Pees ee VT Der The five kingdoms are split into smaller groups based on their characteristics. Plants are split into flowering plants, conifers, ferns and mosses. Each smaller group is divided into even smaller groups, as shown in diagram 8. The characteristics of organisms in ‘a group get more and more similar as the groups get smaller. The last group contains only one type of organism. We give this organism a scientific name using the names of the two last ‘groups (the genus and the species). Although scientific names are in Latin and look complicated, they are less confusing than ‘common names. One species can have different common names and some different species all have the same common name. Give two differences between fungi and plants EE) Wstisthescentcname fora common sunflower?Diagram C shows some of the important groups in the animal kingdom. Diversity Habitats containing many different species have greater biodiversity. We need to preserve biodiversity because Vertebrates Invertebrates organisms depend on one another. If Cnimals witha backbone) (animals without a backbone) an organism becomes extinct T (dies out completely) it will I 1 [ I affect other organisms ina habitat and may cause them aa to become extinct too. \ any ether groups. There are many Jsuses | jointed undiscovered substances rove |Poes in organisms that could young muscle to |" secuons be useful. f organisms + produce cea ib become extinct, we may lose useful new products. oh Areas with greater biodiversity recover faster from disasters. UK farms have many. a hedges, providing habitats for a wide range of organisms. UK farmland recovers Ae, / quite quickly from drought (lack of rain for a long time). In America, huge areas Insets | aractits of land were ploughed up to grow a single plant - wheat. Droughts in the 1930s caused the wheat to die. The soil dried up because plants that used to hold it ght eos Iebody in| « bos in other groups. together were no longer there. An area of land the size of England tumed to dust tree” |B and some parts stil have not recovered. sections | sections ce | 7) ay Sey uae Dene eee E||a dust storm in 1930s Am: In iagrar C, which characteristics of birds are the same as Cu reptiles, and which are different? What do you notice about how scientificnames are written? Which of these habitats do you think has the greatest biodiversity: tropical rainforest, Arctic, desert? Explain your reasoning. Suggest why biodiversity should be preserved,UK NC, CEE Accuracy is a measure of how close a value is to its real value, The closer a measure is to the real value, the more accurate it is. EE *l Teresi mass of jar containing < sunflower seeds is 1.853624 kg, Which balance ncagrm A shows Balance x Baie Y salence 2 value closest to this figure’ reads 1.9 kg reads 1.85 kg reads 1853.6 g | Whichis the least accurate balance? Explain your answer. eens ids a Sometimes we do not need very accurate measurements. If we just wanted to know if ‘the jar in A has a mass of more than 1 kg, the least accurate balance would be fine to use. An estimate is an approximate value. We use estimates when we do not need accurate values to explain or describe something. You can calculate estimates using samples. ‘We want to know whether there are more ue uaa cay ‘than 1000 seeds in jar C. We could: eae = countall the seeds = count out 1000 seeds and then see if there are any remai = count the number of seeds in a sample and use that to calculate an estimate. Worked example Jar Cis 30 cm tall. We take out the seeds from the top 1 cm (a sample). There are 46 of them, Now, we work out how much bigger the whole jar is compared with the sample. Tcmcontains 46 seeds x30 € } x30 30cmcontains 1380 seeds This is an estimate because we have assumed that there are exactly 46 seeds in every 1 cm section of the jar. EE A s%e2t)2ris 50cm tal Sweets ae taken from the top 5 em. There are 24 sweets, Estimate the total number of sweets in the jar. Show all your working. eu eee Poe cane) nae EE Wiyistheansnertoquesion2an estimate?Det ean aan ae cay Peri ee eee hacer Peeters tins Peeters Worked example ‘We want to estimate the number of dandelions in a lawn. The lawn is a rectangle 20 m long and 12.5 m wide: area of lawn = 20x 12.5 = 250 m? A quadrat is a square with sides 0.5 m: area of quadrat = 0.5 x 0.5 = 0.25 m? ‘The quadrats placed 20 times. Four dandelions are counted in total total area sampled = 20 x 0.25 = 5 m? Now, we work out how much bigger the whole lawn area is, compared with the sample: 5m’ contains 4 dandelions 0 J.» 250m? contains 200 dandelions The estimated number of dandelions is 200. We have assumed there are 4 dandelions in every 5 m? of lawn. WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY Sampling organisms Scientists use samples to estimate populations (the numbers of organisms). Samples can be taken using a square frame called a quadrat, which is placed in different places around a habitat. In each place, ‘the organisms inside it are observed, and those of interest are counted. If you know the area of the habitat and the area covered by the quadrats, you can estimate the total populations of the organisms. A quadrat needs to be placed at random, This means that there is an equal chance of the quadrat being placed in any part of the habitat. There are different methods to randomly choose where quadrats are placed. Doing this means that the person placing the quadrat does not influence which parts of an area are sampled. a Alawn has an area of 250 m? Using a quadrat, 15 daisy plants are found in a 10 m? sample. Estimate the daisy plant population in the whole lawn. Show all your working. b| Explain why your answer isan estimate and not an accurate value. | What is the advantage of placing a quadrat more times? | What is the disadvantage of this?UK NC, CEE 8Bo R WHAT ARE SEXUAL AND ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION? Sexual reproduction occurs when two organisms breed and produce new organisms. Members of the same species can reproduce sexually to produce offspring that can also reproduce sexually. Members of two different species cannot usually reproduce, but if they do, the offspring are called hybrids. Hybrids cannot reproduce sexually; they are not fertile. What is needed for sexual reproduction to happen? al Which ofthe fruits in photo Aisa hybrid? | Why can't the tree that produces this fruit reproduce? Sem B | Some flowers show a lot of inherited variation. FEB wnat inherited variation is seen in photo 8? Inhumans what gametes are produced by: al males b| females? EEE expbinwhybrothers donotusually lookexactlyalike. apricot plumeot VN eed era et nc pie oaks Sexual reproduction produces offspring that do not look identical to their parents; they have some characteristics, from one parent and some from the other. These characteristics are inherited and so variation in these characteristics is called inherited variation. Describe one characteristic the plumcot has inherited from: al apricots b| plums. In sexual reproduction, the parents produce sex cells or gametes. A male gamete and a female gamete join together to forma fertilised egg celll or zygote. ‘The gametes carry the instructions for making a new organism, but each and every gamete made by a parent contains slightly different instructions for characteristics. This means that different offspring with the same parents will vary, and not look identical. RO ed Ce See aa eed gametes of flowering Peeters Oey eet cca Pree pce ute (magnification x 100)Asexual reproduction Plants can reproduce sexually, but many also use asexual reproduction. This type of reproduction does not need gametes. Instead, part of the parent plant forms a new plant. This means that the offspring will be identical to the parent. fee Strawberry plants grow runners, which spread over the ground and sprout roots at intervals. Once the new plants have opened their leaves and can photosynthesise, the runner rots away. Potato plants grow underground stems. The ends of these grow to form potato tubers (potatoes). They contain a store of food (starch). Each tuber can grow into a new potato plant. Rey ue eos asexual reproduction. EEA what do strawberry plants use to reproduce: al sexually bl asexually? [Eg] tonyhasseven tubers from one plantin his garden, called Gyclamen persicum. When he plants the tubers, why can he be ‘sure that they will all grow into plants that look the same? Gardeners use asexual reproduction to produce identical new plants quickly and cheaply. Often, they cut off a leaf or side stem from a plant and put it in moist soil. This is called taking a cutting. The cuttings grow roots and form new plants. Asexual reproduction produces offspring that are all exactly the same as the parent. Asexual reproduction does not produce inherited variation but does allow plants to spread much faster than by using sexual reproduction. on ae eget eee rence etc a| How is taking a cutting an example of asexual reproduction? b| Suggest one advantage of taking cuttings compared with collecting seeds from plants and growing them. Ican... * recall the differences between sexual and asexual reproduction 1 recall examples of asexual reproduction in plants ‘= explain characteristics of offspring produced by sexual and asexual reproduction. 27Flowering plants use flowers for — ‘anthor sexual reproduction. Most flowers =“ (makes contain both male and female _— reproductive organs. style. ene carpel eee stamen the female coniains [the mala Hh ree reproductive] "27 aimale | reproductive reproductive organ in wor gamete) | Soon plants. ‘ovule ~—~filament. b| Listits parts (often more than ‘one and each contains a female gamete — an egg cel) Each pollen grain contains a male gamete (sex cell), Pollen grains ripen inside anthers, which then split open. The grains are carried away and transferred to the stigmas of other flowers. This is called pollination and is carried out by animals, wind or water. Flowers have different structures depending on how they are pollinated. en Plants that use animal pollinators have flowers with petals. They attract the animals (mainly insects) with scent, colours and nectar to eat. Some plants also make extra pollen as a food for visiting insects. The structure of animal-pollinated flowers makes sure that visiting animals either collect or leave pollen grains. Eg anther: this| eee aed Pees Theses by bats. eee eels , Pollen is carried Colored nd Sood, , ira is fe strac nsec }or insect. si, t0 Se Te Anthers produce collect pollen a large, rough pollen grains that can stick {oan insect’s body, Suggest two parts that you would find inan egg cell. | Whatis the function of the stigma? ‘an insect brushes againet ‘an anther or stigma as it collects nectar Sepal protects the flower when itis a bud Nectary produces sugary nectar to attract insects, which eat b| Howis it adapted to this function in insect-pollinated plants? Pe Mo cs‘small leat-like Hazel trees and grasses use the ame wind to spread their pollen. Wind- pollinated flowers look different from insect-pollinated flowers and do not have petals. Large anthers: ‘and stigmas hhang outside / the flowerto. / catch the wind. How can you tell that a flower is \ insect-pollinated and not wind- pollinated? Suggest three ways. Anthers make large amounts ‘of small, smooth, | light poion grains that float on the «| wind. Tay Cross-pollination Sexual reproduction should produce offspring with characteristics from two parents. If pollen grains from a plant land on the stigma of the same plant, this cannot happen. Plants try to stop this self-pollination and ensure ¢ross-pollination. In some species (e.g. holly, nutmeg), half the plants have flowers with female reproductive organs and half the plants have male flowers. In other species, all the anthers ona plant mature and release their pollen before the stigmas become ready to receive pollen. al What is meant by cross-pollination? b| Explain why plants have ways of avoiding self-pollination, Pollen is caught (on feathery stigmas, dX Pollen is carried by the wind, Look at photos G and H. Which shows pollen from an insect-pollinated plant? Explain your reasoning. How are pollen grains from wind-pollinated flowers adapted to their function?8Bc AIR QUALITY iene ne eed Ret seed ame ao een ep ace Ae ney OR ssh eee ae CE gee ee cee CTEM ur Sette os ae cae) Ce eee AAU Ro ea een ete are made. A pollen grain can damage a chip as itis oem MODERATE Pee aed palea NONE ‘rasspoien HIGH Meo ocy are high, people with Re ey Ce Se eu choose to stay indoors or Crooner ese eis Anair quality engineer monitors the levels of pollen, etree eer ges scat ang EET Cs ee emu ee cae et eat compared with acceptable levels to identify ifthe Bees ee em gee Le quality engineer reports their findings and may need to find ways to improve the air quality. Ce ee | Airis filtered to remove dust and pollen from areas Ram Cl eat Rete eae where sensitive equipment is being used or made. engineering. Peet eC ee air and alerts the air quality engineer if dust and pollen eee eee)FEB wit co piants produce potten? lien concentrations vary in the air? | Suggest why pollen forec STEM ng on a phone app usually only estimates if pollen levels are going to be tow; ‘medium’ or high: b | Suggest why pollen level measurements in a microchip factory need to be more accurate. a ee ee TE ee Ce ee ee eee aia See Rae iuks Meee pollen in the air can be measured as the number of grains in 1m? of air (e.g. 10 000 grains/m*).In liquid Pee onan neo! dissolved in a certain volume of solvent (for example, Oe ene Ne et a Teme Cm CR en Ure Re Lr If there are 400 grains of pollen in 100 cm’ of air, then the concentration of pollen grains is ri 2 ea Tee ae oN eR een Na Rennie ee eco oy it ° BO au 2000 em of aris filtered through a machine, whitch traps 268 pollen grains. Calculate the concentration of pollen grains in grains/cm’. | 3, of salt is dissolved in 25 cm of water. Calculate the concentration of the solution b| 15 g of saltis dissolved in 200 cm? of water. Compare the concentration ofthis solution with the one in part a to say which is the concentrated. Pollen in the air can be trapped using sticky tape. Stick squares of double-sided sticky tape to some microscope slides. Leave the slides different positions. Later, add a drop of stain tothe tape and cover with a coverslip. Using a microscope, compare the slides and order them by the amount of pollen they collected. Different areas, weather, time of day or year can be compared to see what effect they have on the number of pollen grains in the ar. double-sided sticky tape attached to slide strong sticky tape tohold slide in place Poorer ay Explain why the method in the activity will not give accurate enough ‘measurements for inside a microchip factory.=? FERTILISATION SBJAND DISPERSAL HOW DOES FERTILISATION LEAD TO THE FORMATION OF A SEED? Ifa pollen grain reaches a stigma of the same species, it can Polen grains are carried to the tube. The stigma makes a sugary solution, SE eee grow a pollen tube. The stig gary . grain Is from the seme species 28 providing a source of energy for the pollen tube to grow down ihe flower it will grow a pollen tube. ‘the style and into the ovary. Eventually the tube reaches an ovule. The next stage is fertilisation, in which the egg cell and the male gamete from the pollen grain join together and their pollen tube. nuclei fuse into one. This forms a zygote (fertilised egg cell) The zygote splits into two (using a process called cell owule division). These cells divide again and again to form an embryo. The embryo develops a tiny root and a tiny shoot. egg cel EE 2 Describe how the nucte from an egg cell and the male gamete reach ‘one another, after pollination. b| What is formed after the nuclei have ae fused? a er ¢| What s the name ofthis process? © . EE 10 many ceils will one cell become cell ~ cell cell after cel division has happened three division division division times? FEB whet doesthezygote goon wo form? Seren Seeds and fruits Red strands around Seed coat protects the seed coat are cried thgigeed (from and used tous h we get the spice calléd mace, ‘The ovulle becomes the oF seed. Inside the seed is aur the embryo, together with a store of food (such as starch). A hard seed coat forms around the seed to per protect it. When the seed ant) starts to germinate, it uses the store of food to allow the embryo to grow. N The ovary expands and remains of style and stigma becomes the fruit around ae mea f the seed. inside a nutmeg fruWhat part takes up mostof aseed? Lookat photo D. From what part of, the flower did the fleshy fruit develop? Seed dispersal gm. Fruits spread seeds away from the parent plants. This is called seed dispersal. V Some fruits are fleshy. They are soft, juicy a) and often good to eat. Many of them are brightly coloured to attract animals to 4 eat them. The flesh of the fruitis easily digested but the seeds are protected from the digestive systems of the animals. The seeds are egested (passed out) by the animals in their faeces. Other fruits are dry. They use animals, wind, water and even explosions to disperse their seeds. Seed dispersal allows plant species to spread ‘to new areas. It also means that the new plants are not in competition with their parents. Plants compete with one another for resources (e.g. light, water). The more plants in an area, the greater the competition. If offspring grow away from their parents, there will be less competition between them. Identify the plants a-d in photo F and explain how the fruits disperse the d a F | These are all dry fruits. Himalayan balsam fruits explode, | How do tomatoes spread tomato eS a er eae oui seeds? ear We Ker Ue RR RUE | What protects the seeds? ¢| Why do the seeds need protection? Why is itimportant for dandelion seeds to be spread away from the parent plants?UK NC, iLS, CEE 8Be HOW DOES GERMINATION OCCUR? A seed needs resources for germination to occur. EE Wtetis germination? FEB) Desaibe the stages of germination, include atleast three stages Water allows the cells in the embryo to swell up and start cell division. It softens the seed coat too, allowing the embryo to grow through it. Water also lets substances called enzymes start breaking down the food store. The food is turned into smaller molecules, such as glucose, that the plant uses for growth. Ey 2 vitatare thera materials needed for respiration? The energy for growth comes from respiration, a process in which oxygen is used to release energy from glucose. It happens in the mitochondria of cells and can be summarised as a word equation: b| What are the products of respiration? glucose + oxygen — carbon dioxide + water (+ energy) a List three resources that Germination needs warmth. Chemical reactions, such as those in i seeds need for germination, respiration, are very slow ifs too cold. Life processes, such as respiration, occur extremely slowly in a seed. Suggest why some plants Itis still alive but it is dormant. Most seeds remain dormant until the make many fruits. resources for germination are available. Some seeds must be frozen before they will germinate. This makes sure that they only germinate after winter, when more resources are available in the spring, Explain how an embryo grows. Why does the mass of a seed decrease during germination? B | Some plants have seeds that lie dormant in the soil until after a fire. They then grow quickly when there is little eee eae ue Ee Ug eee Rae rie) Judean date palm was grown from Sor paw ruins that were being excavated. The Perio petsAfter germination, leaves make food for the plant by photosynthesis; carbon dioxide and water are used to make glucose (a type of sugar). The plant then converts the glucose into starch, to store it. The mass of material produced is biomass. Oxygen is a byproduct of this process, which we can summarise as follows: light energy carbon dioxide + water —iereahy > GEN + glucose Photosynthesis needs energy, which is transferred by light from the Sun. A green substance called chlorophyll, found inside chloroplasts, traps the energy and transfers it to glucose molecules, which store it. Carbon dixde "TY water Plants need small amounts of nutrients called mineral salts from the soil. The most important are compounds containing the elements nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. They help the plant ‘to grow. When a plant can reproduce, its life cycle . An example is shows iagram D. chloropla: = ne (magnificati 0) al What gases from the air does a plant need? | Why does it need them? fo & al What additional resources does a seedling need compared with a germinating seed? 7 seeding SON b| Why does it need these extra resources? Interdependence Many plants depend on insects for pollination and the insects depend on the plants for food, such as nectar. We say that they are interdependent. Humans also depend on the insects and the plants, because many plants do not form seeds and fruits for us to eat a mature plant if they are not pollinated. Plants and animals rely on one another in other ways. Many animals use plants for shelter. The seedlings from seeds dispersed through being eaten by animals also gain from a supply of mineral salts from the animals’ droppings. How are animals and plants interdependent for the gases they need? Numbers of honeybees have been decreasing recently. Explain how this might affect humans.8Be HOW DO ANIMALS USE PLANTS? Like humans, animals have a whole range of uses for plants, other than for food. ‘Woodpecker finches, on the Galapagos Islands, use cactus spines to pick insects out of tree branches. Male bowerbirds attract females by building large nests (or bowers) and decorating them with flowers, fruits, tubers and other useful or decorative objects. In parts of Africa, crested rats chew up the bark of. arrow poison trees and smear it on their fur, to kill predators. Local hunters also use the bark to make a deadly poison for their arrows. Traditional medicines are made using it too. The flower nectar is poisonous to birds but not bees, which collect it.The tree's fruit is highly poisonous to humans when unripe but once ripe, and purple in colour, itis safe to eat. Cleese (Lophiomys imhausi) Cmte tones Flower mantises are camouflaged to look like certain flowers. They hide and wait for other insects to visit the flowers. Cru cu ot rg | the nest of a bowerbird (Amblyornis inornatus) from. Renee! [EB] Which kinadom does each ofthe organisms on this page belong to? EE Wt sthe point of giving organisms scientific names? FEB which genus does the crested rat belong to? List the named items in the bowerbird’s nest. Describe what plants use each of these items for. ‘Why are flowers good places for flower mantises towait? [Ei ow does the arrow poison tree disperses seeds? Explain your reasoning. Write a paragraph to describe how the arrow poison tree and other organisms are interdependent.eee) The World Bog Snorkelling ‘Championships are held every August in Llanwrtyd Wells, Wales. Competitors have to swim a total length of 110 metres as fast they can. The competitors obtain the air that they need viaa snorkel. Most swimmers do not use snorkels. They swim in such a way that they can take regular breaths. The breathing rate of a swimmer depends on the amount of air they need to complete a race as quickly as possible. Some water sports require people to hold their breath. Surfers practice holding their breath underwater to prepare for when they are submerged by giant waves. [Ey 2! What aassrom the air do we need to breathe in? bi What process is this gas needed for? | Where does this process occur? | Hows this gas carried around your body? Ce Ree Rd of the wave is just in front of the swimmer, so they can PT ge nee ee an) Exhaled air contains more of one gas than inhaled air. What's this gas called? Dons a| List the organs through which air travels in your body. | Name one organ that causes air to be Tea tei inhaled and exhaled. | What is a person's breathing rate? | When someone starts to do exercise, what happens to their breathing and heartbeat rates? | Explain why these rates change. Surfers breathe quickly and deeply after being Underwater fora long time. Suggest why.—— AEROBIC Sporting events often have doctors and paramedics ready for immediate action. In an emergency they can quickly help a person, They attach monitors to measure things like heartbeat rate and temperature. ‘The measurements are used to work out how to help the patient. One monitor measures oxygen saturation (or sats’), which is shown as a percentage. A value of 100 per cent means that the blood is fully saturated and carrying as much oxygen as it can. Most people have an oxygen saturation of 95-100 per cent. Ifit Steve has had an accident and the doctor says that his’sats are low: | What does this mean? | What substance will the doctor give Steve? | What might happen if Steve is not given this? Discovering oxygen ‘The Romans also had doctors at sports events. One, called Galen of Pergamon (129-c.200), was asked to look after a rich man’s gladiator ‘team. The gladiators fought one another in front of large crowds of people. They were often badly injured, and many died from their ‘wounds. However, Galen was very successful at saving the gladiators’ lives and so other doctors thought his ideas must be right. They continued to think he was right for the next 1500 years. One of Galen's ideas was that the heart created warmth. He imagined that it contained a slow fire and thought that we breathed air to cool the heart. It was not until the 17th century that scientists started to test ideas about breathing. In 1660, Robert Boyle (1627-1691) placed a burning candle in a jar and sucked out all the air. He repeated this with a mouse. Diagram B shows his results. Foe y: drops below 80 per cent, organs can be damaged. Berens uy ~ ‘A| a paramedic measuring oxygen saturation in a patient air pumped out to pump air pumped out eye to pump’ Dye ca What is meant by testing an idea scientifically? Suggest the conclusion Boyle drew from his experiment.Boyle's assistant, John Mayow (1641-1679), did further experiments. He discovered that only a certain part of the air was needed to keep a candle burning and a small animal alive (see diagram C). Later, Joseph Priestley (1733-1804) and Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1794) showed that this part of the air was oxygen, which makes up about 21 per cent of the air. al What was Mayow’s evidence that burning only needs a certain part of the air? | What made him think that the same part of the air was needed for both burning and keeping animals alive? SU od eee een aa ee ake ees mixture of 5 per cent normal air Perot eos met eed ee skater ksi) liquids, which produce different POO eee a PUT eon) PUne mer eae ay iment Today we know that the mitochondria in cells use oxygen to release the energy stored in a type of sugar called glucose. The release of energy occurs in a series of chemical reactions called aerobic respiration (aerobic means requiring air). The energy is transferred to a compound called ATP, which then releases energy for the cell as it is needed, Respiration happens in all parts of our bodies and some of the released energy keeps our bodies warm. We can sum up aerobic respiration as a word equation. oxygen + glucose —— carbon dioxide + water (+ energy) ‘The word equation for the combustion (burning) of glucose is the same, but aerobic respiration occurs in a different way, using a series of slower reactions. Beaker X contains peas that are starting to grow. Beaker Y contains boiled peas. In which beaker will: a| the temperature rise? Explain your reasoning, b| carbon dioxide be made? Explain your reasoning | Suggest how aerobic respiration is like burning. | Suggest one way in which aerobic respiration and burning are different. a| Write out the word equation for aerobic respiration. | Suggest one way in which this isa good model for, respiration and one way in which itis a poor one.==] GAS EXCHANGE John Mayow built a model to show that iti that causes the lungs to get bigger and smaller (i glass window put into bellows anima’ bladder” (acts like a balloon) ° | _ bellows (used to pump air int es, but Mayo sealed ie form an aight | chamber nso) ‘Ai-can only go into and out ofthe bladder through tis tube is reduced, becoming less than atmospheric pressure outside bellows, Breathing is when muscles between the ribs and in the diaphragm change the size of the lungs. The movement of air into and out of the lungs is called ventilation. Diagram 8 shows how inhalation (breathing in) happens. During exhalation (breathing out), the reverse happens. What do the bellows and bladder in Mayow’s model represent?’ What do muscles in the diaphragm do to cause inhalation? Write three labels that could be added to the last drawing in diagram A, explaining why air leaves the bladder when the bellows are closed. To work well, the lungs need to be kept clean. Some cells in the tubes in the lungs produce a sticky liquid called mucus. It traps dust and microorganisms. Tiny hairs on other cells, sweep the mucus out of the lungs and into the oesophagus where it can be swallowed. The chemicals and heat in cigarette smoke stop the cilia working. Mucus then collects in the lungs. +) 1 Bellows are pulled apart, is the moving of the ribs and diaphragm is not the lungs themselves) te Senet pressure in his 2 Air prossure inside bellows “*~3 Pressure of atmosphere pushes air into biadder, Which infates, squashing air inside bellows until air pressure inside bellows equals atmospheric pressure. B | inhalation (breathing in) ae | mae ree trie Jag) alata et mee NY | ames airesprec pushes aif ‘The miscies in the siaphragm contract, moving It downwards, ier neu keep the lungs clean. ees a) ciliated epithelial cell mucus-produiing cellIn the lungs, some of the oxygen from the air enters the blood in capillaries air in lungs blood. At the same time, some of the carbon dioxide in the ye blood plasma enters the air in the lungs. This swapping of oo a a % gases is called gas exchange. % @ ‘ > ‘Carbon dioxide Oxygen moecules Gas exchange occurs by diffusion, when there is an overall movement of particles from a place where there are a lot of them toa place where there are fewer of them. FEB whet happens during gas exchange in the lungs? al What is diffusion? | What causes some oxygen molecules to move into tthe blood and other molecules to move out oft? molecules move move randomly. There randomly. There sre are more inthe ai and The lungs are adapted for gas exchange by having about onary nee ao mE oto Cea 700 million little pockets called alveoli (pronounced ‘lot end up inthe air. blood ‘al-vee-O-lee’). This gives the lungs a large surface area. ‘The larger the surface area, the faster diffusion occurs, carbon dioxide ‘overall movement The alveoli have walls that are only one cell thick. The blood orygen capillaries surrounding them also have thin walls. These ae es thin walls mean that diffusion happens more quickly. bronchus aches smelt sy om sown navnen snnaman utaiien bon) rons) Remo” Me aie, eam. ogi ot aaa pee ay Saree alveoli (singular to be pumped ; network of capillaries ted blood cell a SR ei et tissue called cartilage. These tubes end in air sacs, which contain the alveo In order list the organs through which air passes when we inhale, Explain what effect a decrease in lung surface area would have on the speed of gas exchange. Explain why gas exchange can be reduced in smokersUK NC, iLS, CEE Your vital capacity is the maximum amount of air you can ‘exhale after taking as much air into your lungs as you can. Itis ‘measure of the total volume of your lungs. The volume of air ‘that you normally inhale and exhale with each breath is called the tidal volume. Doing regular exercise can increase your vital capacity. Your tidal volume increases when you exercise. Two ‘ways to measure these volumes are shown in photos A and B. You often repeat your measurements when you do experiments. Ifall the repeated measurements are similar, you can be more certain that your readings are correct. ‘When measurements are close together, they have a small range. The range is the difference between the highest and ‘the lowest values. The smaller the range in a repeated set of measurements, the more you can be sure that the results are correct. CMe ee Ree ee spirometer linked to a computer. It measures the volume of air eee age) Hitesh and Josie measured their tidal volumes just before and just after exercise. Their results are Sena ee ERC) ee cme eee ea uc Pe mie a ee Pe ae cE eee eae Lar) al Why do you take repeated ‘measurements in an experiment? | Look at photos A and B. Which method is easier for taking repeated measurements? | Suggest one disadvantage of this method. shown in table C. a| Calculate the range of each set of results b| Which set of results can you bbe most sure of being correct? Tidal volume (cm?) Ist try | 2nd try| 3rd try | 4th try Hitesh before exercise | _ 450 | 440 | 420 | 430 Josie before exercise | 350 | 350 | 310 | 300 shafter exercise | 1010 | 1100 | 1050 | 990 Josie after exercise 750 | 950 | 840 | 900 Explain your reasoning,WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY = we add up all repeated readings = then we divide by the number of readings. How total vital capacity depends on height The more repeated measurements there are, the closer the mean is likely to be to the real value for the measurement. Using more repeats also helps you to identify anomalous results (outliers). These are results that are very different from all the ‘other repeated measurements or that do not follow the same pattern as other measurements. f you can say what caused a eet result to be anomalous, you can leave it out “450 155 160 165 170 175 180 185 190 when you calculate a mean. Height (om) Vital capacity (litres) Calculate the means for Hitesh’s and Josie’ other sets of results. EBD whatis an anomalous result? ue ett Look at the Method above for finding your pulse and breathing rate. al Suggest an exercise you could do in step E. | You should repeat steps A-F. Why? | How many times would you repeat them? Explain your reasoning, | How will you work out means for your results? Make a prediction about what the results will show.=—— GETTING red bl ‘When oxygen gets into the blood, it enters red blood cells where it sticks to molecules of haemoglobin (pronounced ‘hee-mow-glow-bin) This makes the cells change colour, from dark browny-ted to bright red. From the lungs, blood enters the heart to be pumped out to the rest of, the body through blood vessels called arteries. These divide into tiny capillaries. In the capillaries, oxygen gradually leaves the red blood cells and dissolves in the plasma, This leaks out through tiny holes in the capillaries and forms tissue fluid, which carries the oxygen to the cells. Plasma has glucose and other nutrients dissolved in it and so these are also in the tissue fluid. Waste products from cells dissolve in the tissue fluid and return to other capillaries, which connect to veins. Veins carry blood back towards the heart. PD, tissue tia food cell etc} Meet e et can be separated, as has been Cees eM) contains liquid plasma, red blood eeu ede acon capiliary (walls only one cell thick) cols tissue mitochondrion ‘Are the ted blood cells in test tube B in photo A carrying oxygen? Explain your —>—— ae —> reasoning, oxygen glucose wastes, such a5 ‘carbon dioxide | Name a waste gas produced by cells. ‘When you exercise, your muscle cells work harder and so must release more energy, using aerobic respiration. How is glucose carried to cells? They need more oxygen and glucose. Your breathing rate increases to get extra oxygen into your blood, and your heartbeat rate increases to pump blood to the muscles more quickly. bb What process produces this substance? ¢| Where in a cellist produced? | Describe how itis excreted from the body. a| Explain why a boy's breathing rate doubles during a swimming race. b| Explain why his pulse rate also changes when he is racingTeen Lack of oxygen akiR MIE —\Without enough oxygen your cells can start to die. This can happen because of: = narrowed blood vessels ®= poisons ® poor gas exchange in the lungs. To avoid heat loss when itis cold, the blood vessels in your skin become narrow and less blood reaches the cells. Ifthis causes cells to die, it results in frostbite. Pec) In cardiovascular disease, blood vessels become narrower due to a fatty substance collecting inside them. If this reduces blood flow too much, then cells start dying. More of the fatty substance builds up in smokers. Heart disease is a type of cardiovascular disease in which the blood supply to the heart muscles is. reduced. This can cause a heart attack (in which heart muscle cells die). Faulty gas appliances can produce carbon monoxide, a poisonous gas also found in cigarette smoke. The gas sticks to haemoglobin and so stops red blood cells carrying so much oxygen. Tar in tobacco smoke and dust both irritate the alveoli in the lungs. Over a long time this causes the alveoli to break apart (emphysema), reducing their surface area. Cigarette smoke can also trigger asthma, in which the tiny tubes in the lungs become narrow and start filling with mucus. Less air can get into and out of the lungs, causing shortness of breath. Why does blood from a smoker contain eee eeu a to less oxygen than blood from a non- Reece eee smoker? Give as many reasons as you can. Look at the photos in E. al Which specimen is from someone with emphysema? Explain your reasoning, | Would this person have a higher or lower breathing rate than someone without emphysema? Explain your reasoning.8Cc EPIDEMIOLOGY Epidemiologists are scientists who study links between cea ta ane ari ana how diseases are caused and how they spread. vary on a certain piece of coast This involves gathering large amounts of data and analysing it to identify a relationship or correlation. ete RRS Re ets Pete ete ete eee gaan So ieee nace set Ped ree ua ea ee eet eer in two other variables. Graph A shows how ice cream sales and shark attacks change with time along a certain coast. Number per month Vee eget a | Does graph A show a correlation between OS ee sales of ice cream and shark attacks? Give a reason for your answer. | Does graph A show that sales of ice cream ‘cause shark attacks? Give a reason for your answer. rs |The amount of sunshine per day on this piece (lumps of cancer cells) of coast shows a similar pattern of change ‘over the year. How can this extra information help explain the correlation shown in the ‘graph? Lung cancer is a disease that destroys the lungs. In the 1950s an epidemiologist called Richard Doll (1912-2005) tried to work out what was causing a Peed arte | collected lots of data from lung cancer patients and ete ee tae tka en) \ fl leceM tu ele ee eRe Leroi \ correlation between two variables. On a scatter graph, \ TRUE ne ce ea od re ese etacls ese ec er eee Ronco OUP ne Rue ery Pee tee cena) Re ec ence race) Ra Oe Wcee)Vital capacty of lungs plotted against floor level for How death fram lung cancer 5000. B20bKe ving in a biock of fats depends on smoking vital eapacty em”) 80 604 Death rate from lung cancer 40 20 ° — © 20 40 80 80 100 120 140 160 Pe eu) od Smoking nox Cree ed nd (higher numbers = more smoking) ete eed eR Tee ee cao eritnt EL Describe the correlation shown in scatter graph C. Ge een ee ete ee eee el science, orin statistics. Many epidemiologists also have a doctorate (a further research degree) in epidemiology eMac ana ee as Experiments carried out by other scientists showed that many substances in tobacco smoke cause cells to become cancerous, Use this fact to explain the correlation shown in graph C. Vital capacity is the largest volume of breath you can take after breathing out. It can be measured using a simple respirometer (see page 42). Collect measurements on vital capacity for as many people as you can. For those same people, collect data for another one or more continuous variables (eg. age, height, pulse rate). Construct a spreadsheet to record all the measurements for each person. Use your spreadsheet to construct scatter graphs of lung volume against each of the other measurements you took. Use your scatter graphs to identify any correlations between vital capacity and the other measurements. Compare any correlations in your scatter graphs. Which measurement correlates most strongly with vital capacity? Explain how you worked out your answer.UK NG, iLS, CEE HOW DO WE DETECT GAS EXCHANGE IN DIFFERENT ORGANISMS? ‘To spend long periods underwater, humans take oxygen with them to breathe. Water-living mammals, however, have adaptations so they can go for a long time without breathing. For example, elephant seals have an organ in their bodies that stores blood that is full of oxygen. Vee eu eens Eye nes wea res Not lll the oxygen in a breath of air goes into the blood, so exhaled air till contains a lot of oxygen (table C). This means that most of the ‘oxygen in a diver’ air tank is lost in exhaled bubbles. Some divers, EE) 2! het adaptation do elephant seals have to help them go for a long inhaled and exhaled air. timewithout breathing? | though, use rebreather apparatus. This contains calcium hydroxide, | Explain howthis which removes carloon dioxide from their exhaled air and recirculates laptation Works the remaining air for them to breathe. EBB Bar ssaiving and usesa A solution of calcium hydroxide is called limewater. Itis a clear and tankofairin 30 minutes.will_ | colourless liquid that turns cloudy as it absorbs carbon dioxide, so is the same tank fast for used to test for this gas. more or les time if Allan uses a HydroBOB? Explain your Carbon dioxide dissolves in water to form an acidic solution. This reasoning. means that respiration can also be detected using an indicator. For example, hydrogen carbonate indicator is pink in water but turns yellow as carbon dioxide is added and the pH drops. lc | Inhaled air |Exhaledair | Another way of detecting respiration is to look (%) (%) for a temperature rise, because some of the [Ritrogen 78 [78 ] energy released by respiration warms up a cell's [oxygen A iG | surroundings. [carbon dioxide [0.04 [4 | EBB) S:2.an why the quantities of each ofthe five | water vapour variable | greater | items in table C are or are not different between [temperature variable | warmerLook at photo D. al Through which tube is the girs exhaled breath flowing? | How can you tell? ¢| Ifthe contents of tubes X and ¥ are replaced with water containing hydrogen carbonate indicator, explain what will happen as the girl breathes in and out, Ee os Ue a Ta) Sent ttn Came ed Mammals use lungs to get oxygen and so must breathe air, However, some animals never breathe air because they can extract oxygen from water, often using gills. Water flows inthyoush arse” oy SE) mouth. In the gills, water flows over a fine network of feathery strands, where oxygen diffuses into the blood and carbon dioxide diffuses out. rr [stomata alow gases (such as @\, Oxygen, carbon dioxide and § Plants |water vapour) to diffuse into and ‘out of a leaf. For photosynthesis, plants need carbon dioxide to make glucose. Plant cells then release energy from the glucose using aerobic Teme respiration, which happens in all cells, all the time. To allow gases in BO a and out, land plants have tiny holes in their leaves called stomata. Cerner ae) al What substances do plants need for aerobic respiration? | How do they get these substances? Explain why fish tanks often become more acidic with time, What are the similarities and differences between gas exchange in mammals and fish?UK NC, iLS, CEE 8Cc HOW DOES ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION OCCUR? Ifyou hold your breath, the amount of carbon dioxide in your blood plasma increases. Ifit reaches a certain level, your brain causes you to breathe. This is why you cannot hold your breath for too long, although people can train themselves to hold their breath for longer times. HEB what substances does aerobic respiration produce? Eh) 22a why the breath-holding competitor in photo A remains motionless. Oxygen is stored by haemoglobin in red blood cells, so it can be carried around your body. Your muscle cells can, A| The world record for holding your breath. floating face-down in a swimming pool is 11 also store some oxygen. After holding your breath for a He y long time, you breathe faster to get rid of the extra carbon ae ene tree dioxide in your blood and to replace the oxygen used up from your blood and muscles. . During aerobic exercise your body continuously gets enough oxygen to replace the oxygen being used by contracting muscle cells. You can do aerobic exercise, such as slow swimming, for long periods of time. During strenuous exercise, oxygen is used up faster than itis replaced. When this happens, anaerobic respiration occurs in the cytoplasm of your muscle cells. This does not need oxygen. We can summarise anaerobic respiration in humans as: glucose —— lactic acid (+ some energy) B | Underwater ice hockey players rely on anaerobic respiration eee ea a Te eee ee eo ee eee oe once or twice and some do not breathe at allAnaerobic respiration does not release as much energy from glucose as aerobic respiration, and so does not form as much ATP. Anaerobic respiration also makes muscles tire quickly. However, anaerobic respiration allows animals to move suddenly and very quickly (for example, to sprint away from a predator). ‘What processes use up glucose in underwater ice hockey players as they sprint forthe puck? | Suggest why sprint swimming is an anaerobic exercise bb| Why can't a swimmer sprint fora long time? Write a paragraph to compare aerobic and anaerobic respiration, Use a table of similarities and differences to plan your paragraph. Bee ae Ree’ sorea day or so after doing strenuous exercise. Ce ue ek ud Pete a eed rebuilding these muscles. ‘The effect of exercise on demand for oxygen ‘oxygen demand is greater than supply ‘oxygen supply ‘Oxygen consumption resting level PT seeker tg i rcs een eee mn Tg eco) respiration happens in an athlete's body by measuring lactic et) EPOC Lactic acid from muscles enters the blood and is carried to the liver, where itis, converted back into glucose. This process needs a lot of energy, which can come from aerobic respiration in liver cells. After exercise you need extra oxygen for many processes, including helping to turn lactic acid back into glucose and replacing the oxygen lost from blood and muscle cells. This need for extra oxygen is called excess post-exercise oxygen also sometimes called the oxygen debt. Your breathing and heartbeat rates remain high after you stop exercising to get extra oxygen to your cells Describe one way in which the body gets rid of lactic acid. After hard exercise, why does your: ‘| breathing rate remain high b| heartbeat rate remain high? What causes EPOC? Give as many reasons as you can.8Cc HOW DOES TRAINING CHANGE THE BODY’S SYSTEMS? Sports training increases the size of muscles, which become stronger. But it is not just arm and leg muscles that get stronger - the muscles in the gas exchange and circulatory systems also become stronger. In the gas exchange system, the stronger the breathing muscles are, ‘the bigger the lungs can become. The more air that you can take into your lungs, the more oxygen getsintoyour MND Cit See eee earner cel blood. Training also increases the Dee eee ena number of capillaries in the lungs. nge and circulatory systems. The heart is mainly made of muscle tissue. Training helps to make heart muscle beat more strongly and so the volume of blood that the heart pumps in each beat increases. Look at graph B. | What sort of respiration is occurring before exercise? | What substances are needed for this type The more exercise someone does, the fitter they are, of espiration? Fitter people have slower resting pulse and breathing ¢] How could you detect the gas produced? rates, and these rates return to their resting rates after | What type of respiration starts to exercise more quickly than in less fit people. increase when exercising hard? Where are the breathing muscles found? The effect of exercise on pulse rate 180, 14¢ 130! 120 110 104 90 80 70 60 50, o How does oxygen get from yourlungs to a ‘muscle cell in your leg? pulse rate of person who oes not exercise regulary Explain why competitive athletes do not smoke. Give as many reasons as you can. al Write a paragraph to explain the shape of the red line on graph B. b| What happens when the person starts to do regular exercise? | Why does this happen? x period of | pulse rate of same person after they exercise | havo started regular exercise x { DF PSAS SPSS MND ‘Time (minutes) CR Ce Ree eee Pasar os8Da During the 14th century, a disease called the Black Death (or plague) spread across. Asia, the Middle East and Europe. The disease caused the deaths of between 75 and 200 million people, reducing the population of Europe by 45-50%. So many people were dying that their bodies were often hastily buried in mass graves. The ‘beak’ was filed with herbs to keep. “bad air’ away. The long cloak, boots, loves and mask were | air reaching the doctor's boy. Caen uke og Meet Mey Ce ecu a Eos al What life processes do all organisms carry out? b| Suggest what the word ‘microorganism’ means Yersinia pestis belongs to a kingdom called the prokaryotes. Give the names of three other kingdoms of organisms. What would have happened to the bodies of people buried in plague pits? Describe one way in which microorganisms are useful Explain why human cells need a good supply of blood in order to survive. Some microorganisms feed on the dead cells inside plague victims. What sort of respiration will these microorganisms use? Explain your reasoning, VE enacts There were many later outbreaks of the disease but no one knew its cause. A 14th-century suggestion blamed planets lining up in the sky. Inthe 17th century, bad air produced by rotting things was blamed. In the late 19th century, a microorganism called Yersinia pestis was shown to be the cause. The disease causes blood vessels to split open and leak blood, which then clots (sets hard). The clots stop blood from reaching tissues and so cells die and turn black. ieee ey eek) Reh ade) now be treated.= UNICELLULAR OR 8Da MULTICELLULAR HOW DO DIFFERENT SPECIES OF UNICELLULAR ORGANISM VARY? {An organism is a living thing, All organisms carry out seven life processes: movement, reproduction, sensitivity, growth, respiration, excretion, nutrition. Organisms are all based on cells. Organisms made of many cells are said to be multicellular. An adult human is made up of about 37 million million cells! Cells of the same type are grouped together as tissues. Different tissues form organs and organs work together in organ systems. Large multicellular organisms use organ systems to help them carry out the life processes. FEB seme one organ system that helps humans carry out each life process. Ei 2+ plants multicellular? Explain your reasoning, Some organisms are made of just one cell but this cell still carries out all seven MLVUISE UCI DD Sul life processes. One-celled organisms are described as being unicellular. They sea cucumber. The tissue are also called microorganisms because they are very small. You usually need a [BuaieebieMlas ae microscope to see them. ‘so you can see the different eran ty Diffusion All matter is made of particles that are constantly moving. So particles can move without anything moving them. This causes an overall movement of particles from where there are many of them to where there are fewer, and this is diffusion. Materials that a unicellular organism needs (e.g. oxygen) can diffuse {to the cell and diffuse around inside the cell. There is a size lim Dison see Oe i cell witn enough though: ifa cell were too big, it might not be able to fill up with of the instr. all the materials it needs quickly enough. Cells need large surface ‘i area : volume ratios (see page 17) to be able to take enough of the substances they need from their surroundings, The bigger the surface rors area:: volume ratio, the more surface area a cell has per unit volume. The tissues in multicellular organisms need to have raw materials “This cell cannot“ transported to them because diffusion would be too slow. gat fled with enough of the materials. CP emery OE ger ened the materials it needs. This is because larger cells have smaller surface area : Why might a unicellular organism need oxygen? TEE 0% does oxygen getinto a unicellular organism? [Ei] 2! Which organ system carries materials to human tissues? PTUs | Why do multicellular organisms need efficient transport systems?Kingdoms Organisms are classified into five kingdoms based on what their cells look like. Yersinia pestis, which causes plague, is a bacterium. All bacteria are in the prokaryote kingdom. Unicellular protoctists are larger than bacteria. Unicellular fungi (e.g. yeasts) are usually smaller than protoctists but bigger than bacteria. Viruses Viruses are much smaller than bacteria and cause diseases like chicken pox, influenza (flu) and measles. They have no cell wall, no mitochondria, no nucleus and cannot live without being inside a living cell. Since they do not carry out the processes for themselves, they are not living organisms and there is no virus kingdom. Virus particles have a very simple structure, mainly consisting of a protein coat that contains a strand of genes. The genes contain the instructions for making new viruses. When a virus gets into a cell, these genes cause the cell to make new copies of the virus, which then burst out of the cell. This is known as replication. Viruses are parasites, which means that they live on or in an organism (the host) and harm it. The term obligate parasite can be used to describe viruses (obligate means that they cannot reproduce without being in their hosts). ing Pest organisms are esis Pret Brees ert] Sue ad Petco) Cir pee ey EBB Why is there no virus kingdom? go Kingdom gl bilkedlzile 312 2 Se S8/PSs —£_s Cell part Ealf 25/3 2 a Selese ‘cytoplasm vivijlvlevlie jcellmembrane] ¥ | vw | v | vw | wv nucleus x v v v v mitochondria | xX | vw | vw | vw | wv cell wall vimev|uvlvl «x (some only) [chloroplasts x xW x Vv x (some only) a [Name a host of the influenza virus. | Explain why this virus damages tissues in its host. One cell from an organism has a cell wall but no mitochondria Will this organism be unicellular or multicellular? Explain your reasoning, Which kingdoms contain organisms that can make thelr own food? protein coat fat envelope strand of genes protein molecules in the fat envelope